外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 胜任力模型研究
外国文献翻译dynamic incentive problems in operations management.
2．2激励实例举一个关于“赡养问题”的简单例子，它为我们提供了一个背景，来说明在我们系统中动态委托代理模型和激励模型的主要步骤。
这个例子在其描述中，我们放弃了很多的有利于专业词汇的通用语言，反映了我们在委托代理公司探索的兴趣，它并没有词汇的限制。
然而，它限制了我们的模型和结果的适用性，在本节结束时提供指导文献，来研究我们现有的模型和结果。
初步方案制定：考虑一台关键的机器设备，有两种可能的状态，一种是运行状态，另一种是没有运行的状态，只有那种处于运行状态的机器能够给他的所有者（我们称之为“她”）带来利润，所有者者委托经营者（我们称之为“他”）对设备进行维修的职责，管理者会去维修处于运行状态的机器。
无论机器是处于高效运行还是低效运行，这种战略把这些机器设备在每个时期的运行情况作为一种维护策略。
当成本维护转移概率较高时，这些机器设备就会高负荷运转，那些处于运行状态的，管理者会进行非自由裁量权预防性维护活动。
作为所有者不会显示管理者在非操作状态下的努力，但是她会观察机器的状态。
因此，她可能会面临以下的问题：设计一个基于绩效的薪酬计划，将激励基于对管理者的绩效的实际观察，这将激励他付出积极的行动，最大限度地实现所有者期望的预利润能超过最低限额这一目标。
我们制定和分析所有者的问题之前，我们必须首先对双方的爱好指定一个模型。
管理者假设选择一些维护策略去解决他工作过程中的消耗磨损，这个问题类似于金融经济中的消费和投资问题。
它主要的功能如下：在每一时期，管理者的行为和消耗基于给他提供有价值的信息，以争取他的预期效用最大化，管理者的实用工具是随着时间的推移指数和加法可分离，消耗方面的增加和在修复方面的减少。
此外，管理者尽可能确保他银行账户的收入和在同一账户用于消耗金之间的金额转移消耗，这个账户的利息在每个周期是固定的、彼此平衡的负数。
反映贷款，或是积极的，或迎合所有者的喜好，这个模型假设是一个经典的预期利润最大化。
人力资源3000字外文文献翻译
Human resource management more and more drives value. Under the system that economy development mature, human resource management have to match with fight for the best resources performance, if out of character of the manpower form couples out of character of post, the resources performance be not only whole have no, or may have already exhaust. The modern economy stress balance and match, promote management effect and quality vegetable, will human resource match with make balance, the inside contents establish human resource structure frame, use most in keeping with of the person do most in keeping with of work. Establishment human resource terrace is a communication and collection information way, everyone's opinion comprehensive, give up short take long, with processing salary, welfare etc. affair. Human resource most the importance be a training and development, human resource development have to investment at training aspect, with exertive each stratum of human resource potential.人力资源管理愈来愈被重视。
胜任力建模实践【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文The practice of competency modelingMaterial Source: Personnel Psychology Author: Schippmann, Jeffery S The purpose of this article is to define and explain a trend that has caused a great deal of confusion among HR researchers, practitioners, and consumers of HR-related services: competency modeling. The Job Analysis and Competency Modeling Task Force, a work group jointly sponsored by the Professional Practice Committee and the Scientific Affairs Committee of the Society For Industrial and Organizational Psychology, has recently concluded a 2-year investigation into the antecedents of competency modeling and an examination of the current range of practice. Competency modeling is compared and contrasted to job analysis using a conceptual framework (reflected in a 10-dimension Level of Rigor Scale) that practitioners and researchers may use to guide future work efforts, and which could be used as a basis for developing standards for practice. The strengths and weaknesses of both competency modeling and job analysis are identified and, where appropriate, recommendations are made for leveraging strengths in one camp to shore-up weaknesses in the other.The business environment today is characterized by incredible competition and change (D'Aveni, 1994; Hamel & Prahalad, 1994). In response, organizations are flattening, relying on self-managed teams with greater frequency, becoming highly matrixes, and otherwise reconfiguring the structure of work (Ashkenas, Ulrich, Jick, & Kerr, 1995; Howard, 1995; Keidel, 1994). Accompanying these changes has been a growing concern that traditional job analysis procedures may be unable to continue to play a central role in the new human resource management environment (Barnes-Nelson, 1996; Olian & Rynes, 1991; Sanchez, 1994). It is with this backdrop that the practice of competency modeling has exploded onto the field of human resources over the past several years. Today, surveys of competency-based practice indicate between 75% (Cook & Bernthal, 1998, based on a survey of 292 organizations) and 80% (American Compensation Association, 1996, based on asurvey of 426 organizations) of responding companies have some competency-driven applications currently in place.Given the turbulent practice environment, and the magnitude and pace of the growth of competency modeling, it is not surprising that practitioners and consumers of human resource services alike are looking for some meaningful reference points to guide their work. To aid in this effort, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) commissioned a task force in September 1997 to investigate and review the practice of competency modeling. The members of the SIOP-sponsored Job Analysis and Competency Modeling Task Force (JACMTF) (n1) have conducted an extensive literature search, interviewed 37 subject matter experts (SMEs) from varying backgrounds in the development and use of competency models, and have drawn on a rich base of personal experiences to shed light on questions.The purpose of this article is to communicate the descriptive findings of the task force, and to offer suggestions for guiding research and improving practice in both competency modeling and job analysis. These suggestions are framed around a conceptualization of evaluative criteria that could eventually serve as a basis for standards for practice.Literature SearchesBoth computer-based and manual searches of published research and reviews focusing on competencies were conducted. The computer databases of the American Psychological Association, UMI Proquest Direct, Harvard Business Review, and the American Management Association were used to identify articles, dissertations, and book chapters that included analyses or discussions of the concept of competencies. The manual review included examining the proceedings from conferences devoted to competencies or competency modeling, government technical reports, conference presentations, books, consulting publications and materials, and unpublished research and reviews.What Is A Competency?To begin with, the word "competencies" today is a term that has no meaning apart from the particular definition with which one is speaking (Zemke, 1982). Some examples of efforts to define the term from SMEs representing each of the groups in the sampling plan include:•"The knowledge, skills, and attributes that differentiate high performers from average performers."•"Competencies are not fundamentally different from traditionally defined KSAOs (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics)."•It is a construct that helps "define level of skill and knowledge."•"Observable, behavioral capabilities that are important for performing key responsibilities of a role or job."•"Mishmash of knowledge, skills, and abilities and job performance requirements."