Hedonic and utilitarian motivations for online retail

合集下载

2010北京理工大学管理与经济学院30周年院庆院长论坛

2011年海峡两岸管理理论与应用研讨会
会议议程
会议时间安排表
08:20-09:10 开幕式
09:10-10:10 分组研讨【组织与人力资源管理】
09:10-10:10 分组研讨【一般管理】
10:10-10:30 茶歇（北理工主楼3层）
10:30-12:00 分组研讨【财务管理】
10:30-12:00 分组研讨【财务管理】
12:00-14:00 北理工郭大成书记宴请三校领导
地点: 北理工国际教育交流中心潇湘府
与会代表午餐
地点: 北理工国际教育交流中心自助餐厅14:00-15:30 分组研讨【营销管理】
14:00-15:30 分组研讨【科技管理】
15:30-15:50 茶歇（北理工主楼3层）
15:50-17:20 分组研讨【一般管理】
15:50-17:20 分组研讨【作业管理】
开幕式: 管理与经济学院学术报告厅（主楼241会议室）
分会场8: 北京理工大学主楼418会议室。

外文翻译---融资过程中啄食顺序理论的一个合理证明

外文原文Management Research News，Volume 25 Number 12，2002A Rational Justification of the Pecking Order Hypothesis to theChoice of Sources of FinancingBy Vuong Duc Hoang Quan外文翻译原文来自：Management Research News，Volume 25 Number 12，2002：74-90融资过程中啄食顺序理论的一个合理证明Vuong Duc Hoang Quan摘要自从被Stewart Myers (1984)发展以来，啄食顺序理论在近期把研究重心从传统静态权衡理论转移到其他理论的研究的趋势中成为了一道亮点，它试图为公司资本结构的行为寻求一个合理的解释。

这篇文章通过建立啄食顺序理论和与之有明显对立的MM定理1之间的关系，提出了啄食顺序理论的一个合理证明。

为支持我们的解释，在推论过程中，我们采用各种各样现有的理论，包括税盾理论、破产成本理论、代理理论、信号理论和管理风险厌恶理论等，这些证明啄食顺序理论的论据，其内涵也被简要地讨论了。

关键词：公司融资；资本结构；啄食顺序理论介绍企业怎样选择资本结构及其影响因素是公司财务上一个很有争议的根本问题。

传统上，资本结构的形成被认为是有利税率之间静态权衡的结果。

税收优势提倡增加债务，它与破产风险相对，破产风险更偏好于股权融资的使用。

尽管如此，近期的研究已经呈现出了从静态权衡理论为焦点到其他理论的研究的转移，从而试图寻找出一个对资本结构行为更进一步的解释。

Myers (1984)谈到的啄食顺序理论最早是由Donaldson (1961)始创的，是用来描述企业管理者为减轻不对称信息引起的投资不足问题的缺陷而优先采取的融资方式的选择这一融资实际。

