英语专业论文写作重点知识点整理
(完整word版)大学英语写作教程重点
1.段落解释：is a unit of thought composed of sentences,smaller units of thought,that relate to a single topic.Paragraph divisions serve two very useful functions 2.A good paragraph is composed 组成 in such a way that it has :eachidea with nothing in the paragraph not covered by the topicit explores the main idea explicitly andconcretely,with plenty of details,examples,and explanations3.has sound internal structure.The qualities that indicate sound internal structure are unity,coherence,and completeness.4.怎样做到内容一致An excellent way of achieving unityis by means of the topic sentence.Properly used,the topic sentence forces the writer to adhere to and to sustain the point he is trying to establish5.标题句 the topic sentence properly used can achieve unity in the paragraph,which indicate the importance of the topic sentence;②the topic sentence6.第二个写作常识In short,a good topic sentence has a limited subject and a sharp focus,namely,a good topic sentence is not too general nor too narrow.A topic sentence that is too general requires much more than a paragraph to develop it.A coherence is connection and consistency.A coherent paragraph is one in which all the sentence are related logically and grammatically to make a whole that allows the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought step by step8．第三个写作常识 Just as topic sentenceshelp readers follow our ideas,other signals also help them understand what we have to say.When we write and when we revise,look for the areas that seem choppy or unconnected —that lack coherence.We can establish better coherence by using the following devices:pronoun reference,repetition ,and in a paragraph means that the topic is adequately developed by details,explanations,definitions,evidences,and the like,so that the reader is not left with only a fuzzy idea of what the writer means1第四个写作常识：Development of the main idea, then, is like enlarging a photograph to make the details clearer. So, development in the paragraph is as important as unity and coherence between skillful development helps us to stick to our subject and focus and to keep up the sense of oneness.2Inductive Pattern (归纳法概念)：In developing a paragraph by means of the inductive pattern of reasoning the writer presents particular instances of a like kind and leads them into valid generalization which serves as his topic sentence.3Deductive Pattern (演绎法概念)：In developing a paragraph by means of the deductive pattern the writer begins with a generalization(the topic sentence) and proceeds with specific elaboration or application of the general idea.4Inductive-deductive Pattern(归纳演绎法)：As the name indicates, in developing a paragraph by means of inductive-deductive pattern the writer first presents particular instances and a resulting generalization, then applies the generalization to a new instance. 5第五个写作常识：Sequences of development are not independent of types of development. The most important sequences of development are general to particular, particular to general, climactic, chronological, and spatial.6Climactic Sequence (层递顺序)：In a climactic sequence, the most intense or highest point of interest is saved for the final sentence, which may be, but is not necessarily, the topic sentence.7.Chronological Sequence (时间顺序):A chronological sequence is one in which earlier things precede later things; items are listed in the order in which they occur in time. The most obvious use of a chronological sequence is in telling a story. 