•"I can't."Clearly, there is a wide range of definitions, even among a fairly homogeneous expert population, underscoring the difficulty of pinpointing a standard definition of the term. This lack of consensus shouldn't be too surprising, given the multiple domains in which the terms "competent" or "competency" are prevalent. For example, the extensive use of these terms just in the early psychological literature is evident from the large number of hits (over 1,300) returned from a search for "competency" in the pre 1966 PsychInfo databases. In part, these words have their origins in law and, later, in clinical psychology, where the term evolved to define legal standards of mental capacity and awareness, the ability to care for oneself or others, and/or the ability to function in multiple activities of "daily living." Subsequently, the term "competency" was embraced in the vocational counseling profession to define broad areas of knowledge, skills, and abilities linked to specific occupations. The word also has an extensive history in the field of education with an emphasis on broader traditional "knowledge" areas (e.g., mathematics, English). Early industrial psychologists also used the term "competent" to describe successful individuals in specific professions. In all of the above contexts--legal, clinical psychology, vocational, educational, and industrial psychology--the term "competence" defines "successful" performance of a certain task or activity, or "adequate" knowledge of a certain domain of knowledge or skill.Individual differences and educational psychology. The study and examination of individual differences is as old as modern civilization. Aiken (1988) cites attempts from the Bible and ancient history to identify and label differences in human behavior and to use those differences for a specific purpose. In the history and systems of psychology, two major approaches characterize the conceptualization of human performance. McLagan (1996) describes these approaches as the differential psychology approach and the educational/behavioral approach. The former focuses on capabilities or characteristics that are relatively enduring andmanifested early. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Galton and Cattell pioneered the development of objective techniques to measure human abilities and characteristics. These early efforts focused on a means to measure intellect and, in particular, focused on identifying specific sensory and psychomotor abilities underlying intellectual functioning. The science of individual differences through the 1950s and beyond quickly expanded to multiple and sometimes overlapping research domains: physical, intellectual, information processing, motivation, personality, values, and more recently, emotional characteristics (see Guilford, 1956; Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984; Rokeach, 1973). Each domain was studied using a wide variety of methodologies and techniques, but all were based (in whole or in part) on inferences from behavioral manifestations. These manifestations were in turn grouped and labeled through judgment or quantitative methodology, or some combination of the two.Although the differential approach focuses primarily on innate abilities, the primary emphasis from the educational psychology perspective is on performance outcomes and shaping behaviors so that people can be successful. Researchers in this camp have been concerned with creating educational strategies to develop successful performance. Bloom's work (1956, 1967; Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964) to create taxonomy of educational objectives, and Gagno's (1975) efforts to use taxonomies for clarifying objectives for individual development are examples of work in this area. In most cases, the goal is to operationally define the taxonomic categories with illustrative, observable behaviors, which is the same tack taken in most competency modeling approaches.Of course, the field of industrial and organizational psychology relies heavily on an assumption inherent in both of the approaches described above--namely, that an individual's standing on many of the above-mentioned individual difference dimensions and/or knowledge, skills and abilities (learned, acquired, or enhanced) have the potential to predict job performance or success.Leadership research and assessment centers. The identification and assessment of characteristics underlying successful management performance and leadership behavior has a rich and varied history (Bass, 1990; Bentz, 1963; Laurent, 1961; 1962; 1968; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahonney, 1997; Taylor, 1960). Within this context, the assessment center approach is one of the many procedures that have been developed to satisfy the interests and requirements of business and industry for selecting managers and leaders (Bray, 1982). According to Thornton and Byham(1982), military assessment programs in World War I and World War II (OSS, 1948), early personality research, and leadership/supervision job analysis research all served as the basis for the development of the management assessment center, which was originated in the AT&T management progress study. The original dimensions were selected based on a review of the management literature and the judgments of AT&T personnel staff.An interesting observation that can be made upon reviewing the assessment center literature is the almost controlling influence the original set of dimensions derived from the AT&T research had on the assessment center field; resulting in a curious homogeneity across organizations in the dimension-level taxonomies used to represent job content in different assessment centers (Schippmann, Hughes, & Prien, 1987). The implicit assumption seemed to be that there was a great deal of similarity in management functions across organizations and levels of management. Further, an additional consistency in the assessment center programs, which in part is due to the fact that the taxonomies were homogeneous in the first place, is that the dimension categories are very broad and generic. These dimensions seemed to serve as labels for clusters of "attributes," "characteristics," and "qualities" judged to be critical for job success and resemble what are conventionally called "constructs" (e.g. drive, planning, creativity, and flexibility). In many ways, the dimensional structure of assessment centers, and the resulting operational definitions of the broad, generic individual difference dimensions using behavioral statements, was a portent of things to come in the realm of competency modeling.译文胜任力建模实践资料来源：员工心理学2000,11作者：Schippmann,JefferyS.本文的目的是定义和解释一种趋势。
胜任力 文献综述
文献综述一、前言胜任力的研究和实践起源于美国，在20世纪70年代开始有学者投入到胜任力特征的探究和模型的构建中来。
我国最早在上世纪90年代引入了胜任力模型，后经我国学者研究努力，在对国外已有研究成果的基础上充分结合我国国情，对该理论在人员招聘领域也有了初步的探究，为进一步的发展奠定了研究基础。
二、国外相关研究成果胜任力，在国外常常又被译为competency。
在20世纪70年代以来，国外对于胜任力以及模型建立和应用日臻成熟。
现今大家认可的胜任力定义，最早起源于戴维·麦克利兰（David McClelland）博士（1973）为美国国务院设计的甄选驻外联络官的项目中的应用。
在该项目中他将心理学和管理学相结合，认为绩效优者拥有某些特有的知识与行为使得他获得更高的工作成就，因此将胜任力定义为与工作绩效或生活中其他重要成果直接相似或相联系的知识、技能、特质和动机。
在研究中他发展了确定胜任力的一些关键的方法和和理论，如“行为事件访谈法”（BEI）。
戴维·杜波依斯（David Dubois）（1993）将胜任力定义为是一个人在其工作岗位上获得出色成绩的潜在特征。
提出了绩优者的胜任力特征，主要包括6个方面：目标和行动管理、领导、人力资源管理、指导下级技能、其他、特殊知识。
莱尔·斯宾塞（Lyle Spencer）（1994）和麦克利兰对胜任力做了全面定义。
能够明确卓越绩效者和平庸者可准确测量的个体特征。
他们创建了冰山模型来形象的说明，包括了五个层次：知识、技能、自我概念、特质和动机,。
冰山上的技巧和知识是显性部分，而冰山下的部分为隐性部分。
而对于胜任力模型的建立和应用，最早始于1970年McBer和美国管理协会(AMA)进行了一次胜任力项目研究，该研究旨在比较一般绩效这和绩优者的行为，以此来找出管理者成功的五个重要能力特征：专业知识、心智成熟度、企业家成熟度、人际间成熟度、在职成熟度这五个关键能力特征，只有专业知识是优秀管理者和一般管理者都有的。
外文文献翻译-人力资源管理的新型胜任力
原文：New Competencies for HRWhat does it take to make it big in HR? What skills and expertise do you need？Since 1988, Dave Ulrich, professor of business administration at the University of Michigan，and his associates have been on a quest to provide the answers. This year，they've released an all—new 2007 Human Resource Competency Study (HRCS）。
The findings and interpretations lay out professional guidance for HR for at least the next few years.“People want to know what set of skills high-achieving HR people need to perform even better,” says Ulrich, co—director of the project along with Wayne Brockbank, also a professor of business at the University of Michigan.Conducted under the auspices of the Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan and The RBL Group in Salt Lake City，with regional partners including the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM）in North America and other institutions in Latin America, Europe, China and Australia, HRCS is the longest—running，most extensive global HR competency study in existence。