因此相对于外源融资，任何类型的企业更倾向于内源融资。

Customer Satisfaction and Engagement

PerspectiveCustomer Satisfaction and Engagement -Customer Retention strategies for brand manager *M.N. TripathiAssociate ProfessorXavier Institute of Managementmnt@ximb.ac.inAbstractSince the concept of marketing dawned on manufacturers, brand building has become an integral component of most marketing departments. However, when the question is asked, 'What is brand building?', it seems to be a long drawn out answer, stating almost everything about the efforts made by the marketer to raise the esteem and value of the brand in question. While there could be very strong reasons for trying to have an all encompassing answer to such an innocuous question, the author would like to focus on customer satisfaction and customer engagement. Customers may be satisfied but not necessarily, engaged. Many brand managers across industries and categories swear that the key to such brand building success is customer satisfaction, while others are convinced that only effective customer engagement can make the brand stand out and survive in the long term. Both are true and false to some extent.This paper tries to explain that customer engagement and customer satisfaction are not necessarily disparate concepts and choices, but essentially converge at the consumer to make any brand building effort show results. It examines the various dimensions of customer satisfaction and customer engagement, the strategies employed by companies to engage customers and its relevance to modern day marketing. The author would like to argue that when marketers feel that brand successes are because of their efforts, it is a myth. Unless the brand is received well by the consumers, and this can happen only when she is satisfied and truly engaged, can brand building efforts get a fillip? It attempts to discuss the rationale of these concepts and the need to look at the entire exercise of brand building in a holistic manner and not dismiss it as another fad that marketing people conjure to spice up their offerings. There are definite benefits and payoffs to be had if the marketer is able to get more engaged consumers leading to greater satisfaction, which can result in increased frequency of purchase, sales, profits, customer retention, positive word-of-mouth and increased market share.Key words: Customer engagement, Customer satisfaction, Brand building, Customer retention, Word-of-mouthIntroductionAlthough the concept of branding existed much earlier, the concept got widely used in the 19th century through the industrial revolution. Neil H. McElroy, President of Procter and Gamble was the forerunner of brand-building and brand management, through a memo he sent out in 1931. It has unintentionally focused more on the marketer’s * Received December 2, 2012; Revised February 11, 2014124Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014side than for whom it is meant for – the consumer. Resources and efforts have been focused on the ‘brand’ with the hope of making it more attractive to the consumer and therefore hoping that some of the consumers would indeed buy. The assumption here is that if the brand is made sufficiently ‘attractive’, the consumer would eventually buy. Attraction for ‘whom’ and ‘how’ are probably more pertinent than merely stating the obvious. How valid is this assumption? We are all aware that no brand, however attractive, would motivate a consumer to buy, if she does not want it or has no use for it. She would buy only when she feels that it is the best choice as per the criteria she applies in the given context. Even if she buys the brand once, there is no guarantee that she would repeat her purchase, even if the first-time experience has been positive. For repeat purchase to happen, the marketer not only has to keep the brand salient in the consumer’s mind but also has to keep the customer ‘engaged’ to the brand. She should not only be satisfied with the product but should also be willing to promote, defend and do battle with others, if necessary, on behalf of the product (Dooley, 2006). Therefore, customer satisfaction is only the first step to having a lasting relationship with the consumer. What will keep the consumer with the marketer is her engagement.1Customer SatisfactionWhen products and services supplied by a company meet or surpass customer expectations, customer satisfaction results. In a competitive situation, customer satisfaction is a key differentiator and becomes an integral part of a business strategy. Therefore, it makes eminent sense for a company to develop metrics to keep a tab on customer satisfaction. It helps to build loyal customers who in turn could become customer evangelists spreading the good word to others, thus influencing them to become customers. Positive word-of-mouth (WOM) is highly credible, effective and in most cases free. So customer satisfaction goals are often key goals, pursued by marketers to effectively manage customer satisfaction.The tenet ‘Customer is king’ or ‘give the customer what she wants’ is often fraught with dangers, if taken literally and in its entirety. Companies have to always evaluate what they can offer or to what extent they are prepared to go and satisfy the customer vis-à-vis the payoffs that could be expected in trying to do so. To be better than competition, comes at a cost. Is the cost worthwhile to incur given the mileage that could be obtained – in terms of getting new customers, customer retention, brand loyalty and promoting positive WOM? Customer satisfaction data are among the most frequently collected indicators of market perceptions (Farris, Bendle, Pfeifer and Reibstein, 2010). Although sales or market share may indicate how a company is performing in a market, it is customer satisfaction which is perhaps the best indicator of how likely is a customer to repeat purchases in the future.1 For the purpose of this paper, we are using the word ‘customer’ and ‘consumer’ as synonymous,although the fastidious marketers amongst us would probably differ on this.Tripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......125It is important to realize that this satisfaction can comprise both utilitarian and hedonic benefits. Utilitarian benefits are associated with functional attributes, whereas hedonic benefits could be associated with sensory and experiential attributes (Batra and Athola, 1990). When going for a movie in a multiplex, one not only goes for the viewing experience in 70 mm colour and digital doll by sound, but also savour the plush ambience sitting in comfortable push-back seats with your favourite beverage sitting snugly in the drinks holder on every seat. Gap analysis (Parasuraman and Berry, 1991) and the confirmation/disconfirmation theory tries to explain the shortfalls in customer expectations, which if fulfilled, can lead to satisfaction. “The gulf between satisfied customers and completely satisfied customers can swallow a business” (Cacioppo, 1995). Mere satisfaction of a product or a service may not guarantee that a consumer would continue to stay with the product or the service. She needs to be engaged and it is the responsibility of the marketer to do so.What is Customer Engagement ?Therefore, a marketer must not only aim to make the brand more desirable, more attractive and more preferable to the consumer, but also do whatever it takes, for the consumer to remain associated, interested and involved with the brand. In the process of buying, using and consuming the product, there is an emotional, psychological and physical investment by the consumer onto the brand (Shevlin, 2006). It is this investment that translates into the engagement we are talking of. Obviously, this investment would depend on the consumer and would vary from consumer to consumer. The challenge for the marketer is to persuade the consumer that the brand is worth their time, effort, money and commitment to be involved. It is a process of building, nurturing and preserving relationships. It would also be an effort to enhance the customer lifetime values (CLV) and improve the customer equity (CE) over the lifetime of a brand. Company sales executives need to redefine their goals from sales target achievements to generating more ‘engaged’ consumers (Smith and Rutigliano, 2003) and develop metrics for the same. Sales would be a normal consequence of retaining ‘engaged’ customers.The term customer engagement has been finding increasing use largely in the digital context where website providers find it increasingly challenging to hold on to visitors on to their sites, in an effort to sell or communicate with them. This would be taking a rather myopic view of the concept since customer engagement is really required and applicable for all products, brands, services and ideas. No marketer can afford to let go of the consumers, having got them once. Yet, this is happening all the time because marketers neglect to keep ‘engaging’ the consumer, and thereby allowing them to be wooed by competitors. V aluable customer relationships are formed by organizations with their target audience, in ways that touch these people so persuasively, that they are keen to experience the relationships again. To attain this engagement, marketers must understand the needs126Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014of their markets and consumers, and then decide which of these needs to be met through their brands in line with their resource and capacity constraints (Papadakis, 2007).