8Spatial Sequence (空间顺序)：A spatial sequence is used in descriptions of various types. It starts the reader at a particular point and then moves logically in some direction, from one place to another.9第六个写作常识：The type of development is the way in which the main idea is supported-by details, definitions, statements of cause and effect, and so on.10段落展开方式：Among the most important types of paragraph development are development by detail, comparison and contrast, process, classification and partition, cause and effect, definition, and mixed development.11Development by Comparison and Contrast (比较和对比)：①a comparison shows how two or more things are alike; ②a contrast shows how they are different.12Development by Division and Classification (分类法和归类法)：Dividing and classifying information is central to the writing process. When we divide, we begin with a whole, a complete body of information or one idea, and break it into its parts. When we classify, we begin with many small observations and sort them into categories on the basisof their similarities.13第七个写作常识：Causal analysis involves the ability to see cause and effect relationships between two elements. In order to arrive at a cause, we need to distinguish among three kinds: necessary, sufficient and contributory.14第八个写作常识：Definitions are particularly important for limiting the intended meaning of abstract or technical terms. There are two types of definition: formal definition and extended definition. Formal definition includes the term itself, the class it belongs to, and the details that distinguish it from other items in its class.15第九个写作常识：As we have seen, a single paragraph often contains more than one type of development. Almost any kind of paragraph may include examples or illustrations. The important thing is to avoid switching abruptly and apparently without reason from one kind of development to another in the middle of a paragraph.16第十个写作常识：The introduction is probably the most important part of an essay. The introduction should agree in tone and style with the rest of the essay. It should be a natural part of it, not a different construction grafted on the top.。
英语议论文知识点归纳总结
英语议论文知识点归纳总结在学习英语写作过程中，议论文是一个常见且重要的文体。
能够熟练掌握议论文的写作技巧和相关知识点，对于提高英语写作水平具有重要意义。
本文将对英语议论文的知识点进行归纳和总结，旨在帮助读者更好地理解和掌握议论文的写作技巧。
一、议论文的定义和特点议论文是一种通过论述和分析来支持作者意见或结论的文章。
它具有以下几个特点：1. 条理清晰：议论文通常包含引言、论点、论证和结论等部分，每个部分都需要有明确的逻辑关系和过渡。
2. 观点明确：议论文需要明确表达作者所持的观点，并进行充分的论证和论据支持。
3. 逻辑严密：议论文的逻辑关系需要紧密配合，推理和论证要合乎逻辑，以增强文章的说服力。
4. 文字简练：议论文追求简练的文字表达，避免废话和冗长的词句，使读者更容易理解和接受观点。
二、议论文的写作结构一篇典型的英语议论文通常包含以下几个部分：1. 引言：用于引出讨论的话题，并概述作者的观点。
2. 论点：明确表述作者所持的观点，并提出支持该观点的理由或论据。
3. 论证：根据论点提出的理由或论据，展开详细的论证和分析。
4. 反驳：对可能的反对意见进行回应和反驳，进一步加强观点的说服力。
5. 结论：总结全文的论点和论证，重新强调作者所持的观点。
三、议论文的写作技巧1. 清晰明确的论点：在引言中清晰地表述作者的观点，避免模糊和含糊不清。
2. 充分有力的论证：通过提供详细和具体的事实、数据、例子等来支持观点，增加文章的可信度和说服力。
3. 合理有效的逻辑结构：确保论证的逻辑关系紧密配合，推理过程合乎逻辑，避免论证过程中出现矛盾或跳跃。
4. 恰当处理反驳意见：及时回应潜在的反驳意见，理解并尊重不同观点，同时通过有力的论证来反驳可能存在的错误观点。
5. 使用恰当的连接词：使用适当的连接词和过渡词语，使文章的结构更加紧密和流畅，有助于读者理解论点和论证之间的关系。
四、常见问题及解决方法1. 长篇累牍的文章：避免过多的废话和重复，精简措辞，保持简洁明了。
英语写作知识点
英语写作知识点英语写作是学习英语的重要组成部分，掌握一些基本的写作知识点可以帮助我们提高写作水平。
本文将介绍一些常用的英语写作知识点，包括语法、词汇、句型和段落结构等方面。
一、语法知识点1. 时态：英语中有多种时态，如一般现在时、过去时、将来时等。
在写作中，要根据具体的语境和需要选择合适的时态。
2. 主谓一致：主语和谓语动词在人称和数上要保持一致。
例如，主语是单数第三人称，谓语动词要用单数形式。
3. 从句：从句是句子中的一个部分，可以作为名词、形容词或副词使用。
在写作中，要注意从句的引导词和从句的语序。
二、词汇知识点1. 同义词替换：在写作中，为了避免重复使用某个词，可以使用同义词进行替换。
但要注意同义词的准确性和适用性。
2. 词汇搭配：不同的词汇之间有一定的搭配规律，掌握一些常用的词汇搭配可以使文章更加地道和流畅。
三、句型知识点1. 倒装句：在某些情况下，为了强调某个部分或改变语序，可以使用倒装句。
例如，将句子的谓语动词放在主语之前。
2. 强调句：为了强调句子中的某个成分，可以使用强调句。
例如，将强调的部分放在句子的开头或结尾，并使用特殊的语气词。
四、段落结构知识点1. 开头段落：开头段落应该引起读者的兴趣，概括文章的主题，并提出论点。
2. 主体段落：主体段落是文章的核心部分，应该围绕论点展开，提供支持和论证。
3. 结尾段落：结尾段落要对文章的内容进行总结，并给读者留下深刻的印象。
以上是一些常用的英语写作知识点，掌握这些知识点可以帮助我们写出更加准确、流畅和有逻辑性的英语文章。
在写作过程中，还需要多读多写，不断积累经验，提高自己的写作水平。
希望本文对您有所帮助！。
英语议论文写作要点
一、英语议论文写作要点议论文通过议论或说理来表达作者见解和主.作者对*一问题持有一种看法,为了使读者同意自己的看法,提出假设干理由,企图说服他人.高中英语议论文的写作要注意以下要点: 1. 论点要鲜明、确切．一篇议论文只能有一个中心论点．论点一般在开头提出，然后加以论证．2. 论据要充分、可靠．一般是以事实为论据，也可以利用成语，格言，名人名言作为论据．3. 论证要严密、得法．归纳法〔induction〕和演绎法〔deduction〕是议论文常用的论证方法．归纳法的例子为根底，从几个例子和现象中，归纳出*种道理和看法．例如：报纸是一种媒体〔medium 〕，人们可以从中得到现代信息；电视是一种媒体，人们也可以从中获得信息；播送也是媒体，人们同样可以从中获得现代信息．因此我们可以得出结论，其他媒体，如网络等，一定会给人们信息．演绎法以一个或多个看法为根底，从一般论断，演绎到不同事例，再加以论述，最后再回到一般论断上来．例如：所有的媒体都可以给人们提供信息，网络是媒体，因此人们可以从网络中获得信息．在归纳中要注意使用的例子要充分，不能以点概面．二、议论文的写作步骤:1. 引言(introduction)．由于英语作文受时间，字数的限制．因此，在引言段中作者就必须简单解释要讨论的问题，并明白地亮出自己的观点，如提倡什么，支援什么，反对什么．2. 主体段〔main body〕．主体段是议论的过程，作者必须有足够的证据．〔adequate proofs〕来论证自己的观点．一般可提出一个或两个proofs, 并对此用一两句话分别进展阐述．3. 结论〔conclusion〕．结论段可以用一两句话来完毕文章．同时要注意与引言段照应，但不能照搬前面的原话．