毕业论文外文翻译-员工激励的“四力模型”
Employee Motivation: A Powerful New ModelBy Nitin Nohria, Boris Groysberg & Linda-Eling Lee 2008-08-01 How to create the best employee performance is manager for a long time of challenge. In recent years, the neural science, biology and evolution of interdisciplinary research areas such as psychology, humans have told us four basic emotional needs, and the force driving or what we all the basis of their behavior. The empirical research shows that, but the employee can create better performance. Therefore, to motivate employees, managers should understand the driving force and can take what measures to meet the driving force.Acquirement: Get people always try to get some things, to increase the scarcity of his happiness. When the force satisfied, we will feel happy. Conversely, it will feel dissatisfied. This force is often the relative (we always compare themselves with others), and it was difficult to satisfy (we always want more).Combination: Many animals are combined with their parents and relatives or close relationship between population, but establish the relationship between human expanded into larger groups, such as organization, community and nation. "Driving", people will generate loving, caring, strong positive emotions, etc. Conversely, it will appear as negative emotional loneliness cynical. In the work environment, when the staff for oneself is a member of the organization are proud of their motivation and will greatly improve, And when they had rebelled against their will and morale.Understand: We are eager to understand about the world around them, and then put forward various theories to explain all things, and put forward the reasonable action and countermeasures. When things seem pointless, we will feel frustrated, While looking for answers to questions, the challenge will let us full of passion. In the working environment, workers work done if challenging, and allows them to grow and learn, they will be incentive, And when they do look no value or no future, will be demoralized.Defense: In the face of threats defense, to protect themselves, to protect our property and achievements, family and friends, thoughts and beliefs, it is natural to us.This force is rooted in the "fight but fled" basic response, this is common, but most animals to humans, it not only the offensive or defensive behavior, but also to build a system to promote seek justice, clear goals and intention, and allow people to speak freely. These forces have been fulfilled, people think and self-confidence otherwise will fear and hate strong negative affection.These four driving are independent of each other, no secondary, also cannot substitute mutually. To fully motivate employees, managers must satisfy all four driving force. In fact, every emotional force can use different organizations leverage to satisfy the most effectively.Reward System: "gain" the most easily through the organization of driving system of rewards. Of course, it also depends on the organization's reward system can effectively define employee performance, will reward with different performance, and give the best chance of promotion of personnel.Culture: If it meet the "combination" force among employees, cultivating strong friendship, the most effective way is to establish a promote teamwork, cooperation, open and friendly culture.Post designing: It is satisfied with “understanding” force that it is the optimal way to design a meaningful and have fun and challenging positions.Performance management and resource allocation process fairness, credible, transparent, performance management and resource allocation process, help satisfy people's "defensive driving".In addition, the direct supervisor for employees and motivational degrees plays an important role as organizational policy. Although do not expect to staff the whole company boss incentive system, culture, post design or management system exerting significant effect, but they clearly superior in their influence within the scope of a certain power. For example, in recognition, managers can select and tasks, the rewards and employee performance.In the organization of managers only under the condition of the utmost efforts to satisfy all four driving force, the employee can most effectively improve the incentive effect on employees, improve the organizational performance.reserved.Talent "flow" and "left"By Peter Cappelli 2003-05-01For other company employees openly, it rarely occur in the past, but now it is already used the enterprise. The rapidly changing demands of the market rapidly changing constantly updated the organization. However, no one is willing to see his talent was away. Once the excellent employees leave, the enterprise will hit. If hope to help enterprises package and career development plan, training programs, like tinkering with the free flow of his talent market today, affirmation in isolation. Now, we have a choice: that is attractive to market-oriented strategy. This strategy, long-term, defies generalizations for employee loyalty is neither possible nor necessary, the enterprise can definitely need to keep employees and leave them what how attractive scheme, will focus on the talent to keep up.Today, many enterprises in staff loyalty are dependent on salary, but many attractive salary is a kind of mechanism. Other personnel loss can be used to reduce the method is: the post to design - the United States through the heavy UPS tedious work load from the driver package for other employee, stripping there was more to keep the driver, To cultivate employees work or specific project team loyalty, Hire skills in talent market demand is not high on the staff, The staff in the work place much temptation job-hopping, And other companies to provide staff into pairs across the company's career path. If there is no way to prevent loss of personnel, the enterprise can also use outsourcing, strengthen job, work will hire employees and standardization, cross training around the short-term organizational work, etc.If the past management methods of retaining staff to maintain a fixed water dam, so the new management methods are more like a flowing rivers, dredge its goal is to prevent water flow, but the flow direction and speed control.reserved.Let who evaluate staffBy Frederick F. Reichheld & Paul Rogers 2005-11-01In the era of wooden, transport and the crew that recruits the appropriate command them to the same direction with traces the OARS will not be easy. In the past, the captain of the common approach is waving the whip crew. Now, in this business, enterprise how to motivate employees when?Recently, in order to solve the problem of all kinds of organization is a constant headache, some companies began to staff’s compensation and team performance hook, let the customer and employee's supervisor to assess performance instead. These examples:In the enterprise, the branch managers, employees want to get promotion, they belong to the service quality team to achieve or exceed the average company, or any single people could not get a promotion. This company USES the performance index called "enterprise rental company service quality index", its meaning for customer service in asking whether satisfaction, what percentage of people playing a full five points.Applebee restaurants have difference to finding the best performance, 20% of the staff is divided into general 60%, performance and 20% of the worst performance, and separately calculated the loss. If managers can successfully hold the top 80% of the employee performance, it can obtain the reward. If the 20% of employees for worst performance, the managers will not be punished accordingly.Copyright © 2005 Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved.员工激励的“四力模型”作者：尼廷・诺里亚，鲍里斯・格鲁斯伯格，琳达－埃琳・李发表于：2008-08-01如何让员工创造出最佳绩效是管理者长久以来面临的严峻挑战。