‘The customer pays the wages’–Henry Ford. Customer satisfaction was the precursor to brand loyalty. But the link between customer satisfaction, higher profits, ROI or market share was dubious. It is then that marketers began to link engagement with business outcomes. This is the ‘emotional connect’ between a brand or a company. Engaged customers are emotionally invested in the brand because they feel that the company is emotionally invested in them. A 2008 study across 10000 customers revealed that companies with high engagement levels yielded an ROI of 8% above the industry average while companies with low engagement levels saw their profits drop 23% below the industry average. Highly engaged customers led their companies to grow 13% above the industry average and low engagements levels led to companies declining by 36% as against the industry average (Peoplemetrics, 2010).A working definition of Customer Engagement involves specific interactive experiences between consumers and the brand. It is context-dependant psychological state characterized by fluctuation in density levels that occur within dynamic, iterative processes. It has cognitive, affective behavioral dimensions and plays a central role in the process of relational exchange which could act as engagement antecedents and / or consequences in iterative engagement processes. (Brodie, et al, 2011).Customer Engagement has been necessitated by a variety of factors:a.Control over Marketing Communications. More and more companies are findingit extremely difficult to communicate to an increasingly fragmented audience and have a share of voice (SOV) high enough to break the clutter. The SOV is the share of advertising expenditure of a firm in relation to the total advertising expenditure of the industry. Cluster refers to all other distractions that could occur to divert or distract the potential audience from paying attention to the intended communication. A study in 2006 had reported that TV advertising in 2010 would be one-third as effective as in 1990 (McKinsey, 2006). Advertising agencies are continuously innovating newer media, like in-movie placement, mall floors, digital media, etc. to keep the customer engaged and involved.b.Customer turning into a communicator. The recent trend of blogging and othermeans of webchats has turned the consumer into a far more powerful communicator, where she is able to discuss, debate, air her views and opinions, criticize and analyze along with her friends and peers, who probably value this conversation, far more than the communication from the advertiser. No longer does the situation exist, where the marketer, holds the power what to communicate with the customer. It is the customer which has now the power to communicate what she wants to, whenTripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......127she wants to, and to whom she wants to. Marketers do not have a choice. At best, they can be mute spectators and participate in this conversation and take cues from that to offer better products for her. The value proposition that social media offers, has made it possible for her to have ‘sustained conversations that shape perceptions’ which has had a signal effect in influencing marketing strategy for many organizations.c.Reduced Brand Loyalty. With the proliferation of goods, and each brand gettingmore and more similar, the consumer is getting more confused and is not able to differentiate, one from the other. The plethora of choices, complexity of products and availability of multiple substitutes, places formidable task for an ordinary customer to decide as to what is best for her. To alleviate this confusion, consumers have for long had brand ‘consideration sets’ wherein brands falling within the consideration set, are preferred by the consumer and therefore, would not mind switching over to another brand within the consideration set, if her regular brand is not available.It is then that the level of customer engagement can be a differentiator in the purchase decision process.d.Media Consumption. Consumers access various types of media where they maycome across many marketing communications. The proliferation of media and the increase in control over media consumption by consumers provides greater choice to the consumer, as to what media would get consumed. Stimulating a consumer’s engagement is the best way to retain or increase the loyalty of a consumer. With the advent of Web 2.0, the consumer is merely not content consuming static communication from the marketer but is actively interested in participating in the communication. It is no longer B2C but rapidly converting to C2B where consumers wield the power to influence business. Marketers must see the writing on the wall and gracefully accept this new reality and learn to live with it.Dimensions of Customer EngagementCustomer engagement consists of several dimensions. It is important to appreciate these dimensions and relate it to the importance of retaining customers, enhancing brand equity, building customer equity and fighting competition.a)Product Involvement. Switching cost for a customer is progressively getting lowersince most products available in the market are getting similar (me-toos) (Sedley, 2006). The customer, who is more emotionally attached to the product than others, is likely to be more committed and more willing to be an evangelist for the product.b)Purchase Frequency. Frequent purchase allows the customer to interact with theproduct more frequently and thereby reinforce the positive attitudes built up by the128Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014customer. Repeated use helps build loyalty which encourages further repeat purchase. Of course it goes without saying that companies cannot take such customers for granted and must ensure strict quality standards to maintain consistency of product irrespective of locations and production sources.c)Frequency of Service Interactions. Positive interactions lead to brand affinityand help to reinforce the positive attitudes about the brand. It is important that such interactions are necessarily positive for the engagement process to be cemented.A negative interaction might undo all the good work done in a different stage. Thequality of personnel, infrastructure, resources, equipment may all play a role in cementing this engagement.d)Word-of-mouth (WOM). Positive experiences, emotional attachment, high productinterest are some of the likely reasons which lead to positive word-of-mouth being passed around. A positively disposed, motivated consumer of the product is quite likely to take the engagement process up to the next higher level. Companies must excel in their marketing and product quality for consumers to want to talk about it to others. WOM cannot be taken for granted.e)Velocity. The rate of change of all the above indicators is also an indication of thelevel of engagement of the consumer. Upgradations, packaging changes, attractive sales promotions, new advertising campaigns, brand extensions, market expansions, are but a few of the marketing changes that agile companies do remain salient in the consumer’s mind.Neuromarketing studies have helped find out some relationships between the emotional attachment of consumers with brands and their brain activity levels. Familiar brands produced higher levels of brain activity in areas associated with positive emotions. There was a strong correlation between the level of engagement and actual purchases by consumers (Fleming, 2006).Building Customer EngagementCustomers have more choices of products and services than even before, and even if satisfied, the satisfaction is short-listed. Newer and better market offerings seem to get their attention. The marketer’s focus has to shift to value creation and this could only happen if the customer is able to participate in this value creation. Informed, networked, empowered and active customers are increasingly co-creating value with the firm, which keeps them engaged (Prahlad and Ramaswamy, 2004).Engaged customers are valuable assets. They assure a business of sustained and profitable growth. They are also likely to be your brand’s most ardent ambassadors and loyal customers. But how does one build customer engagement?Tripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......129a)Confidence. Customers must have confidence in your brand. They must be ableto trust the company and the brand, which means that the organization must live up to and deliver the promises it makes to the market – in terms of quality, pricing, packaging, distribution, after-sales service, reliability, etc. Colgate which has been on top as the most trusted brand since 2003 lost its ranking to Nokia for some time and regained its top ranking status in 2011 (Economic Times, Brand Equity).Others like Britannia and Bournvita, who were ranked high in the list in earlier years have gone down in rankings because somewhere down the line consumers began to lose confidence on the brand. New brands like Vodafone have emerged from nowhere to replace the old stalwarts.b)Integrity. Consumers must feel that they are treated fairly by the organization.Most consumers have quite realistic expectations of being treated fairly. Therefore, customer servicing, pricing rationale, goods return policies must be above board and transparent. Amway has a 100% goods return policy with no questions asked, should a consumer feel dissatisfied with the product. Biotique went to great lengths to explain to the consuming public that the reason their products are high priced was that it comprised of only high quality, organic raw materials.c)Pride. Consumers must feel good and be proud of using the brand. They should beunhesitatingly, enthusiastic recommenders