例：课本高二上P78 第一封信Tutorial center is helpful.I have studied at a tutorial center for two years. My mand of English has improved considerably since I started this course.At my center, the fees are reasonable. My tutors are qualified teachers. I have been helped a lot by them. They are sincere and kind.One of my teachers was British. At first, I could not say anything to her. But later I learned how to municate in English with a westerner.I think that the tutorial center has given me a lot of confidence in using English.评注: 第一段提出论点, 表达家教中心是helpful(段划线局部) ,主体段分别从几个方面(划线局部)来阐述家教中心确实有帮助,结论段重申家教中心的作用(划线局部),且语句表达与第一段中的不重复.三、议论文的写作模式1. 议论文的类型英语议论文根据命题特点，从形式上来看可分为如下类型: ①“一分为二〞的观点．如“轿车大量进入家庭后，对家庭、环境、经济可能产生的影响〞②“两者选一〞的观点．如，期中考试作文题，“乘火车还是乘飞机〞③“我认为……〞型．如“你对课外阅读的看法〞④“怎样……〔how to〕〞型．如“怎样克制学习中碰到的困难〞．⑤图表作文．通过阅读图表中的数字与工程得出一个结论或形成一种看法．按照高二上学期的写作要求，学生主要应掌握①②两种类型的议论文的写作．在第①种类型中命题涉及*一事物或现象的正反两个方面：通过正反两个方面的比照，得出结论是利大于弊，还是弊大于利．论证要围绕所要得出的结论来展开，假设利大于弊，则有利的一面要多阐述一点．反之亦然．在第②种类型中，命题要求在A或B两者之间作一比拟或选择，两个对象往往各有优势，所以结论局部有两种情况：a. 要么支持A，要么支持B;b. A、B优势均难的割舍，只好依情况而定在结论局部说清楚在什么条件选A, 在什么条件选B．下面重点介绍第①、②种类型议论文的写作模式.2. “一分为二〞观点的议论文模式Introduction第1段:Nowadays more and more people．．．/．．．plays an important part in．．．. like everythingelse, ．．．has/have both favorable and unfavorable aspects/both advantages and disadvantages. Generally, the favorable aspects/advantages can be listed as follows.Main body第2段：Firstly,.. Secondly,…In addition/What’s more…第3段: Every coin has two sides. The negative aspects/disadvantages are also apparent/obvious. To begin with…; To make matters worse…; Worse of all…Conclusion第4段: Through above analysis/All things considered, we can see that the positive aspects/advantages outweigh the negative ones/disadvantages. Therefore…例文1. 看电视的利与弊 Advantages and disadvantages of watching TVNowadays more and more people like to watch TV. So TV plays a very important part in our life. But watching TV has both advantages and disadvantages. Generally, the advantages can be listed as follows.Firstly, you can e*pand your knowledge by watching TV. As we all know, learning things by TV is much faster than by listening to the radio or just by reading books. Forit has colorful pictures as well as wonderful music. Secondly, you may know anybody you want to know such as famous singers, super stars, scientists and so on. What’s more, you can go everywhere by traveling programs. Let’s suppose, if you like traveling very much, but you have to work on weekends or holidays, you must be very sad. And now open your TV and it’ll take you to anywhere. Every coin has two sides. The disadvantages are also obvious. For e*ample, watching too much TV can easily bee short-sighted, especially for children and students. To make matters worse, some young students are keen on watching TV so that they give up their studies gradually. Through above analysis, I think watching TV is a way of studying, it is good for us to watch TV. But when we watchTV, we should make a plan otherwise watching TV will destroy our life.例文2. 谈谈出国留学的利与弊 Where to attend a collegeNowadays more and more young people are going to study abroad. Like everything else, studying abroad has both favorable and unfavorable aspects. Generally, the favorable aspects can be listed as follows.Firstly, they think by attending a college in a foreign country they can learn not only useful knowledge, but also the culture and customs of other nations. Secondly, they can take advantage of this opportunity to gain a good mand of the foreign language they are learning very quickly. Moreover, they can meet different people and e*perience different cultures, which may help to broaden their views.Every coin has two sides. The negative aspects are also apparent. The costs are much higher than those in their native country. Most overseas students have to work for a living, which can’t allow them to pay all their attention to study. What’s more, they may feel very lonely.Through above analysis, we can see that the positiveaspects outweigh the negative ones. Therefore, I am in favor of going abroad to study.写作练习：①谈谈校服〔school uniforms〕.提示：近年来，越来越多的中小学要求穿校服．