国内外关于胜任力模型的研究综述
２４８《商场现代化》２００８年１１月（上旬刊）总第５５６期胜任力概念由麦克利兰（１９７３）提出后，胜任力的理论研究和实际应用随即风靡美国、英国等欧美发达国家。
许多著名的公司，如ＡＴ ＆Ｔ、ＩＢＭ等都建立了自己的胜任力体系。
胜任力系统的合理使用，可以降低员工离职率，从而节约经营成本，由于它具有动态性，还可应付组织突如其来的变化，最重要的是，它可以激发员工的潜能、提高绩效、给组织带来最大的价值。
因此，胜任力模型是２１ 世纪一个非常重要的工作发展体系，胜任力模型正迅速地成为本世纪工作发展的标准和业绩管理标准。
一、胜任力及胜任力模型的基本内涵１．胜任力的含义１９７３年，ＭｃＣｌｅｌｌａｎｄ在美国《心理学家》杂志上发表了题为《Ｔｅｓｔｉｎｇ ｆｏｒ Ｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｎｃｅ Ｒａｔｈｅｒ ｔｈａｎ ｆｏｒ Ｉｎｔｅｌｌｉｇｅｎｃｅ》（《测试胜任力而非智力》）的文章，提出用胜任力取代传统的智力测量，强调从第一手材料入手，直接发掘那些能真正影响工作业绩的个人条件和行为特征，为提高组织绩效和促进个人事业成功做出实质性的贡献。
同时。
他还提出进行基于胜任能力的有效测验的六个原则。
这篇文章的发表，提出了胜任能力的概念，标志着胜任能力运动的开端，也为胜任力理论的诞生奠定了基础，随后掀起了人们对胜任力研究的热潮。
Ｚｅｍｋｅ（１９８２）认为：胜任力是个难以下定义的术语，因为这个问题不是来自其他方面，而是来自一些基本程序和哲学的不同。
从ＭｃＣｌｅｌｌａｎｄ最早提出胜任力定义开始，学者们又提出了许多不同的定义，但是至今学术界都没有一个统一的定义。
以下表是对各学者提出的胜任力定义的汇总。
表 胜任力定义汇总汇总上述众多学者对胜任力的定义，可以发现有的偏重特质，有的偏重行为，但这些不同定义都有一定的共同点：与特定工作相关，具有动态性；以绩效标准为参照；包含一些个人的特征，是个人潜在特性或行为，如：知识、技能、自我概念、特质和动机等。
２．胜任力模型的含义胜任力模型指的是担任某一特定任务角色所需要具备的胜任力的总和，它是胜任力的结构形式。
外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 胜任力模型研究
Research on Competency Model:A Literature Review andEmpirical StudiesAbstractWestern countries have applied competency models to addressing problems existed in their administrative and managerial systems since 1970s，and the findings is positine and promising. However, competency model hasn’t been introduced to China until 1990s and it is still unknown and mysterious to many Chinese managers. This paper aims to uncover the mysterious veil of competency model in order to broaden the horizon of Chinese managers and boost China's human resource development as well as management.Keywords:Competency，Competency Models，Empirical Studies of Competency ModelsIt has been more than 30 years since competency model was utilized to human resource management.In western countries，competency model first displayed its effectiveness in government administration, meanwhile many multinationals and their branch companies applied the competency model to their daily business management and their business was a great success. As the notion of competency is gradually come to light and accepted by people all around the world，more and more enterprises have been trying to build their own competency model under the help of professional consultant firms. As a result，competency model has gradually been a very fashionable phrase in the field of management and quite a few enterprises are thus benefited from it. In recent years, competency model has become a hot spot in the Chinese academia as well as big-，middle- and small-sized enterprises alike，many relevant writings and books have also been translated and published. However, competency and competency model are still mysterious to many Chinese scholars, business managers as well as government administrators.Purpose and Significance of the StudyThe purpose of the study aims to make a critical literature review of the competency model，clarify some confusion related to it and explore its application. The following questions are employed to guide this study:What is competency? What is competency model? What are the theoretical and empirical findings related to competency model?The study illustrates how we could take advantage of competency model in our harmonious society building. On one hand，the study will delineate competency and competency model in order to clarify confusions related to it since it is still strange and mysterious to many Chinese managers and administrators;on the other hand，thestudy would enrich Chinese HRD&HRM in the field of government administration and business management both theoretically and empirically.Research MethodThe present study has utilized qualitative analysis, induction and deduction. Since this research is a literature review in some sense, qualitative analysis will be an indispensable research method; Induction and deduction are applied to both theoretical and empirical studies.In order to enhance the credibility of present research，only the authoritative publications on competency model are reviewed，including books and papers written by foreign and Chinese scholars and HRDHRM practitioners. By searching for the keywords "competency" "competency model" and "competency model building" as well as "empirical studies on competency models"，books and papers written by well-known foreign scholars such as McClelland D. C.，Lyle M. Spencer, Anntoinette D. Lucia, Richard Lepsinger etc.，are available; by the same token，books and papers written by Chinese scholars such as Zhi-gong He，Jianfeng Peng, Shaohua Fang, Nengquan Wu，etc.，could be consulted. All the books and papers are published between 1950s and 2007. In addition, many data cited in this paper comes from empirical studies at home and abroad.FindingsIn this part，a literature review of competency is firstly carried out;then competency model as well as its evolution，development and innovation is delineated;finally empirical studies are reviewed. Empirical studies mainly focus on competency model building and its application to human resource development and management.Understanding CompetencyIn 1973，American scholar David C. McClelland published his paper Testing for Competency Rather Than Intelligence which cited a large amount of research findings to illustratethe inappropriateness of assessing personnel qualities by abusing intelligence tests. Dr. McClelland further explained that some factors (personality, intelligence, value，etc.)which people had always taken for granted in determining work performance hadn't displayed their desired result. As a result，he emphasized that people should ignore those theoretical by pothese and subjective judgements which had been proved groundless in reality. He declared that people should tap directly those factors and behaviors which could really impact their performance (McClelland, 1973). These factors and behaviors were named "competency" by McClelland. The publishing of this paper symbolized the debut of competency research. From then on，many scholars started getting involved into the research on competency and they conceptualizedcompetency from different perspectives as shown in the following table: The above ten concepts of competency have a lot in common:①Competency is motive, trait，value，skill，self-image, social role，knowledge;②Competency is a combination;③Competency should be measurable, observable, instructional，phasic and hierarchical;④Competency is a determinant to outstanding performance.Thus competency is an underlying combination of individual characteristics such as motive, inner drive force, quality, attitude，sole role，self-image, knowledge and skill，it is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation and it is measurable，observable and instructional.Besides，many scholars and consultancy firms believe that competency could be explained under the help of three different models:Iceberg Model. This model treats competency as an iceberg, the part above the water represents behavior, knowledge and skills which are easy to measure and observe，while the part under the water symbolizes underlying qualities such as value，attitude，social role, self-image，traits which are hard to assess，and the deepest part under the water represents the most latent qualities such as inner drive force，social motive, etc. which are most difficult to observe and measure.Onion Model. This model treats competency as an onion, the outer layer represents skills and knowledge which are liable to acquire，the inner