of the product, based on their own experience of using the brand. Marketers, who look after their loyal and regular customers, stand to gain from the overwhelming return response by such consumers, either in repeat purchase or through customer evangelism. Axis Bank holds regular programmes for their priority customers and keeps reassuring them about their service particularly customized for them. The Tata brand built over many years reassures every consumer of the trust and faith that the consumer has put on their brands for years.d)Passion. Marketers must be able to fire the imagination of consumers who consumetheir product. Hero Honda’s Splendour, Mahindra and Mahindra’s Scorpio and Apple’s Ipod are some of the cases where the consumer is passionate about these brands; they love the brands (Ma. Reyna, 2003).Growth is a major focus of most organizations and is one of the criteria that they would like to measure themselves to appraise their performance, although research states that bigger is not always better. Similarly, market share, another popular yardstick which many marketers like to benchmark against, does not necessarily indicate brand health. Therefore, neither good sales or for that matter good profits, necessarily benefits the customer. When there is no benefit to the consumer, this weakens the130Vilakshan, XIMB Journal of Management, V ol.11 (1), March 2014brand ‘connect’. This is when consumers might start to disengage. This would then start reflecting on other key outcomes such as future sales, profits, market share and profits (McEwen, 2005).Customer Engagement StrategiesWith the plethora of products and services abounding, all companies have felt the impact of the customer being in charge. They know exactly which products to buy and which to reject and rightly are demanding better products and excellence in service. In this kind of a scenario, it is not surprising that most companies are bending backwards to accommodate the customer and put customer-centric policies in place to acquire and retain the customer. Most companies have embarked on some Customer-Facing Processes and Solutions (CFPS), which might include Customer Relationship Management (CRM), Customer Engagement Management (CEM), customer satisfaction cells, call centres, and so on. However, just stand-alone CFPSs are not enough to keep the customer with the organization. Unless such CFPSs are strategically integrated to the entire customer life cycle, it would have limited usefulness, and the organization would not be able to exploit the potential of such mechanisms.Effective Customer Engagement (CE) strategies must employ consumer messages that differentiate brand promises that clearly set apart the brand from competition, preferably with an emotional content that helps to bond the customer with the brand. The message should be so compelling as to overcome consumer inertia, lower perceived risk and motivate them to switch. There must be an emotional ‘connect’ with the consumer for a lasting relationship (Gallup, 2008). Sunsilk is trying to create that emotional ‘connect’ through its blog , where like-minded consumers can let their hair down and speak freely on any topic dear to them. It need not necessarily pertain to the company or the brand.However, it has been observed through various studies that most companies professing customer-facing philosophies deploy CFPS, more by word than deed. They stop short of tying the CFPS output to customer experiences. One such study showed that 63% of respondents connect brand promises to customer experiences and 46% of respondents have defined what constitutes a ‘loyal’ customer. The same study mentioned that 81% of respondent companies track customer service, and a little more than half of the sample, track customer profitability. However, what was not measured, was the quality of the customer experience and the ability of the customer to make referrals - two metrics that are vital to value creation and managing the customer life cycle. Less than half track the quality of the customer experience and less than one-quarter track customer lifetime values and the likelihood of making referrals (Klein, Eisenman and O’Brien, 2007).Tripathi, Customer Satisfaction and Engagement ......131 The recommendations emerging out of this study were :panies and their customers must define what the customer experience shouldbe, including goals and metrics for achieving success. Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the market and customers becomes essential to know what customers want and also differentiate between customers. It takes into account the emotional, intellectual and behavioural aspects of the customer at each stage of the customer life cycle resulting in an end state, which facilitates passing over to the next stage.Each stage results in an experience designed to lead to the next stage, ultimately resulting in value creation for both customer and company. It is here that the lack of strategic vision could lead the company to get suboptimal results from CFPSs if these are not integrated to the strategic goals of the company.panies must look at CFPS as part of a customer experience strategy and notas a tool for individualized solutions. Typically various components of a CFPS such as a call centre or a customer service department work in isolation without realizing that they are basically working for the same goal, which is to satisfy the customer.Therefore the synergies which could be available, goes a begging, because of such units working in silos.panies must implement formal processes to track performance throughout thecustomer lifecycle. It is not enough to satisfy the consumer once. Defining loyalty and measuring loyalty is also a key issue, which we saw that very few companies are tracking. To keep ahead of competition, good performing companies need to develop metrics to keep measuring their success that may not be the same as some other companies, which are not doing so well. The bar has to keep on getting higher if these companies are to remain on top. Metrics must also change with time. The same metrics could become irrelevant after some time. Yamaha, may be is a bigger brand than Harley-Davidson, but few are going to quarrel about the significantly higher level of customer engagement of the latter with the former.How can Customer Engagement be leveraged in Marketing ?The whole idea of using this concept which is just about five years old, is to make the customer give the time, effort, money and commitment to the product or service. It should create, stimulate and influence customer engagement, bonding the customer to the market offering. This has been made easier with the increased usage of the web to keep in touch with the consumer.The difference between traditional marketing and CE marketing is that traditional marketing has always been focused on ‘awareness and reach’, whereas CE marketing has been more customized and targeted. It allows the consumer to participate with thecustomer approach to a more participative interaction of equals, which recognizes that both company and customer have equal stakes in the development and prosperity of the brand.The most successful companies build deep emotional relationships with their customers – relationships that go beyond rational boundaries. Consumers stay faithful to their brands that earn both their rational trust as well as their affection. Customers who are ‘emotionally engaged’ behave quite differently than those who are ‘cognitively satisfied or loyal’. Emotionally engaged consumers spend more, are less price sensitive and are more likely to get through a problem than other consumers who are not so engaged. CEOs of customer engaged companies should really be ‘Customer Executive Officers’ if they are really serious about ‘customer engagement’ to pass down the culture of engaging the consumer.ConclusionFor organizations that have a good proportion of ‘engaged customers’, there is a proven correlation between such engagements and their on-going long term success. Engaged customers help you build business. Customer satisfaction is temporary. Such customers can be fickle. They tend to churn rapidly and retaining them could turn expensive. This is where ‘permission based’ marketing such as social media marketing helps. Face book with 321 million active users and Twitter with 3 million active users are becoming the world’s largest virtual market place. Companies like Pepsi have chosen to move out of Super Bowl TV advertising and chosen to spend $20 million on social media campaigns (Schwartz, 2010).Customer satisfaction gets you by in the short term, till something better comes along. But customer engagement extends beyond mere satisfaction. It means building great relationships with your customers who are willing to advocate for the brand. These customers would go out of the way to do business with the organization and help it acquire new customers by recommending to other people. When customers are engaged, the organization has differentiated itself from its competitors. Customers become collaborators ().Customer engagement is relevant not only to consumer marketing but also in the B2B marketing. Traditionally, B2B marketing has always had a much greater participation in the overall marketing of B2B products. Engaging customers has taken it to the next level where the customer becomes a collaborator in the future development and upgradation of the product. The distinction between the marketer and the customer after a while may blur because of the intense involvement and engagement of the customer with the product。