对此引发了学生中由对这个问题的讨论，请写一片英语短文阐述你的观点．Reference: some of the main arguments for and against school uniforms.FOR1.Students look neat and tidy.2.The public knows which school you are from.3.Parents all pay the same money.4.Students don’t worry about fashions.5.Teachers can identify students on school trips.AGAINST1.Uniforms are e*pensive.2.Children grow fast, need new uniforms.3.Some uniforms are very unfortable.4.Students all look the same, can’t be individuals.5.Get bored with same clothes every day.②说广告〔about advertisement〕.提示：有人说广告在现代社会是很重要，有人认为广告的促销成分太多，你认为……3.“两者选一〞观点的议论文模式模式⑴:A、B两者优劣势分析,要么选A,要么选B. Introduction第1段:Some people hold the opinion that (A) is superior to (B) in many ways. Others, however, argue that (B) is much better. Personally, I would prefer (A) because I think (A) has more advantages.Main body第2段：There are many reasons why I prefer (A). The main reason is that … Another reason is that…(赞同A的原因)第3段: Of course, choosing (B) also has advantages to some e*tent, (列出1~2个B的优势)Conclusion第4段: But if all these factors are considered, (A) iswe may finally draw the conclusion that …(总结观点)例文: Which is better“ Cars or bikes“Some people hold the opinion that private cars are superior to bicycles in many ways. Others, however, argue that the bicycle is much better. Personally, I would prefer the use of cars because I think cars have more advantages.There are many reasons why I prefer cars. The main reason is that cars bring convenience and mobility to the owners. What’s more, a car is far more fortable to travel in, especially in the changeable weather. Another reason is that, when more people buy cars, the automobile industry will develop more quickly. The growth of the automobile industry can motivate the rise of other related industries such as iron and steel production.Of course, bicycles can take you to anywhere you like in town and does not need a large parking place. Besides, it is not as e*pensive as a car and therefore every family can afford to buy.But if all these factors are considered, cars are muchwe may finally draw the conclusion that people can live better with the use of cars.模式⑵: A、B优势相当,依情况而定,有条件地选择A或B. Introduction第1段:Which would you prefer if you are faced with the choice between (A) and (B)“ Before you make the decision, you had better make a close parison.Main body第2段：It is true that(选择A的优势之一). It is also true that(选择A的优势之二). But (选择A的劣势).第3段: Though.(选择B的劣势), (选择B的优势之一). Furthermore, (选择B的优势之二).Conclusion第4段: Therefore, if you…, you should choose (A), but if you…, you should choose (B). (总结观点,提出建议)例文: Listening to the radio or reading the newspapers “Which would you prefer if you are faced with the choice between listening to the radio and reading the newspapers“ Before you make the decision, you hadbetter make a close parison.It is true that listening to the radio is quick and convenient. It is also true that we can listen to the radio while are doing something else. So we can save a lot of time. But radio programs have their own time schedule. You cannot get the information you need every time you turn on your radio.Though newspapers are not as quick as radio, reading from the newspaper can certainly bring us news more clearly and more e*actly. Furthermore, while reading, we have time to think about what we are reading, to judge it, to analyze it, and then we will be more aware of its cause and effect.We are living in an information age. We have to make full use of the information we can get if we are to achieve our goals.Therefore, if we want to get the latest news, we can listen to the radio, but if we want to get the e*act words, we’d better read the newspaper.写作练习:①安康与财富(Health and Wealth)提示: 安康与财富哪个更重要一直是一个热门话题(hottopic),请简述你的观点.②哪里住更好(Where to live“)提示: 有的人喜欢往城里挤,有的人喜欢往乡下搬. 各有所好,孰是孰非,你以为如何“参考文献:。
英语专业论文写作重点知识点整理