layer refers to qualities such as self-image，social role，attitude and value which are relatively difficult to appraise, while the core of the onion symbolizes traits and motives which are most difficult to cultivate and develop.Brain Model. This model stems from the brain mechanism. It presupposes that the brain could be divided into four parts. Each part functions differently. The upper-left part is in charge of competency such as analysing capacity, calculation, strong logic ability; the upper-right part is in charge of competency such as innovation and intuition;the bottom left part is in charge of competency such as organizing ability, planning ability; and the bottom-right part is in charge of competency such as communication ability，perception, etc. Different parts will exert corresponding influence on competency development.Conceptualizations of Competency ModelFew foreign scholars have directly put forward conceptualizations of competency model. By contrast，many Chinese scholars have expressed their opinions on it. The present paper only cites those concepts that have been published by authoritative publishing houses.Jianfeng Peng, a professor in Ch;na Renmin University，together with his students, has studied how to build competency models for effective HR management since 2003. He thought competency model was the combination of differentqualities which were necessary for people to successfully finish a job or achieve superior performance，these qualities included different motives，traits, self-images and social roles as well as knowledge and skill (Jianfeng Peng, 2003). Prof. Peng believed that a competency model was composed of 4-6 competencies that were closely related to performance. Competency models could help managers judge and distinguish key factors that led to superior performance or underperformance. As a result，competency model could be treated as a foundation to improve performance.Professor Nengquan Wu from Sun Yat-sen University published his book Competency Model:Design and Application in 2005，according to his understanding, competency model refers to "proficiencies that people define core competencies of different levels, delineate corresponding behaviors，determine key competencies as well as f inish certain work.”(Nengquan Wu，2005). Prof. Wu conceptualized competency model from the perspective of methodology. He believed that competency model was a unique HRM thinking mode, method and operation flow. On the basis of organizational strategy, competency model could be utilized to enhance organizational competitiveness and improve performance.Shaohua Fang, a senior HRM consultant and expert，provided us with the following definition:"Competency model is to conceptualize and describe the necessary knowledge,skills，qualities and abilities which an employee should have in order to finish work (Shaohua Fang, 2007)”.By taking advantage of definitions of different levels and related behavioral descriptions, people could determine the combination of core competencies and required proficiency to finish work. Hc} pointed out these behaviors and skills must be able to measure，observe and instruct and they should exert a great influence upon personal performance and business success.International Human Resource Institute(IHRI) has also defined competency model:"The so-called competency model is the standardized description and explanation of competencies that could actualize superior performance.”(·IHRI, 2005)IHRI declared that a competency model should include 6^-1 2 competencies.In summary, the first concept mentioned above attaches an importance to the composition of competency model and its function, while all of the rest three concepts emphasize cognitive abilities as well as criterion-referred performance. Thus competency, model is a combination of different competencies which could be observed，delineated，explained and calculated on one hand，and could facilitate superior performance on the other hand.Development and Evolution of Competency ModelIn early 1970, top officials in U. S. Department of State believed that theirdiplomats' se- lection based on intelligence test was ineffective. It was an upset situation for them to find that many seemly excellent people fail to live up to their expectations regarding their work performance. Under such circumstances, Dr. McClelland was invited to help Department of State design an effective personnel selection system which could appraise the actual performance of employees. In that program，McClelland and his colleague Charles Dailey adopted the method of Behavioral Event Interview (BEI) to collect information in older to study factors that influenced the diplomats' performance. Through a series of summaries and analyses, McClelland and Dailey found out the differences between an excellent diplomat and a mediocre diplomat as far as their behaviors and modes of thinking were concerned. In this way, competencies that a diplomat should possess were found out. This program is the earliest empirical application of competency model. And the research findings were two papers: Improving Officer Selection for the Foreign Service (McClelland&Dailey，1972) as well as Evaluating New Methods of Measuring the Qualities Needed in Superior Foreign Service Information Officers(McClelland& Dailey，1973).Mcber and American Management Association (A'MA) also started their research on competency model in the same year. They focused on providing the answer to the question:what kind of competencies should be displayed by successful managers rather than unsuccessful ones? AMA spent 5 years observing 1 800 managers. By comparing the performance of excellent managers and mediocre ones, AMA defined their competencies based on their traits. The research results showed that all the successful managers shared the following 5 competencies:professional knowledge，maturity of mentality, maturity of .entrepreneurship，people relations and maturity of the profession. Of which，only professional knowledge were shared by excellent and mediocre managers (Mcber&.AMA, 1970).Then Prof. Bray carried out 8 years research at AT&T based on technique of assessment center. From the aspectives of abilities, attitudes and traits, etc.，he built a competency model composed of 25 competencies such as interpersonal relations, expression ability, social sensitivity, creativity，flexibility，organizational ability，planning ability, decision-making ability, etc(Bray and Grant，1978).In China，however, researches on competency model are relatively much late.Chinese scholars Chongming Wang and Minke Chen published their paper about competency model in Psychological Science in 1992. They studied 220 senior and middle-level managers of 51 enterprises in 5 cities. After examining and testing the competency model for senior managers on the basis of factor analysis and structural equation modelling, they compiled "Key Managerial Behavior Assessment Scale" (Chongming Wang&Minke Chen，2002).Scholars such as Kan Shi, Jicheng Wang and Chaoping Li took advantage of Behaviocal Event Interview to assess the competency model for senior managers in the industry of telecommunication (Kan Shi，Jicheng Wang&Chaoping Li，2002). Jicheng Wang designed 5 universal competency models for technical personnel，sales people, community service personnel，managers as well as entrepreneurs respectively.Jianfeng Peng and his postgraduate student Xiaojuan Xing built 4 universal competency models for business managers，business technical personnel，marketing personnel as well as HR managers (Jianfeng Peng，2003 ).The above domestic studies illustrate that competency models for middle-level and senior managers have been built