消费者行为4

4-5
Types of Needs
Biogenic
Psychogenic
Utilitarian
Hedonic
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivational Direction
Motivational Conflicts
4-6
Approach-Approach
Two Desirable Alternatives
• Once a need is aroused, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate the need. • Needs can be:
– Utilitarian: a desire to achieve some functional or practical benefit. – Hedonic: an experiential need, involving emotional responses or fantasies.
4-1
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Fourth Edition Michael R. Solomon
Chapter 4
Motivation and Values
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivation
4-2
• Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do.
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall

消费者行为学(Consumer Behavior) (5)

Simple Processing
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Elaboration
The Many Faces of Involvement
4-9
Related to a Consumer’s Level of Interest in a Particular Product.
4-1
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Fourth Edition Michael R. Solomon
Chapter 4
Motivation and Values
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivation
4-2
• Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do.
4-15
• Materialists are more likely to value possessions for their status and appearancerelated meanings. • However, there are signs that many Americans are developing a different value system that balances work with personal relationships.
Copyright 1999 Prentice Hall
Motivational Direction
Needs Versus Wants
Specific Way a Need is Satisfied Depends on: Individual’s Unique History, Learning Experiences and Cultural Environment.

享乐主义手册英文版

享乐主义手册英文版Title: The Hedonist's Handbook: An English VersionIntroduction:The Hedonist's Handbook is a comprehensive guide to embracing a hedonistic lifestyle, focusing on the pursuit of pleasure and enjoyment. This article aims to provide an overview of the handbook, presenting its key concepts and principles.Body:1. Understanding Hedonism1.1 Definition of Hedonism: Hedonism is a philosophical concept that emphasizes the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as the ultimate goal of life.1.2 Historical Background: Hedonism has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, with key proponents such as Epicurus and Cyrenaics. It has evolved over time, incorporating various perspectives and interpretations.2. Principles of Hedonism2.1 Pleasure as the Highest Good: Hedonism places pleasure at the center of human existence, considering it the ultimate good.2.2 Differentiating Types of Pleasure: The handbook delves into the distinction between physical and intellectual pleasures, highlighting the importance of both in leading a fulfilling life.2.3 Balancing Immediate and Long-term Pleasures: Hedonism encourages individuals to find a balance between instant gratification and long-term satisfaction, avoiding excessive indulgence that may lead to negative consequences.3. Hedonistic Lifestyle Choices3.1 Self-Care and Well-being: The handbook emphasizes the importance of self-care, promoting activities such as exercise, meditation, and healthy eating to enhance overall well-being.3.2 Cultivating Positive Relationships: Building and nurturing meaningful connections with others is seen as a vital aspect of a hedonistic lifestyle, as it contributes to emotional well-being and shared enjoyment.3.3 Pursuing Personal Passions: The handbook encourages individuals to identify and pursue their passions, as engaging in activities they love brings immense pleasure and fulfillment.4. Hedonism and Materialism4.1 Material Possessions and Pleasure: The handbook acknowledges the role of material possessions in providing pleasure and comfort, but highlights the importance of not becoming overly reliant on them for happiness.4.2 Minimalism and Hedonism: Exploring the concept of minimalism, the handbook suggests that reducing material clutter can lead to a clearer focus on experiences and genuine pleasures.4.3 Sustainable Consumption: Hedonism advocates for conscious consumption, encouraging individuals to consider the environmental and social impact of their choices, thus enhancing long-term pleasure.5. Hedonism and Ethics5.1 Ethical Considerations: The handbook addresses the ethical dimensions of hedonism, emphasizing the importance of respecting the rights and well-being of others while pursuing personal pleasure.5.2 Utilitarianism and Hedonism: Drawing on utilitarian principles, the handbook explores how hedonism can align with the goal of maximizing overall happiness and well-being for society as a whole.5.3 Balancing Self-Interest and Altruism: Hedonism encourages individuals to find a balance between pursuing personal pleasure and contributing to the happiness of others, fostering a sense of social responsibility.6. Challenges and Criticisms of Hedonism6.1 Hedonic Adaptation: The handbook acknowledges that humans have a tendency to adapt to pleasure, leading to diminishing returns. It suggests strategies to overcome this, such as seeking novelty and variety.6.2 Hedonism and Excessive Indulgence: The potential for hedonism to lead to excessive indulgence and negative consequences is discussed in the handbook, emphasizing the importance of self-control and moderation.6.3 Hedonism and Meaning in Life: Critics argue that hedonism may overlook the pursuit of meaning and purpose. The handbook addresses this concern, suggesting that personal fulfillment and pleasure can coexist with a meaningful life.Conclusion:The Hedonist's Handbook offers a comprehensive exploration of hedonism, providing insights into its principles, lifestyle choices, ethical considerations, and challenges. By understanding and applying the concepts presented in the handbook, individuals can embrace a hedonistic lifestyle that prioritizes pleasure and enjoyment while maintaining a balanced and responsible approach.。

中文翻译-what constitutes a theoretical contribution

什么是理论贡献？自从成为编辑以来，一直试图寻找一种简单的方式来传达理论贡献的必要成分。

关于这个主题有好几篇优秀的论文，但它们通常涉及难以纳入与作者和评论者日常交流的术语和概念。

我的经验是，现有的框架在澄清含义的同时也容易混淆含义。

除了接触卡普兰的作品外，都宾和其他人的作品在学术界各不相同。

AMR，我本文是填补这一空白的初步努力：其目的不是创造一个新的理论概念化，而是提出一些简单的概念来讨论理论的发展过程。

这是我每天的社论活动中产生的个人反思。

我的动机是缓解关于期望和标准的交流问题，这是由于缺乏一个广泛接受的框架来讨论组织科学中概念写作的优点。

最后，我的评论不应该被解释为官方的教条或指导评估过程的铁规则。

每一篇提交的论文都是独一无二的，而且都是根据自己的优点来评判的；然而，我的思想显然受到了前半期我读过的几百篇交流的影响。

自动抄表系统本文围绕三个关键问题展开：（a）理论发展的基础是什么？(b)什么是对理论发展的合法增值贡献-如何？(c)在判断概念性论文时考虑哪些因素？第一节描述一个理论的构成要素。

第二部分利用该框架建立理论发展过程的标准。

第三部分总结了评论者对论文实质归属和适当性的期望。

自动抄表系统什么是建筑砌块理论发展？根据理论发展权威（例如，Dubin，1978），一个完整的理论必须包含四个基本要素，这些要素在以下段落中描述。

什么。

哪些因素（变量、结构、概念）在逻辑上应该被考虑为解释社会或个人感兴趣的现象的一部分？判断我们包含“正确”因素的程度存在两个标准：全面性（即，是否包括所有相关因素？）以及节俭（即，是否应该删除一些因素，因为它们对我们的理解没有什么附加价值？）.当作者开始绘制一个主题的概念图时，他们应该错误地赞成包括太多的因素，并认识到随着时间的推移，他们的想法将会得到完善。

一般来说，删除不必要或无效的元素比证明添加是合理的要容易。

但是，这不应该被解释为允许扔进厨房水槽。

对于一个优秀的理论家来说，对竞争中的吝啬和全面性病毒的敏感性是其特征。

二语习得 5.5learningmotivation

.
Both integrative and instrumental motivations are essential to successful learning. But integrative motivation has been found to sustain long-term success when learning a second language
.
The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery
.
References
[1] Gardner.R.C.and W. E. Lambert. Motivational variables in Second language Acquisition [J]. Canadian Journal of Psychology，1959，13：266-72.
.
Though debates are still going on, Gardner's model has dominated the field of language learning motivation since its introduction, and much evidence has confirmed the strong correlation between integrative motivation and L2 linguistic achievement (seeEllis,1999;Laine,1981;Kraemer,1990,citedin Gard-ner and MacIntyre, 1992; Skehan, 1989; Oxford and Ehrman, 1993; Spolsky, 1989, cited in Manfred Wu Man-Fat, 2005).