毕业论文整体上包括：Title page (标题页）/ an English cover pageAcknowledgementAbstract (摘要)150－200words, 第三人称，一般现在时Outline （提纲）The Body （正文)Works Cited (参考书目) / Bibliography Title: 1:Choose a topic: i. Your interest ii. Subject area iii. Subject importance iv. Availability of Resources2. Narrow Down Your Topic3: Ways to find out resource materials : encyclopedia; periodicals; InternetAbstract:This paper mainly focuses on ...First of all, the paper analyses....Secondly, it explores....Moreover, it concentrates on... By the contrast between ...and... ,The paper reveals....I. Abstract Contenta. a clear statement of the problemb. the purpose of the paperc. the methods applied in researchd. where and how you obtain your informatione. how you use the data to make your pointsf. an outline of your system of analysisg. statement of your result or findingh. enlightment of your researchOutline ：1)Before you write an outline, make a list of the main questions you plan to answer and the important facts you have discovered as you have gone through your sources.2)Then, give a serious thought on how you plan to organize your paper. There are some basic ways to go about it.Cause and effect ；Order of importance ；Categorical order3)PatternBody:I. Beginnings (Introduction)The function of an introduction of a research paper is to:(目的）⑴ Create reader ’s interest by introducing in more details some general background information on the topic under investigation;⑵ Focus on an issue, a problem, or a question relevant to the study;⑶ Review previous research;⑷ Discuss deficiencies in previous research on the topic;⑸ Propose a different/new way of investigating the same topic or some aspect of it.Elements that make readers satisfactory:(1) A clear statement of purpose.(2) A little background information.(3) A few questions.(4) A positive view of the end point and the topic of the paper.II. Review of Literature The purpose of literature review To show what has been previously studied in the field. To summarize other people ’s writings. To define or review definitions or concepts.III. Discussion and analysisIn this part we bring everything together by discussing the significance of our findings and its relationship to previous research in the area and also the hypotheses we set out with.analysis ---provides the evidenceDiscussion---gives the explanation, description, elaboration, comparison, contrast要素Topic Specification (TS) Background Information (BI) Purpose Statement (PS) Methodology and Data (MD)Results/Findings (RF) Implications/Conclusions (IC) The elements of literature review 1.Description of the source 2. Analysis of the work. 3. Crediting the source.。
所有英语作文知识点归纳
所有英语作文知识点归纳英语作文是教育中重要的一门学科，也是培养学生综合语言运用能力的重要途径。
掌握英语作文的基本知识点对学生的英语学习和提高英语写作能力非常重要。
下面将详细介绍英语作文的各个知识点。
1. 文章结构一个完整的英语作文通常由三部分组成：引言、正文和结论。
引言部分主要是为了引入话题并吸引读者的注意；正文部分是文章的核心内容，包括主要观点和论据；结论部分是对文章的总结和结束。
2. 表达清晰的主题句每段文章都应该有一个明确的主题句，它可以帮助读者理解段落的内容，并确保文章的逻辑连贯。
3. 使用恰当的连词和过渡词连接词和过渡词可以使文章的结构更加完整，段落之间的逻辑关系更加清晰。
例如：and （和）、but（但是）、however（然而）、therefore（因此）等。
4. 正确使用时态和语态时态和语态是英语作文中非常重要的要素。
正确使用时态可以使文章的时间序列清晰明了，正确使用语态可以准确表达句子的主体动作。
例如：一般现在时、进行时、过去时、将来时、被动语态等。
5. 使用恰当的句式和句型多样化的句式和句型可以丰富文章的表达方式，使文章语言更加生动有力。
例如：倒装句、强调句、条件句、比较句、虚拟语气等。
6. 使用适当的修辞手法修辞手法能够使文笔更加优美，同时也能够增强文章的说服力。
例如：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、反问等。
7. 用例子来支持论点通过提供具体的例子和事实来支持自己的论点是写作中常用的技巧之一。
例子的使用可以使文章更加具体，并增加可信度。
8. 清楚明了的段落结构一个好的段落应该包括一个主题句、支持细节和例子，并且它们之间应该有清晰的逻辑关系。
9. 注意标点符号的使用适当的标点符号能够帮助读者理解句子的含义和强调句子的重要部分。
例如：句号、逗号、冒号、感叹号等。
10. 合理组织文章一个合理组织的文章可以使读者更好地理解作者的意图和论点。
例如：时间顺序、因果关系、对比和分析等。
11. 避免重复和废话重复和废话会使文章显得啰嗦和冗长，需要避免在写作中频繁使用相同的词汇和表达方式。
最全面英语写作技巧知识点归纳总结(精华版)
最全面英语写作技巧知识点归纳总结(精
华版)
1. 提纲法
- 在写作前，先制定一个清晰的提纲，确定文章的结构和内容。
- 确保提纲包含一个引人入胜的开头，清晰的观点陈述以及有
力的结尾。
2. 文章结构
- 保持文章结构的一致性，包括引言、正文和结论部分。
- 每个段落只讨论一个主题，并确保段落之间的逻辑连贯。
3. 合理使用连接词
- 使用适当的连接词来引导读者，例如：首先(Firstly)、其次(Secondly)、另外(Additionally)等。
- 这些连接词能够帮助文章的连贯性，使读者更容易跟随你的
思路。
4. 选择恰当的词汇和语法
- 避免使用复杂的词汇和语法，尽量使用简单明了的表达方式。
- 使用正确的时态和人称，并确保语法正确。
5. 使用例证和引用
- 使用例证和引用来支持你的观点，增加你的文章的可信度。
- 确保使用的例证和引用是可靠的，并标明出处。
6. 重点句式和表达
- 研究一些常用的句式和表达方式，使你的文章更有说服力。
- 例如：It is widely believed that... (广泛认为...)、As a result, ...(因此...)等。
7. 编辑和校对
- 在完成文章后，仔细检查和编辑文章。
- 检查拼写、语法和标点符号错误，并确保文章流畅。
以上是最全面英语写作技巧知识点归纳总结的精华版，希望对您的写作有所帮助。
很详细很具体的指导英文论文写作技巧