based on in-depth interview and questionnairing. Most publications only focus on conceptualizing competency model，its development，behavioral event interview as well as competency model building，most of the findings are theoretical rather than empirical. By contrast，foreign studies are much maturer both theoretically and empirically.Empirical StudiesEmpirical studies highlight the application of competency model to enterprises, governments and other institutions.Nowadays，empirical studies on competency models mainly focus on the following 4 aspects:Staffing and Selection. Besides job standards and skills prescription, more and more businesses have carried out their personnel staffing and selection in light of the candidates' competencies which are crucial to their future performance. This competency-based personnel staffing and selection has connected business strategies and targets to business employees themselves. As a result，the quality of staffing and selection is greatly improved.Performance Management. Businesses which have built their competency models are more interested in the competency rather than the result itself in their performance management. As a result, their performance management style has been competency-driven rather than result-driven. Managers haven’t attached an importance to short-term performance, but current and long-term performances. In such a managerial system，outstanding performance has been easily actualized. Each employee has made most of their core competencies and expertise to make a contribution to their business.Compensation Management.After the competency-based compensation management system is set up, businesses have concentrated on their employees’future development and potential value, which has stimulated employees and managers of all ranks to improve themselves both menetuacy and teconologcal. Competency oases compense lion management system has helped enterprises attract and retain moretalents. In a word，competency model has endowed employees with a sense of respect and creativity.Training and Development. Enterprises which have built their competency models tend to determine core competencies in light of business strategies，environments, employee development planning and performance appraisal. Enterprises decide their training and development priorities on the basis of competency model.Future TrendsDespite that there is a growing body of literature on competency model，research on competency model is still in a premature stage and many questions still remain unanswered. Therefore, further research is required to address several important issues.First of all，although there are growing studies on the impacts of the competency model on organizational outcomes，antecedents of competency model need to be identified and academically explored. Future studies are needed to examine the relationships between the features of competency model and its key antecedent variables such as organizational sttracture.leadership and external environment. For example，it can be reasoned that the features of competency model are likely to be positively correlated with the structures of enterprises, governments as well as other institutions. Secondly，the impact of competency model on performance needs to be thoroughly explored. More studies are needed to examine whether the features of competency model or organizational culture，has direct or indirect impacts on organizational performance. While quite a few HRD and HRM researchers and practitioners have demonstrated that the concept of competency model has a positive impact on organizational performance, however，such impact may be mediated by other important organizational variables. Finally, it is also important to consider the relationships of competency model and other important HR variables such as career development, managerial coaching as well as employee training.Conclusions and DiscussionsIn conclusion，competency model has increasingly exerted profound influence on human resource development and management. While this concept has received an increase in both academic and management fields，there are increasing empirical studies designed to examine the nature of the construct and its relationships with other important organizational variables. More studies are needed to enhance the theoretical and empirical foundations of competency model.胜任力模型研究：文献综述和实证研究摘要20世纪70年代以来，西方国家已经利用胜任力模型来解决存在于行政和管理系统中的问题，其结果是积极且有前途的。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Research on Competency Model:A Literature Review andEmpirical StudiesAbstractWestern countries have applied competency models to addressing problems existed in their administrative and managerial systems since 1970s，and the findings is positine and promising. However, competency model hasn’t been introduced to China until 1990s and it is still unknown and mysterious to many Chinese managers. This paper aims to uncover the mysterious veil of competency model in order to broaden the horizon of Chinese managers and boost China's human resource development as well as management.Keywords:Competency，Competency Models，Empirical Studies of Competency ModelsIt has been more than 30 years since competency model was utilized to human resource management.In western countries，competency model first displayed its effectiveness in government administration, meanwhile many multinationals and their branch companies applied the competency model to their daily business management and their business was a great success. As the notion of competency is gradually come to light and accepted by people all around the world，more and more enterprises have been trying to build their own competency model under the help of professional consultant firms. As a result，competency model has gradually been a very fashionable phrase in the field of management and quite a few enterprises are thus benefited from it. In recent years, competency model has become a hot spot in the Chinese academia as well as big-，middle- and small-sized enterprises alike，many relevant writings and books have also been translated and published. However, competency and competency model are still mysterious to many Chinese scholars, business managers as well as government administrators.Purpose and Significance of the StudyThe purpose of the study aims to make a critical literature review of the competency model，clarify some confusion related to it and explore its application. The following questions are employed to guide this study:What is competency? What is competency model? What are the theoretical and empirical findings related to competency model?The study illustrates how we could take advantage of competency model in our harmonious society building. On one hand，the study will delineate competency and competency model in order to clarify confusions related to it since it is still strange and mysterious to many Chinese managers and administrators;on the other hand，thestudy would enrich Chinese HRD&HRM in the field of government administration and business management both theoretically and empirically.Research MethodThe present study has utilized qualitative analysis, induction and deduction. Since this research is a literature review in some sense, qualitative analysis will be an indispensable research method; Induction and deduction are applied to both theoretical and empirical studies.In order to enhance the credibility of present research，only the authoritative publications on competency model are reviewed，including books and papers written by foreign and Chinese scholars and HRDHRM practitioners. By searching for the keywords "competency" "competency model" and "competency model building" as well as "empirical studies on competency models"，books and papers written by well-known foreign scholars such as McClelland D. C.