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

Hedonic and utilitarian motivations for online retailshopping behaviorTerry L.Childers a,*,Christopher L.Carr b ,Joann Peck c ,Stephen Carson daSchool of Management (Marketing),University of Kentucky,Lexington,KY 40506,USAb Katz Graduate School of Business,Department of Information Systems,University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh,PA 15260,USAc Grainger School of Business,Department of Marketing,University of Wisconsin,Madison,WI 53706,USAd David Eccles School of Business,Department of Marketing,University of Utah,Salt Lake City,UT 84112,USA Received 31August 2000;accepted 19July 2001AbstractMotivations to engage in retail shopping include both utilitarian and hedonic dimensions.Business to consumer e-commerce conducted via the mechanism of web-shopping provides an expanded opportunity for companies to create a cognitively and esthetically rich shopping environment in ways not readily imitable in the nonelectronic shopping world.In this article an attitudinal model is developed and empirically tested integrating constructs from technology acceptance research and constructs derived from models of web behavior.Results of two studies from two distinct categories of the interactive shopping environment support the differential importance of immersive,hedonic aspects of the new media as well as the more traditional utilitarian motivations.In addition,naviga-tion,convenience,and the substitutability of the electronic environment to personally examining products were found to be important predictors of online shopping attitudes.Results are discussed in terms of insights for the creation of the online shopping webmosphere through more effective design of interactive retail shopping environments.©2001by New York University.All rights reserved.Keywords:Online shopping;Hedonic;Internet;Web;Utilitarian*Corresponding author.Tel.:ϩ1-859-257-9042;fax:ϩ1-859-257-5031.E-mail address:tchilders@ (T.Childers).PergamonJournal of Retailing 77(2001)511–5350022-4359/01/$–see front matter ©2001by New York University.All rights reserved.PII:S0022-4359(01)00056-2512T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–5351.IntroductionThe interactive nature of the Internet and Web offer many opportunities to increase the efﬁciency of online shopping behavior by improving the availability of product information, enabling direct multiattribute comparisons,and reducing buyer search costs(cf.Alba et al. 1997).While comparatively more has been written about these more utilitarian aspects of the web,the emergence of the web as an entertainment medium has only recently gained in momentum(Orwall2001).Clearly,consumers have been using the web for limited enter-tainment applications(e.g.,downloading music),but a greater variety of entertainment opportunities have more recently become available.Consumers can now use the web to track and watch movies online and participate in their production,while also watching live concerts of obscure rock bands.For instance,the Iﬁlm corporation(Iﬁ)shows originalﬁlms on its website,while Intertainer,Inc.()offers movies-on-demand with VCR-like features,music videos,and delayed broadcast of network TV shows through a subscription broadband service.The movie,Tom Cats,utilized a website to cast extras generating3000applicants who were selected by votes from overﬁve million visitors (Mathews2001).HOB Entertainment()offers web-casting of six to ten pay-per-view music concerts a month for$7.99,while SFX Entertainment()has provided free webcasts of the Backstreet Boys concerts(Townsend2001).A new venture,LivePlanet,plans to make new entertainment experiences that attempt to break down the barrier between traditional media,new media,and the physical world (/home.html).One LivePlanet product,a TV show called,Runner,that is built around a person eluding capture for30days while anywhere in the U.S.will be aired next summer by ABC.The show will feature a companion website that allows visitors to track the“Runner”over a30day period by providing location clues and real-time video clips through hidden cameras(Serwer2000).Consistent with these general web trends,Jeff Bezos of maintains that“one secret to his success is thinking of ways to make the online shopping experience more fun”(Star Tribune1999).Thus,insight into what role entertainment or hedonic versus functional or utilitarian factors motivate consumers to utilize web forms of interactive media is fundamental to the successes potentially to be realized through electronic commerce.These new media represent a tremendous opportunity for marketers and developers of electronic commerce,but there are important technology-based differences between conven-tional retail channels and these new channels that must be understood in order for companies to maximize their performance as they enter this uncharted territory(Alba et al.1997;Van den Poel and Leunis1999).Understanding the nature of these media gains even greater importance given the promise that electronic commerce will increase price competition and reduce seller monopoly power through a reduction in buyer search costs(Bakos,1997).At the heart of this shift to interactive online forms of shopping is a set of global,interconnected networks such as the Internet and the World Wide Web estimated to generate upwards of $108billion in retail e commerce sales by2003(Rosen and Howard2000).While there are a number of factors that affect the use of web shopping,the objective of our research is to focus on several unique technology-based characteristics of these new media.More speciﬁcally,this research seeks to explore several determinants of interactive formsof shopping by integrating aspects of consumer behavior with research from the information systems domain.The outline of the article is as follows.The next section will introduce concepts drawn from research on the user acceptance of information technology.Following this,characteristics of the new media which are expected to predispose consumers toward their use will be discussed along with speci ﬁc hypotheses for how they correspond to consumer use of interactive shopping.Each antecedent will be elaborated upon followed by a discussion of the components surrounding the consumer ’s attitude toward shopping via these media.Following this discussion are the results of two studies designed to test the basic predictions of this model.2.Consumer motivations and user acceptance of new technologyHirschman and Holbrook (1982)describe consumers as either “problem solvers ”or in terms of consumers seeking “fun,fantasy,arousal,sensory stimulation,and enjoyment.”This dichotomy has been represented in the retail context by the themes of shopping as work (Fischer and Arnold 1990;Sherry,McGrath,and Levy 1993)versus the festive more enjoyable perspective on shopping as fun (Bloch and Bruce 1984;Sherry 1990;Babin,Darden and Grif ﬁn 1994).Clearly many motivations exist as shopping goals (cf.Westbrook and Black 1985),but most typologies consider instrumental and hedonic motivations as fundamental to understanding consumer shopping behavior because they maintain a basic underlying presence across consumption phenomena (Babin,Darden and Grif ﬁn 1994).In the utilitarian view,consumers are concerned with purchasing products in an ef ﬁcient and timely manner to achieve their goals with a minimum of irritation.In contrast,as one consumer noted,“I enjoy looking around and imagining what one day,I would actually have money to buy.Shopping...is an adventure (Sherry 1990,p.27).This “adventure ”re ﬂects shopping ’s potential entertainment and the enjoyment resulting from the fun and play arising from the experience versus the achievement of any prespeci ﬁed end goal (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982).This dual characterization of motivations is consistent with our perspective on the adoption of interactive shopping behavior as a new form of technology assisted shopping.As a start to our understanding of these new media we draw upon a technology acceptance model (TAM)from the information systems literature (Davis,1989;1993;Davis,Bagozzi,and Warshaw,1989)developed to understand workplace adoption of new technology.TAM postulates several conceptually independent determinants of a person ’s attitude toward using job-related new technology.The ﬁrst determinant is perceived “usefulness ”of the technol-ogy and refers to the degree to which using the system or technology will improve the user ’s performance in the workplace.TAM also postulates a second determinant,the ease of technology use.While usefulness refers to the outcome of the shopping experience,“ease of use ”refers to the process leading to the ﬁnal outcome.When shopping on the web,ease of use can be thought of as the process of using the new media while engaging in shopping behavior.A more recent addition to the TAM model is the enjoyment construct,or the extent to which the activity of using the technology is perceived to provide reinforcement in its own right,apart from any performance consequences that may be anticipated (Davis et al.1989).513T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535Enjoyment has been reported to affect technology adoption for speciﬁc word processing and graphics programs(Davis,Bagozzi,and Warshaw,1992)and for microcomputer usage (Igbaria,Schiffman,and Wieckowski,1995;Igbaria,Parasuranan,and Baroudi,1996).This characterization of technology adoption is consistent with research on retail shopping behavior,which has supported the presence of both utilitarian