Chapter 1--Introduction
Chapter1 Introduction 第一章 绪 论
机械原理
§1.2 MECHANISMS AND MACHINES 机构与机器 机械（Machinery；Machine)：机器与机构的总称
机器组成： 原动机部分 执行部分 传动部分 操纵控制部分 机器是由机构组成的。在一般情况下，一部机器可 以包含若干个机构。
中国矿业大学(北京)
中国矿业大学(北京)
机械原理
机电与信息工程学院 机械电子工程系
机械原理
Mechanisms and Machine Theory
中国矿业大学(北京)
机械原理
机电与信息工程学院 机械电子工程系
主讲教师 郑晓雯
教 授 专 业 博士生导师 机械设计及理论 机械电子工程
机电与信息工程学院 机械电子工程系
中国矿业大学(北京)
是运动的单元，它 可由若干个零件组 成，但各零件之间 不允许有相对运 动，是刚性结构。
中国矿业大学(北京)
机械原理
Chapter1 Introduction
§1.1 ABOUT THIS COURSE §1.2 MECHANISMS AND MACHINES §1.3 CONTENT OF THIS COURSE §1.4 DESIGN PROCESS AND THIS BOOK §1.5 COURSE INFORMATION and REQUIREMENTS
Examples of the Machines and Mechanisms? Some Mechanisms widely used in our life and engineering. Mechanisms: pencil sharper, mechanical clock, folding chair, adjustable desk lamp, automatic umbrella, etc. Machines: food blender(食物搅拌器), bulldozer(推土机), automobile transmission system, mechanical manipulator and robots, elevator, engine, etc. Can you give some
Chapter1-Introduction
共56页
9
信息和知识隐藏在数据中
商务智能要求有一个坚固、可靠的大型数据库作后盾，建立这样一个数据库的任 务是极其艰巨的。数据的质量问题也是令人头疼而又不可以掉以轻心的。 虽然数据是宝贵的财富，然而许多公司并不能充分利用这种财富，因为信息隐藏 在数据中，并不易识别。 为了在竞争中占得优势地位，必须识别和应用隐藏在所收集的数据中的信息。
共56页
15
信息流畅通了还需要？
商务智能BI（business intelligence）
SCM
供应链 管理
ERP
企业资源规划系统
B2B、B2C
CRM
数据
Internet等基础设施
共56页
16
新一代决策支持系统
交易处 理系统 DSS 资料库 外部资料
DSS软件系统模式 OLAP工具 资料挖掘工具 使用者界面
目标市场 资金分配 贸易选择 在哪儿做广告 销售的地理位置
数据爆炸，知识贫乏
共56页 14
Do You Trust Your Information?
Up to 75% have made business decisions that later turned out to be wrong due to flawed data
2
概念解析
何谓智能？企业有智能吗？ 智能的表现
信息共享和企业信息集成 知识挖掘与管理
Chapter 1 Introduction
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
to be and describing how things are
Prescriptive: the early study of language aims to lay down
rules for correct and standard behavior in using languages, such as grammars, to set models for language users to follow. Descriptive: the study of language aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it correct or not; modern linguistic study is supposed to be scientific and objective, they believe that whatever occurs in language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the formation of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
新编简明英语语言学教程chapter 1 Introduction
Example:
男生做完头发:
甲：呀，剃头了？ 乙：呵呵，剃了。 甲：真“瓜”。 乙：滚！
1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics
语音学 音系学 词汇学 句法学 语义学 语音学
Writing: later developed
Langue vs. Parole (Saussure)
Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.