，Lyle M. Spencer, Anntoinette D. Lucia, Richard Lepsinger etc.，are available; by the same token，books and papers written by Chinese scholars such as Zhi-gong He，Jianfeng Peng, Shaohua Fang, Nengquan Wu，etc.，could be consulted. All the books and papers are published between 1950s and 2007. In addition, many data cited in this paper comes from empirical studies at home and abroad.FindingsIn this part，a literature review of competency is firstly carried out;then competency model as well as its evolution，development and innovation is delineated;finally empirical studies are reviewed. Empirical studies mainly focus on competency model building and its application to human resource development and management.Understanding CompetencyIn 1973，American scholar David C. McClelland published his paper Testing for Competency Rather Than Intelligence which cited a large amount of research findings to illustratethe inappropriateness of assessing personnel qualities by abusing intelligence tests. Dr. McClelland further explained that some factors (personality, intelligence, value，etc.)which people had always taken for granted in determining work performance hadn't displayed their desired result. As a result，he emphasized that people should ignore those theoretical by pothese and subjective judgements which had been proved groundless in reality. He declared that people should tap directly those factors and behaviors which could really impact their performance (McClelland, 1973). These factors and behaviors were named "competency" by McClelland. The publishing of this paper symbolized the debut of competency research. From then on，many scholars started getting involved into the research on competency and they conceptualizedcompetency from different perspectives as shown in the following table: The above ten concepts of competency have a lot in common:①Competency is motive, trait，value，skill，self-image, social role，knowledge;②Competency is a combination;③Competency should be measurable, observable, instructional，phasic and hierarchical;④Competency is a determinant to outstanding performance.Thus competency is an underlying combination of individual characteristics such as motive, inner drive force, quality, attitude，sole role，self-image, knowledge and skill，it is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation and it is measurable，observable and instructional.Besides，many scholars and consultancy firms believe that competency could be explained under the help of three different models:Iceberg Model. This model treats competency as an iceberg, the part above the water represents behavior, knowledge and skills which are easy to measure and observe，while the part under the water symbolizes underlying qualities such as value，attitude，social role, self-image，traits which are hard to assess，and the deepest part under the water represents the most latent qualities such as inner drive force，social motive, etc. which are most difficult to observe and measure.Onion Model. This model treats competency as an onion, the outer layer represents skills and knowledge which are liable to acquire，the inner layer refers to qualities such as self-image，social role，attitude and value which are relatively difficult to appraise, while the core of the onion symbolizes traits and motives which are most difficult to cultivate and develop.Brain Model. This model stems from the brain mechanism. It presupposes that the brain could be divided into four parts. Each part functions differently. The upper-left part is in charge of competency such as analysing capacity, calculation, strong logic ability; the upper-right part is in charge of competency such as innovation and intuition;the bottom left part is in charge of competency such as organizing ability, planning ability; and the bottom-right part is in charge of competency such as communication ability，perception, etc. Different parts will exert corresponding influence on competency development.Conceptualizations of Competency ModelFew foreign scholars have directly put forward conceptualizations of competency model. By contrast，many Chinese scholars have expressed their opinions on it. The present paper only cites those concepts that have been published by authoritative publishing houses.Jianfeng Peng, a professor in Ch;na Renmin University，together with his students, has studied how to build competency models for effective HR management since 2003. He thought competency model was the combination of differentqualities which were necessary for people to successfully finish a job or achieve superior performance，these qualities included different motives，traits, self-images and social roles as well as knowledge and skill (Jianfeng Peng, 2003). Prof. Peng believed that a competency model was composed of 4-6 competencies that were closely related to performance. Competency models could help managers judge and distinguish key factors that led to superior performance or underperformance. As a result，competency model could be treated as a foundation to improve performance.Professor Nengquan Wu from Sun Yat-sen University published his book Competency Model:Design and Application in 2005，according to his understanding, competency model refers to "proficiencies that people define core competencies of different levels, delineate corresponding behaviors，determine key competencies as well as f inish certain work.”(Nengquan Wu，2005). Prof. Wu conceptualized competency model from the perspective of methodology. He believed that competency model was a unique HRM thinking mode, method and operation flow. On the basis of organizational strategy, competency model could be utilized to enhance organizational competitiveness and improve performance.Shaohua Fang, a senior HRM consultant and expert，provided us with the following definition:"Competency model is to conceptualize and describe the necessary knowledge,skills，qualities and abilities which an employee should have in order to finish work (Shaohua Fang, 2007)”.By taking advantage of definitions of different levels and related behavioral descriptions, people could determine the combination of core competencies and required proficiency to finish work. Hc} pointed out these behaviors and skills must be able to measure，observe and instruct and they should exert a great influence upon personal performance and business success.International Human Resource Institute(IHRI) has also defined competency model:"The so-called competency model is the standardized description and explanation of competencies that could actualize superior performance.”