and hedonic motivations.As noted,the instrumental or utilitarian goal-directed factor envisions the consumer as thought-fully considering and evaluating product-related information prior to purchase versus the hedonic aspect or the pure enjoyment and fun of the shopping experience(Babin,Dardin,and Grifﬁn,1994).Within the TAM framework,usefulness of the interactive media can be thought of as reﬂecting the more instrumental aspects of shopping,while enjoyment em-bodies the hedonic aspect of shopping.While some consumers may be shopping primarily for instrumental purposes,others may be primarily enjoying these interactive media,and thus both factors can ultimately affect their attitude toward using interactive forms of shopping. This leads to the following set of predictions:H1:As the usefulness of the new interactive media increases,attitude toward these mediawill become more positive.H2:As the ease of use of the new interactive media increases,attitude toward these mediawill become more positive.H3:As the enjoyment of the new interactive media increases,attitude toward these mediawill become more positive.TAM,through its empirical assessment,has been validated by Davis(1989)and further validated by several replications and applications(c.f.,Davis,1993;Davis et al.1989; Mathieson,1991;Taylor&Todd,1995).The results of these studies demonstrate that usefulness is the primary determinant of behavioral intention to use a technology in the workplace,with ease of use and enjoyment acting as secondary determinants.In contrast to the prior work contexts utilizing the TAM framework,our shopping context provides an opportunity to examine these issues in a more hedonic type of environment.Thus,we expect enjoyment to play a greater role in predicting the adoption of our interactive forms of shopping than has been found in the more performance oriented settings employed in past studies.However,this distinction can be extended as some consumers may be shopping primarily for hedonic reasons while others may be motivated to achieve more instrumentally oriented goals(Huffman and Houston,1993).Thus,context may be important to differen-tiating the importance of different antecedents of technology adoption across settings.To reﬂect this,we examined signiﬁcantly different settings to better understand the dynamics of shopping goals across different interactive shopping environments.In one context,consum-ers examined a set of web shopping sites that demonstrated a number of more hedonic design characteristics(e.g.,sampling CD music tracks).In contrast,the second study utilized a markedly more instrumental setting in the context of an online grocery ordering and delivery system.The latter is more reﬂective of the performance orientation of a workplace setting and thus,we expect the usefulness of the technology to play a greater role in predicting adoption in the online grocery setting.In contrast,the expanded nature of the more inter-514T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–535active web-based environment should result in a greater role for enjoyment as a predictor of web-shopping adoption behavior.This leads to the following predictions:H 4:Usefulness of the new interactive media will be a stronger predictor of attitude toward these media in a more utilitarian shopping environment.H 5:Enjoyment of the new interactive media will be a stronger predictor of attitude toward these media in a more hedonic shopping environment.3.Characteristics of interactive technologiesThis framework delineates the attitude toward using new forms of interactive shopping by postulating the three antecedents:usefulness of the new media,ease of use of the new media,and the enjoyment of using the media.But,what determines whether an interactive environment will be perceived as “useful ”,“easy to use,”or “enjoyable ”?This next section examines several antecedents of the technology ’s bene ﬁts and limitations for online shopping and selectively predicts whether the new media are perceived as useful,easy to use,or enjoyable.Usage of these new media includes the consumer ’s purchase of products as well as the consumer ’s intention to search for product related information while experiencing the new technology (Alba et al.1997).Consumers are seeking bene ﬁts in the marketplace and the bene ﬁts of using interactive shopping as compared to traditional channels are important in delineating whether consumers will have a positive attitude toward these interactive media.Among these bene ﬁts are the interactivity and ﬂexibility of the media to access and control the nature of product information and the convenience of the media including,its 24-hr availability and its accessibility through multiple locations (Hoffman and Novak,1996;Alba et al.1997).However,another facet of this new media is that it also differs in other meaningful ways from traditional shopping channels through the absence of the actual experience of visiting the store and physically examining a product prior to purchase (Alba et al.1997).For instance,the QVC home shopping channel has recently opened a store at the Mall of America to allow customers to see and touch jewelry and other merchandise,since as their executives said,“prospective customers are reluctant to purchase merchandise without touching it ”(Advertising Age,2000).The manner in which these characteristics will affect interactive purchase behavior is discussed in the next section.4.Antecedents of interactive media use4.1.NavigationNetwork navigation is de ﬁned as the process of self-directed movement through the media involving nonlinear search and retrieval methods that permit greater freedom of choice (Hoffman and Novak,1996).In the online context,navigation includes the process of “exploring ”the interactive environment in alternative ways to seek out product-related information.For example,the consumer may use a browser to either search for grocery items that are low in sugar and then 515T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535compare their content on carbohydrates or may choose to link to a new nutritional site that contains a multidimensional comparison of brands along the same attributes.Both provide the same fundamental purchase information,but one may be less effortful to navigate and compile as a decision tool.Thus self-directed movements through the media carry with them potential search costs that may affect their usability.Drawing from the information search literature in an online context,Lynch and Ariely(2000)found that when information on product quality was easier to navigate,consumers were less price sensitive and purchased more expensive products. The ability to efﬁciently navigate an electronic versus printed directory also was reported to lead to premature search closure in an electronic medium because of the medium’s increased search costs relative to its printed counterpart(Hoque and Lohse1999).Thus,the structure of the online environment can serve at any one point in time to both facilitate and impair navigation for product information depending upon its impact on consumer search costs.In a physical retail store context,consumers navigate for desired products by identifying the spatial representations of the store’s layout and by understanding the logic used to organize,to categorize,and to arrange merchandise(Titus and Everett1995).Consumers accomplish this by recognizing how products are clustered by their common characteristics (e.g.,paper items,or hardware)or through orientation aids,such as aisle markers,directory maps or through questioning in store personnel(Titus and Everett1995).Past research has demonstrated that the navigational abilities of individuals in physical stores are enhanced by simpliﬁedﬂoor plans(Weisman1981)and the presence of a“gridtype”pathway conﬁgu-ration(Evans et al.1984).Utilization of these cues is facilitated by the relative standard-ization of store layouts,even across competitors,and by the stability of the physical store layouts over time.By comparison,the ability to navigate a retail environment becomes even more critical when one considers the dynamic nature of the web.For example,unlike a retail store with this learned and observable visual layout,web sites generally follow“internal schemas”which are not known a priori by the consumer(e.g.,a home page may be followed by a varying layout of nonstandardized subpages).Thus,each site represents a unique navigational experience that is constantly being updated and reconﬁgured in this dynamic electronic environment.Therefore,along with a desire for greater navigational freedom must come a greater tolerance for disorder,since a consumer is often navigating through uncharted territory.It is thus expected that persons who possess this greater desire for choice through alternate forms of navigation will perceive the process of shopping or the ease of using these interactive media as more favorable,resulting in hypothesis6:H6:As theﬂexibility in navigation through interactive media increases,perceptions of theease of use of these media will increase.In addition,the process of self-directed navigation through the interactive environment should also contribute to an enjoyment of the shopping experience.When individuals have an increased ability through interactivity to move through their environment,it is expected that their enjoyment of using the new media will also increase leading to hypothesis7.H7:Asﬂexibility in navigation through interactive media increases,the enjoyment ofusing these new media will