很详细很具体的指导英文论文写作技巧！英文论文写作谈技巧论文写作中常出现的语法问题1. 主语和谓语的单数和复数要一致英语中名词有它的单数和复数形式，动词也有它的单数和复数形式, 二者要一致 . 单数主语( subject) 名词要用动词(verb) 的单数(singular) 形式, 复数主语名词要用动词的复数(plural) 形式 . 我们写中文的不太习惯英语的这种写法, 很难做到不假思索地配对, 需要特别留心才能不出错误，特别是当主语名词和动词被分开时 . 试看下面的例句 .A high percentage of peptides that are made of amino acids are present in the sample.A high percentage 才是真正的主语，而不是邻近的amino acids , 所以应该用单数形式 .宜改为: A high percentage of peptides that are made of amino acids is present in the sample.让事情更复杂的是英语名词被分为不同的种类，其中的一类叫集合名词 . 它既可以当单数用词也可以当复数用 . 集合名词当整体来讲时是单数，每个成员作为个体时用复数 .The number of mice in the experiment was increased.A number of mice have died.All of the samples were analyzed.All of the safety procedures was strictly followed.代词none 既可以是单数也可以是复数 . 当none 后面的词是单数时, 用单数动词 . 当none 后面的词是复数时，用复数动词 . None of the information was useful.None of the animals were starved.描写数量，重量，体积，时间等的词用单数，但如果是分次添加或减少时用复数 . 在这个意义上同集合名词类似 .1.5 ml was added.10 g was added .6 hours was the required incubation time.5 g were added stepwise.简写的数量单位，如mg, ml, s 等，单数和复数的写法是一样的, 如1mg, 5 mg.一些词如series, type, portion, class, 要用单数形式 .A series of derivatives of penicillin was prepared.A large portion of the reports is focused on how to deal with the increased cost.Data, criteria, phenomena, media 是复数形式，他们的单数形式分别是datum, criterion, phenomenon, medium.2、修饰语同主语名词关系上要一致当用1 ) 动名词(gerund) ，2) 分词短句(participle) ，3) 不定式短句(infinitive) 作修饰语时，修饰语中的动词要同主句中的主语名词关系上要一致 .科技杂志论文中有这种语法错误的情况较多 . 严格来讲这只是种语法错误，一般不影响对句子的内容的理解，所以很多作者不太注意. 编辑和阅稿人有时也没有严格要求改正. 比如下面就是Nature 杂志2006 年第439 卷中的一个例子 .Using the enhancer GAL4/UAS expression system, short-term memory traces of aversive and appetitive olfactory conditioning have been assigned to output synapses of subsets of intrinsic neurons of the mushroom bodies.1) 动名词After finishing the purification, the activity of the isolated compound was then studied.We or I 是动名词finishing 形式上的主语，同主句的主语activity 不一致 .宜改为: After purification was finished, the activity of the isolated compound was then studied.或: After finishing the purification, we studied the activity of the isolated compound.Treated with the new drug, the blood cholesterol levels of participants were lowered by an average of 30%.宜改为: Treated with the new drug, participants showed an average of 30% decrease in their blood cholesterol levels.2) 分词短句The iron concentration was determined using the Fenton reaction method.The iron concentration 同using the Fenton reaction method 关系上不一致 .宜改为: The iron concentration was determined by the Fenton reaction method.或: We determined the iron concentration using the Fenton reaction method.When measuring the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide, air samples from a remote place, such as an island, is preferred.宜改为: When the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide is measured, air samples from a remote place, such as an island, is preferred. 3) 不定式短句To further investigate the potential role of biking in causing infertility, an expanded population of biking athletes was surveyed.不定式短语的形式主语是we or I ，同主句主语population 不一致 .宜改为: To further investigate the potential role of biking in causing infertility, we surveyed an expanded population of biking athletes.To confirm the diagnosis, blood test was ordered.宜改为: To confirm the diagnosis, the doctor ordered blood test.3.主语和主语的行动(谓语)在逻辑上要一致由于一些中文和英文的表达方式不同，把中文直接翻译成相应的英文会不讲 . 一个经常被引用的语句是“price is cheap ”. 中文可以说价格便宜, 但英文只能说价格高或低. 物品可以说cheap or expensive. 用中文的表达方式来写英文, 会出现主语和主语的行动在逻辑上不一致 . 在写一个句子时要注意行动的真正主语名词是什么 . 下面是一些例子 .The highest antibiotic production was obtained at 48 h.不是production 而是production yield.宜改为: The highest antibiotic production yield was obtained at 48 h.The scavenging activity for hydroxyl radicals was based on Fenton reaction.不是activity 而是assay of activity宜改为: The assay of scavenging activity for hydroxyl radicals was based on Fenton reaction.The pharmacological compounds of ginseng were identified.药物活性化合物应该是pharmacologically active compounds.宜改为: The pharmacologically active compounds of ginseng were identified.4、代名词和其代理的先行词要一致代名词和其代理的先行词要在人称,单数或复数,和性别上一致.