(·IHRI, 2005)IHRI declared that a competency model should include 6^-1 2 competencies.In summary, the first concept mentioned above attaches an importance to the composition of competency model and its function, while all of the rest three concepts emphasize cognitive abilities as well as criterion-referred performance. Thus competency, model is a combination of different competencies which could be observed，delineated，explained and calculated on one hand，and could facilitate superior performance on the other hand.Development and Evolution of Competency ModelIn early 1970, top officials in U. S. Department of State believed that theirdiplomats' se- lection based on intelligence test was ineffective. It was an upset situation for them to find that many seemly excellent people fail to live up to their expectations regarding their work performance. Under such circumstances, Dr. McClelland was invited to help Department of State design an effective personnel selection system which could appraise the actual performance of employees. In that program，McClelland and his colleague Charles Dailey adopted the method of Behavioral Event Interview (BEI) to collect information in older to study factors that influenced the diplomats' performance. Through a series of summaries and analyses, McClelland and Dailey found out the differences between an excellent diplomat and a mediocre diplomat as far as their behaviors and modes of thinking were concerned. In this way, competencies that a diplomat should possess were found out. This program is the earliest empirical application of competency model. And the research findings were two papers: Improving Officer Selection for the Foreign Service (McClelland&Dailey，1972) as well as Evaluating New Methods of Measuring the Qualities Needed in Superior Foreign Service Information Officers(McClelland& Dailey，1973).Mcber and American Management Association (A'MA) also started their research on competency model in the same year. They focused on providing the answer to the question:what kind of competencies should be displayed by successful managers rather than unsuccessful ones? AMA spent 5 years observing 1 800 managers. By comparing the performance of excellent managers and mediocre ones, AMA defined their competencies based on their traits. The research results showed that all the successful managers shared the following 5 competencies:professional knowledge，maturity of mentality, maturity of .entrepreneurship，people relations and maturity of the profession. Of which，only professional knowledge were shared by excellent and mediocre managers (Mcber&.AMA, 1970).Then Prof. Bray carried out 8 years research at AT&T based on technique of assessment center. From the aspectives of abilities, attitudes and traits, etc.，he built a competency model composed of 25 competencies such as interpersonal relations, expression ability, social sensitivity, creativity，flexibility，organizational ability，planning ability, decision-making ability, etc(Bray and Grant，1978).In China，however, researches on competency model are relatively much late.Chinese scholars Chongming Wang and Minke Chen published their paper about competency model in Psychological Science in 1992. They studied 220 senior and middle-level managers of 51 enterprises in 5 cities. After examining and testing the competency model for senior managers on the basis of factor analysis and structural equation modelling, they compiled "Key Managerial Behavior Assessment Scale" (Chongming Wang&Minke Chen，2002).Scholars such as Kan Shi, Jicheng Wang and Chaoping Li took advantage of Behaviocal Event Interview to assess the competency model for senior managers in the industry of telecommunication (Kan Shi，Jicheng Wang&Chaoping Li，2002). Jicheng Wang designed 5 universal competency models for technical personnel，sales people, community service personnel，managers as well as entrepreneurs respectively.Jianfeng Peng and his postgraduate student Xiaojuan Xing built 4 universal competency models for business managers，business technical personnel，marketing personnel as well as HR managers (Jianfeng Peng，2003 ).The above domestic studies illustrate that competency models for middle-level and senior managers have been built based on in-depth interview and questionnairing. Most publications only focus on conceptualizing competency model，its development，behavioral event interview as well as competency model building，most of the findings are theoretical rather than empirical. By contrast，foreign studies are much maturer both theoretically and empirically.Empirical StudiesEmpirical studies highlight the application of competency model to enterprises, governments and other institutions.Nowadays，empirical studies on competency models mainly focus on the following 4 aspects:Staffing and Selection. Besides job standards and skills prescription, more and more businesses have carried out their personnel staffing and selection in light of the candidates' competencies which are crucial to their future performance. This competency-based personnel staffing and selection has connected business strategies and targets to business employees themselves. As a result，the quality of staffing and selection is greatly improved.Performance Management. Businesses which have built their competency models are more interested in the competency rather than the result itself in their performance management. As a result, their performance management style has been competency-driven rather than result-driven. Managers haven’t attached an importance to short-term performance, but current and long-term performances. In such a managerial system，outstanding performance has been easily actualized. Each employee has made most of their core competencies and expertise to make a contribution to their business.Compensation Management.After the competency-based compensation management system is set up, businesses have concentrated on their employees’future development and potential value, which has stimulated employees and managers of all ranks to improve themselves both menetuacy and teconologcal. Competency oases compense lion management system has helped enterprises attract and retain moretalents. In a word，competency model has endowed employees with a sense of respect and creativity.Training and Development. Enterprises which have built their competency models tend to determine core competencies in light of business strategies，environments, employee development planning and performance appraisal. Enterprises decide their training and development priorities on the basis of competency model.Future TrendsDespite that there is a growing body of literature on competency model，research on competency model is still in a premature stage and many questions still remain unanswered. Therefore, further research is required to address several important issues.First of all，although there are growing studies on the impacts of the competency model on organizational outcomes，antecedents of competency model need to be identified and academically explored. Future studies are needed to examine the relationships between the features of competency model and its key antecedent variables such as organizational sttracture.leadership and external environment. For example，it can be reasoned that the features of competency model are likely to be positively correlated with the structures of enterprises, governments as well as other institutions. Secondly，the impact of competency model on performance needs to be thoroughly explored. More studies are needed to examine whether the features of competency model or organizational culture，has direct or indirect impacts on organizational performance. While quite a few HRD and HRM researchers and practitioners have demonstrated that the concept of competency model has a positive impact on organizational performance, however，such impact may be mediated by other important organizational variables. Finally, it is also important to consider the relationships of competency model and other important HR variables such as career development, managerial coaching as well as employee training.Conclusions and DiscussionsIn conclusion，competency model has increasingly exerted profound influence on human resource development and management. While this concept has received an increase in both academic and management fields，there are increasing empirical studies designed to examine the nature of the construct and its relationships with other important organizational variables. More studies are needed to enhance the theoretical and empirical foundations of competency model.胜任力模型研究：文献综述和实证研究摘要20世纪70年代以来，西方国家已经利用胜任力模型来解决存在于行政和管理系统中的问题，其结果是积极且有前途的。