increase.516T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–5354.2.ConvenienceAnother bene ﬁt expected to in ﬂuence the adoption of online environments is perceptions of convenience as manifested by the opportunity to shop at home 24hr/7days a week (Hofacker 2001).In this time crunched environment of today with multiple earner house-holds,a “person living in Florida can shop at Harod ’s in London (through the web)in less time then it takes to visit the local Burdines department store ”(Alba et al.1997,p.41,emphasis added).Since consumers rarely visit multiple physical retail stores prior to purchase (Newman and Staelin 1972),interactive shopping can lower the costs of acquiring prepurchase product information while at the same time increase search bene ﬁts by providing a broader array of product alternatives at a small incremental cost (Bakos 1991).These bene ﬁts in the reduction of search costs accrue particularly when the consumer is under time pressure (Beatty and Smith 1987)making the accessibility advantage of interactive shopping especially advantageous to consumers.This convenience in interactive shopping increases search ef ﬁciency through the ability to shop at home,by eliminating such frustrations as ﬁghting traf ﬁc and looking for a parking space,and avoiding long check out lines,while also offering single “stop ”shopping that eliminates travel to and from a variety of stores.Thus,convenience includes both the elements of when a consumer can shop and where a consumer can shop.Persons who perceive the online environment as offering greater convenience are more likely to consider the new media as both “useful ”and “easy to use.”Perceptions of the convenience of these media facilitate the accomplishment of the shopping task (making it more useful),and also make the process of shopping (the ease of use)more appealing.In addition,reductions in frustration should decrease shopping ’s psychological costs,which we predict will make the interactive shopping experience more enjoyable.These result in the predictions contained in hypotheses 8–10.H 8:As the perceptions of convenience of interactive media increase,perceptions of the usefulness of the media will increase.H 9:As the perceptions of convenience of interactive media increase,perceptions of the ease of use of the media will increase.H 10:As the perceptions of convenience of interactive media increase,the enjoyment of using the new media will increase.4.3.Substitutability of personal examinationThis antecedent is designed to tap an aspect of traditional retail shopping that is generally lacking in the online environment.Among the bene ﬁts of traditional physical store retailing is the ability to personally experience a product on a multisensory basis (Alba et al.,1997;Rosen and Howard 2000).Indeed one aspect of hedonic consumption is the experience of products through their tastes,sounds,scents,tactile impressions,and visual images (Hirsch-man and Holbrook 1982).The importance of tactile information as one aspect of direct experience is evidenced by the ﬁnding that consumers at a grocery store that were touched on the arm and asked to sample a snack item were more likely to comply and also more likely 517T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535to purchase the item than those who were not touched(Hornik1992).Additionally,Peck and Childers(2000)propose that for salient haptic attributes(i.e.,texture,hardness,temperature, and weight)the need to personally examine products through touch is particularly critical. What’s more,they report that when a barrier to direct experience to touch was present,in this case shopping for a sweater over the web,consumers were more frustrated with their shopping experience and were less conﬁdent in their product attitudes(Peck and Childers 2000).At some point the new media may evolve to compensate for sensory deﬁciencies,but in today’s interactive retail environment the lack of certain sensory elements,(particularly touch)is likely to deter individuals from engaging in online shopping behavior1.Thus,it is expected that those individuals,who do not value or at least utilize these sensory components of the traditional retail channels,will see the new media as an acceptable substitute for directly examining a product in-person.This results in hypothesis11:H11:As the substitutability of personal examination of product information obtained viainteractive media increases,perceptions of the usefulness of the media will increase.Likewise,if shoppers believe that the sensory information available via the interactive media is sufﬁcient,they should be more likely to enjoy using the new media leading to hypothesis twelve.H12:As the substitutability of personal examination of product information obtained viainteractive media increases,the enjoyment of using the media will increase.Next,the results of two studies designed to test these hypotheses across different settings will be discussed.This comparison of results across the two studies should enable broader insight into the nature and importance of these behavioral antecedents across varied forms of interactive shopping.The next section discusses the details for theﬁrst study that investi-gated the more hedonic motivations associated with web-based shopping behavior.5.Assessing hedonic motivations for online shopping5.1.ParticipantsParticipants consisted of274students in introductory classes in the business school of a large midwestern university.Seventy-six percent of the participants were less than25years of age,18%were25to34,4%were35to44,and two percent were over44years old.The average number of years of computer experience was5.4;the median was4.The average number of months of World Wide Web experience was13,median12.The average number of hours per week spent on the World Wide Web was4.4,median2.Forty-seven percentage of the students were male.Ten percent of the participants had purchased products from a site on the web.Half of those who had purchased had done so more than once.Participants reported spending an average of3.5hr(medianϭ3hr)per week on all types of shopping activities.Participants thus,were familiar with using computers and particularly interactive shopping on the web.518T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing77(2001)511–5355.2.ProcedureThe setting for stimuli presentation and questionnaire completion was a teaching labora-tory commonly used for a variety of computer-based business classes.The maximum number of participants in each experimental session was 30.The instructor ’s computer situated in the front of the room was connected to a LCD projector with an 8Јx 8Јscreen.The total time of the laboratory session was one hour.At the beginning of each session,students were asked to sit quietly and not turn on the PC monitors in front of them until told to do so.The participants were told that they were about to take part in a study on the use of the World Wide Web for shopping.They were told that the session leader would ﬁrst orient students by illustrating two web shopping environments by projecting on the screen in the front of the room.They would then be asked to access three speci ﬁc web shopping sites to get ﬁrst-hand exposure to the range of shopping opportunities available on the web and complete a questionnaire based on their experiences in the laboratory session.The session leader accessed the two selected web shopping sites,reading from a prepared script and describing features related to shopping behavior (e.g.,product information or a purchase button).Participants were encouraged to ask questions about the sites or shopping on the web as the initial demonstration proceeded.The demonstration web shopping sites were chosen to illustrate the wide range of shopping opportunities available on the web.The purpose was to orient participants to the web shopping purpose of the study and provide a baseline of familiarity across subjects related to the basic capabilities of web shopping.The ﬁrst site was Amazon books ().It contained multiple navigation options,speci ﬁc book information,online purchase options,and reader postings on book commen-taries.The second site was Hot Hot Hot ()for inexpensive cooking sauces.This site offered elements of entertainment with high-resolution graphics,colorful and humorous product commentary,and online purchase capabilities.At the end of the 15min pre-exposure demonstration,the session leader instructed participants to turn on their computer monitors,and begin to access in succession the three web shopping sites bookmarked in their browser.Participants were told to simulate shopping for a gift for a friend.Participants were given 20min and told to pay attention to all salient aspects of the web shopping experience that might differentiate one web shopping site from another.5.3.StimuliThe participants were exposed to three additional sites that were selected to contain a range of experiences that reinforced the nature and capabilities of these electronic media.In some cases these sites were well known web shopping sites,and in others they were new or obscure sites selected to represent variation in the many aspects of online interactive shopping.Participants viewed the three same sites in the following order;,,and .The sites were selected because they represented the bene ﬁts to be obtained through web shopping by including multiple navi-gational alternatives,search options,product information,and product purchase capabilities.At the Wal-Mart site,participants performed a series of tasks to illustrate aspects of 519T.L.Childers et al./Journal of Retailing 77(2001)511–535。