一些常见的代词是: he, his ( 阳性单数); she, her ( 阴性单数); it, its ( 单数); they, their, these, those ( 复数); that, this ( 单数). 比如下面的例句中, compounds 和their 一致, protein 和it 一致 .Many related compounds were synthesized and their antivirus activities were studied.Growth hormone is a protein. It promotes human body growth.下面的例句中,the 应该用their 取代 .The potential antioxidant capacity of compound A and compound B could be deduced from the protective effects against oxidative stresses.宜改为: The potential antioxidant capacity of compound A and compound B could be deduced from their protective effects against oxidative stresses.用代名词时除了要保持一致外,还要避免代理不清的情况出现,以免不清楚它们到底指什么而引起误解．The crude sample was dissolved in water and extracted with organic solvent. It was then evaporatedto yield the product.It 指organic layer 还是指water layer? 不明确，最好不用it.宜改为：The crude sample was dissolved in water and extractedwith organic solvent. The organic layer was then evaporated to yield the product.During meal hormones are released after which blood flow increases in the stomach.Which 既可以代表meal 也可以代表hormones, 容易产生误解 . 宜改为：During meal hormones are released. After their release stomach blood flow increases.5、位置的强调作用在英语写作中，若要强调某件事情，就把它放在句子的前面 . 中文写作中, 有关句子的条件, 时间等的修饰句都是放在前面，而主句总是放在后面 . 而英文中即可以把条件或修饰句放在前面，也可以放在后面 . 放在前面就表示你要强调修饰句的条件 . 比如:Before the hurricane arrived, most of the people have moved out. Most of the people have moved out before the hurricane arrived. 在英语中两种位置关系都可以 . 前者强调在hurricane 来之前，后者强调moved out . 而在中文中，只有一种说法，反过来说” 大多数人都离开了在hurricane 来之前” 就不对了 . 按中文的位置关系直译成英文, 往往会不确切 . 同样按英文的位置关系直译成中文也是怪怪的 . 我上小学的孩子回家来喊“ 我要吃冰激凌今天, 我没吃好长时间了”, 就是英文“I want ice cream today. I have not eaten it for a long time.” 的直接翻译 .科技写作中，一般还是把主句先写出来，除非你想强调修饰的是条件．Through scavenging free radicals, antioxidants play an important role in protecting against complex diseases.宜改为：Antioxidants play an important role in protecting against complex diseases through scavenging free radicals.In microbial fermentation, phosphorus is commonly the major growth-limiting nutrient.宜改为：Phosphorus is commonly the major growth-limiting nutrient in microbial fermentation.主动句中事情的执行者( 作者) 放在前面，有强调事情的执行者( 作者) 的意思, 而不是要研究的事物 . 被动句强调要研究的事物, 这也是为什么科技论文中被动句用得比较多的原因之一 . We studied their effects on cell growth. 强调We.Their effects on cell growth were studied. 强调Their effects.6、修饰词和被修饰词要邻近科技写作要求严谨，明确.为了严格定义一个事物，往往要加上限制性的修饰词或短句.比如描写实验用的mice 时，一般不会只说mice ，而是用类似“NCI-H23 tumor bearing female athymic nude mice” 的描述 . 前面有5个修饰词来定义研究用的mice 这时一般把最窄的定义写在最前面，最广的定义写在后面.修饰语要靠近同被修饰的对象 . 因修饰语和被修饰的词被隔开，而造成意思混乱的情况很多 . 下面是一些例子 .Inhibition of Acid B on xanthine oxidase was also reported. Inhibition of 后面应紧跟xanthine oxidase , 而不是Acid B, 隔开后句子就很难读 .宜改为：Inhibition of xanthine oxidase by Acid B was also reported. The chelating activities for ferrous ion of the Acid B were assessed. The chelating activities 后面应紧跟Acid B , 而不是ferrous ion. 宜改为：The chelating activities of the Acid B for ferrous ion were assessed.Reducing power represents the electron donating capacity, which may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity. 用which 开头的修饰句, 是要修饰reducing power , 而不是修饰electron donating capacity , 所以要紧跟在reducing power 后面 . 宜改为：Reducing power, which may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity, represents the electron donating capacity. 或: Reducing power represents the electron donating capacity. It may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity.7、主语和谓语在句子中的位置要靠近要使句子的可读性强, 有两个因素特别需要注意 . 一是句子的长短要合适 . 研究表明一个句子中有1 3-20 个字时最合适阅读 . 太短的句子有零碎的感觉，而太长的句子读起来有困难 . 二是主语和谓语动词要靠近 . 如果被隔开太远，就会有被隔离的感觉, 句子读起来就会比较困难，虽然从语法上来讲是可行的 . 这主要同人类大脑处理文字信息的过程和方式有关 . 当人们读到主语时，自然而然地期望知道主语后面的行动, 也就是结果 . 在行动( 谓语) 出现之前, 读者需要记住主语是什么，同时又要阅读和理解下面的文字，读起来很累 . 就像要屏住呼吸等待要发生的事情, 只有当谓语出现，知道了主题的行动后，才能呼出这口气 . 时间长了自然不舒服 .Lincomycin , one of the lincosamide antimicrobial agents which was first isolated more than fifty years ago , is used as a major antibiotic for the treatment of diseases caused by most Gram-positive bacteria.