Example:
甲：就是呀，我觉得她长得多漂亮呀！特别像ⅹⅹⅹ。 乙：哦，对了。听说ⅹⅹⅹ拍了一部新电视剧，你看 了吗？ 甲：我也听说了，不过一直没找到什么地方能下载呀。 怎么？你下了？ 乙：没有，不过男朋友给我带来了。 甲：你看看，你男朋友对你多好。我男朋友能有他一 半就好了。 乙：你男朋友也不错的，那次你感冒了看把他忙的！ 甲：什么呀！我感冒还不是因为他！要不是陪他去买 电影票能感冒吗？乙：哦，那次你们看的什么电影？ 甲：是ⅹⅹⅹ，没意思。不过主演ⅹⅹ还是很帅的。 乙：ⅹⅹ？哦，就是演ⅹⅹⅹⅹⅹ的那个吧！ 甲：就是了，他其实演技一般，就是那双眼睛特别迷 人。
(2) Class attendance and participation 30%
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
Chapter 1 -- Introduction to Sociology
Auguste Comte -- French Emile Durkheim – French* Max Weber – German* Karl Marx – German* Talcott Parsons - American
Developed comparative typologies of
societies
▪ Mechanical and Organic
MECHANICAL ARITY
Low division of Labor
Roles were specific Tight knit groups Large primary groups Occupations were
Sociological Imagination
Understanding large scale changes and
individual behavior The structural links between social change and individual behavior The ability to see the larger picture
Capitalism Owners now exploit workers for profit Private ownership of property is the key component Work for the self has disappeared False consciousness is dominant Alienation ▪ Destruction of social relationships ▪ Self, Product, Peers, Process
Chapter 1 Introduction-文档资料
The uncle responded to his nephew in a letter dated February 6, 1875 in which he told his nephew that he would fulfill his promise. Story I also stated that he would prefer to wait until his nephew was older before actually handing over the (then) extremely large sum of money (according to an online inflation calculator, $5000 in 1890 would be worth approximately $118,000). The elder Story also declared in his letter that the money owed to his nephew would accrue interest while he held it on his nephew's behalf. The younger Story consented to his uncle's wishes and agreed that the money would remain with his uncle until Story II became older.
William E. Story I died on January 29, 1887 without having transferred any of the money owed to his nephew. Story II had meanwhile transferred the $5,000 financial interest to his wife; Story II's wife had later transferred this financial interest to Louisa Hamer on assignment. The elder Story's estate executor refused to grant Hamer the money, believing there was no binding contract due to a lack of consideration. As a result, Hamer sued the estate's executor, Franklin Sidway.
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One: Introduction1. Linguistics and English linguistics1) As the name suggests, linguistics is the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history, culture, and so on.2) According to John Lyons（约翰·莱昂斯），linguistics is divided into types: general linguistics（普通语言学）and descriptive linguistics (描述语言学).A. Differences:i. General linguistics deals with language in general, or the whole human language. Descriptive linguistics studies particular languages.ii. General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish models that describe the rules of particular languages like Chinese, German, English, etc.B. Relationship:They explicitly or implic itly depend on each other.i. On the one hand, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described.ii. On the other hand, the descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguists. Thus, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other.3) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics. It deals with a particular language --- English, for the purpose of constructing a model to represent the unconscious linguistic knowledge possessed by a fluent English speaker.Actually the study of any particular language is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2. The nature of language(s)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.1) Language is a system.i. Every language consists of a set of rules, including phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules, semantic rules, grammatical rules, and so on. These rules underlie people's actual speech or writing.ii. In de Saussure's（索绪尔）term, the system of language is called langue（语言体系）and the speaker's speech is called parole (言语).iii. According to Chomsky（乔姆斯基）, competence（语言知识）is "the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language"，while performance（言语行为）is "the actual use of language in concrete situations".iv. Langue or competence is abstract and not directly observed, while parole or performance is concrete and directly observable. It has to take in a definite time and place, and in a particular situation.2) Language is symbolic.i. What is a symbol? How many parts does a symbol consist of?A symbol is essentially made up of two parts: a concrete object or form, and the meaning or the idea that it conveys.ii. There are a few words which cannot be classified as symbols such as the, a, an, etc.3) Language is a system of vocal symbols.i. Two types: visual symbols, auditory symbolsii. Not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes, coughs and so on usually do not have symbolic value.iii. Language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Three reasons: A. Biolog ically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write. B. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life. C. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.4) Language is arbitrary.i. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.ii. By saying language is arbitrary, we mean that we cannot give a reason why a certain linguistic form should represent a certain meaning and why a certain meaning should be represented by a certain form.iii. It does not imply that any individual speaker has the freedom to determine the pronunciation of a word.5) Language is creative.i. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.ii. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.6) Language is double-structured.Two levels: grammatically --- meaningful and sound --- meaningless7) Language is changeable.Language has changes in three systems: sound system, lexical system and grammatical system.3. Scientific method3.0 Definition: Generally speaking, a scientific method is the procedure adopted by scientists in conducting their investigation and establishing their conclusion.3.1 Scientific method in generalFour stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions3.2 Scientific method in linguisticsFour stages: gather data, construct a tentative rule, examine the tentative rule, finalize the ruleAn important principle --- objectivity3.2.1 ObjectivityThree common linguistic biasesA. Some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.B. Only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.C. Change is not natural for living languages and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay.3.2.2 Sources of dataA. Collecting data is the initial work for any linguistic description.B. If the linguist describes a language that he does not know himself, he may find a suitable native speaker of that language as his informant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），who is usually a bilingual.3.2.3 Rules constructionA. The essential task of linguistic description is to construct rules which may account for a native speaker's implicit knowledge about the language.B. How does a linguist construct a rule?Step 1: the linguist starts with collecting data.Step 2: based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.Step 3: then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.Step 4: he keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Attention: very likely, the data gathered are not complete. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.4. The goal of linguistics4.0 Definition: the goal of linguistics is to establish a model of a native speaker's competence.4.1 Modeli. There are two kinds of models:A. a physical or literal model --- it can be used to investigate the function and construction of the real object.B. a conceptual or theoretical model --- it can be used to examine something unobservable such as the nature of economy.Which type does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? --- The latter.ii. Two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness（明确性）and generativeness（生成性）A. By saying a model is explicit, we mean that the rules of the language the model contains are clearly defined.B. By saying a model is generative, we mean that we can use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences.4.2 CompetenceA native speaker has four types of linguistic knowledge: phonological knowledge（音位知识）, morphological knowledge（词法知识）, syntactic knowledge（句法知识）and semantic knowledge（语义知识）i. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.ii. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about how a word is formed.iii. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.iv. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the meaning of language.5. Sub-branches of linguistics1) Phonetics（语音学）is the study of speech sounds of all human languages. It deals with questions like how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, how English sounds are classified and described.2) Phonology （音系学）is the science that deals with the sound system of a language.3) Morphology（词法、形态学）deals with word formation and the internal structure of words.4) Syntax（句法）is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.5) Semantics（语义学）is the study of the meaning of words and sentences6. Saussure: The Father of Modern Linguistics1) When did modern linguistics start? --- At the beginning of the 20th century.2) What are the most influential schools of modern linguistics? --- Structural linguistics（结构语言学）and Transformational-generative Grammar (TG Grammar)（转换生成语法）3) Who is commonly acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics? --- Ferdinand de Saussure4) Why is he regarded as the founder of modern linguistics?Answer:1。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
1.2 Recognition Type
Identification of a pattern as a member of a category we already know,or we are familiar with. ❖ Classification (known categories)
1.2 Recognition Type
Identification of a pattern as a member of a category we already know,or we are familiar with. ❖ Classification (known categories)
Pattern Recognition
College of Automation, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 What is a pattern?
A pattern is the opposite of a chaos; it is an entity vaguely defined,that could be given a name.
Intra-class variability Inter-class similarity ❖ Ho do we define similarity?
Intra-class Variability
The letter "T" in different typefaces. Same face under different expression, pose, illumination.
Identify livestock using a pattern Recognition system; Rugged outdoor camera captures the image; Edge detection and outline tracing; Match to a library of existing shape templates; Open the gate when there is a match.
Unsupervised Classification
Training samples are unlabeled
1.2 An Example of the whole Recognition Process
Sheep Vs. Goat
❖ Access control for water in areas with water sgortage (e.g.Australian outback); wildlife vs. livestock; ❖ Install a gate that opens only when livestock enters;
1.3 Pattern Recognition
❖ This course will present various techniques to solve P.R problems and discuss their relative strengths and weaknesses .
1.3.1 Pattern Class Type
Supervised Classification: Training samples are labeled
❖ Clustering (learning categories)
Supervised Classification
Cat vs. Dog
Training samples are labeled
Inter-class Similarity
Identical twins
Characters that look similar
1.3.2 Models for Pattern Recognition
❖ A mathematical or ststistical description for each pattern class; it is this class description that is learned from samples.
❖ Given a pattern, choose the best-fitting model for it; assign the pattern to the class associated with the best-fitting model.
1.2 Recognition Type
Identification of a pattern as a member of a category we already know,or we are familiar with. ❖ Classification (known categories):
❖ A collectiily identical) objects ❖ A class is defined by class samples (paradigms, exemplars, prototypes, training/learning samples)
Supervised Classification: Training samples are labeled
❖ Clustering (learning categories) Unsupervised Classification: Training samples are unlabeled
Handwritten Digit Recoqnition
Cat vs. Dog
1.2 Recognition Type
Identification of a pattern as a member of a category we already know,or we are familiar with. ❖ Classification (known categories) ❖ Clustering (learning categories)