宜改为：Lincomycin is one of the lincosamide antimicrobial agents which were first isolated more than fifty years ago. It is used as a major antibiotic for the treatment of diseases caused by most Gram-positive bacteria.8、名词作形容词科技写作中经常会用名词来作为形容词使用，如room temperature, university researchers. 当用一个名词来修饰另一个名词时，意义一般都很清楚 . 但当三个名词放在一起，或两个名词前再加一个形容词时，就要小心 . 有的情况下, 3 个或3 个以上的名词放在一起，表达的意思很清楚，也是一种很简洁的表达方式 . 如:blood white cell number, prostate cancer patient, Beijing University medical school student. 但有时会有多种讲法. Top university researchers 可以是researchers of (only) top university 也可以是(all) university researchers who are top. 多个名词排在一起，即使表达明确，也给拥挤的感觉 . 应避免使用多个名词的修饰方式 . 最好的办法是用介词或其它方式来把他们分开, 以便清楚表达它们的修饰关系 . 多个名词罗列的情况经常发生，下面多举一些例子 .H e wrote the quality control group reports.宜改为：He wrote the reports of the quality control group.The patient showed chronic liver disease symptoms.宜改为：The patient showed symptoms of chronic liver disease. The human brain oxygen level is quite high.宜改为：The oxygen level in human brain is quite high.Their specific inhibition producing effects on fat containing food intake were assessed.宜改为：Their specific effects of inhibition on the intake of fat containing food were assessed.The present investigation evaluated various specific drug sample combinations.宜改为：The present investigation evaluated various combinations of specific drug samples-------分享，版权属于原作者。
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毕业论文整体上包括：Title page (标题页）/ an English cover page
Acknowledgement
Abstract (摘要)150－200words, 第三人称，一般现在时
Outline （提纲）
The Body （正文)
Works Cited (参考书目) / Bibliography Title: 1:Choose a topic: i. Your interest ii. Subject area iii. Subject importance iv. Availability of Resources
2. Narrow Down Your Topic
3: Ways to find out resource materials : encyclopedia; periodicals; Internet
Abstract:
This paper mainly focuses on ...First of all, the paper analyses....Secondly, it explores....Moreover, it concentrates on... By the contrast between ...and... ,The paper reveals....
I. Abstract Content
a. a clear statement of the problem
b. the purpose of the paper
c. the methods applied in research
d. where and how you obtain your information
e. how you use the data to make your points
f. an outline of your system of analysis
g. statement of your result or finding
h. enlightment of your research
Outline ：
1)Before you write an outline, make a list of the main questions you plan to answer and the important facts you have discovered as you have gone through your sources.
2)Then, give a serious thought on how you plan to organize your paper. There are some basic ways to go about it.Cause and effect ；Order of importance ；Categorical order
3)Pattern
Body:
I. Beginnings (Introduction)
The function of an introduction of a research paper is to:(目的）
⑴ Create reader ’s interest by introducing in more details some general background information on the topic under investigation;
⑵ Focus on an issue, a problem, or a question relevant to the study;
⑶ Review previous research;
⑷ Discuss deficiencies in previous research on the topic;
⑸ Propose a different/new way of investigating the same topic or some aspect of it.
Elements that make readers satisfactory:
(1) A clear statement of purpose.
(2) A little background information.
(3) A few questions.
(4) A positive view of the end point and the topic of the paper.
II. Review of Literature The purpose of literature review To show what has been previously studied in the field. To summarize other people ’s writings. To define or review definitions or concepts.
III. Discussion and analysis
In this part we bring everything together by discussing the significance of our findings and its relationship to previous research in the area and also the hypotheses we set out with.
analysis ---provides the evidence
Discussion---gives the explanation, description, elaboration, comparison, contrast
要素Topic Specification (TS) Background Information (BI) Purpose Statement (PS) Methodology and Data (MD)
Results/Findings (RF) Implications/Conclusions (IC) The elements of literature review 1.Description of the source 2. Analysis of the work. 3. Crediting the source.。