英语语言学基础全面版本 专八人文知识必备
语音学分类
articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speaker’s production acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s medium auditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s reception
3. Design feature 定义特征
1)Arbitrariness（任意性） 2)Duality(二层性) 3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性) 4)Displacement（移位性） 5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性)
如何记忆: 五性，创意遗传
1) Descriptive （描述性） vs. Prescriptive （规定性） Descriptive: describing how things are. prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to be
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
举例：
汉语系统
langue
每个中国人在不同具体场景
中说出的具体话语 parole
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
4) Competence（语言能力） and performance （语言运用） theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基) competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system. performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.
举例： 书, book, livre 喜欢，like，aimer
2）Duality（二层性）: 定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.
1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)
defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication
1. design feature of language 语言定义特征
4. Important Distinctions in Linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 1) descriptive & prescriptive 2) synchronic & diachronic 3) langue & parole 4) competence & performance
Speech organs
Position of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)
Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction 清音举例：[p,s,t] Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates 浊音: [b,z,d]
5） Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）: 定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. 反例：印度狼孩
Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received. Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的 语音）
语言学知识点
I
语言学导论 II 语言学主要分支学科 III 语言学的流派和理论
I 语言学导论
1. design feature of language （语言的定义特征） 2. Language Families (世界语言分类) 3. important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 4. scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围)
举例： Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses
3） Creativity/Productivity（创造性）: 定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality
举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park 举例2：England, defeated, France England defeated France. France defeated England.
4）Displacement（替代性）: 定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.
Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones 举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 所以too 和 tea 中的 /t/两个不同的音子
Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. 举例： tea 和 sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位 morpheme
举例： Don't say X. People don't say X. The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.
2). Synchronic（共时性） vs. Diachronic （历 时性） synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.
3). langue（语言） & parole （言语） Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguistics langue: abstract linguistic system parole: actual realization of langue
音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 音系学重要概念: phone音子， phoneme音位 (音系研究的基本单位) supra-segmental features超音段特征
英语专八人文-最全语言学知识点
语言学* 现代语言学理论和学派1. Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913 瑞士)：Father of modern linguistics 现代结构主义语言学创始人Course in General Linguistics《普通语言学教程》：由其学生- C. Bally & A. Sechehaye整理，现代语言学开端，19163 lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology 符号任意性理论；语言单位间的关系；语言和言语区分；共时和历时区分。
语言是符号系统。
符号是形式和意义的联合，即能指signifier和所指signified。
2. The Prague School布拉格学派：synchronic linguistics; Function1) 对语言的共时研究由于可得到全面可控的语言材料以供参考而被充分强调，同时，也没有严格理论；界限被竖立起来将之与历时语言研究相分离。
2) 强调语言的系统性这一本质属性。
3) 在某种意义上，把语言看作是一种功能，是一种有某一语言社团使用的，用来完成一系列基本职责和任务的工具。
~ Phonology and Phonological Oppositions(音位对位):Trubetzkoy–Phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. – phoneme~ Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP 句子功能前景)：语言学分析理论用信息论原理来分析话语或篇章。
其基本原则就是一句话中各部分的作用取决于它对全局意义的贡献。
捷克语言学家- The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer, which is their rallying point, the Theme.The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer and is called the Rheme.3.The London School伦敦学派–systemic linguistics and functional linguistics Sociological approach1) J.R. Firth(1890-1960 英国)：伦敦学派创始人; 学生-Malinowski & Halliday语言学的研究对象是实际使用中的语言。
英语专八考试必背人文知识
英语专八考试必背人文知识英语专业八级考试自1991年设立以来.一直作为衡量英语专业学生英语水平和专业知识的工具。
根据2004年最新修订的《高校英语专业四、八级考试大纲》(以下简称《考试大纲》)，从2005年起，英语专业八级考试内容、范围和题型都发生了一定的变化。
其中最突出的是增加了“人文知识”这一题型，代替了原来的快速阅读。
英语专八考试必背人文知识1. Syntax: The study of the rules whereby words or otherelements of sentence structure are combined to formgrammatical sentences. 句法，研究词或其它句子成分如何联合起来形成合乎语法的句子规则的学科2. acronym : 首字母组合词，首字母缩略词，比如，NATO, UNESCO, BASIC,它们可以连拼，但VOA是 Initialism。
3. A Tale of Two Cities was written by Charles Dickens.4. Semantics: The study or science of meaning in language forms.语义学，以语言形式表示意思的研究或科学5. Phonology: The study of speech sounds in language or alanguage with reference to their distribution and patterning andto tacit rules governing pronunciation. 音位学; 在语言或一门语言中，对有关其分类和模式以及为大家所默认的发音规则的研究音韵学, 音系学6. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another withwhich it is closely associated, as in the use of Washington for the United States government or ofthe sword for military power. 换喻或转喻，一种,一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法，如用华盛顿代替美==或用剑代替军事力量，对面来了三个“红领巾”也是，以红领巾指代少先队员。
专八人文知识讲义完整版
人文知识讲义2004年2月全国英语考试专业教学指导委员会修订专八考试大纲，2005年正式实施，开始新增人文知识的内容。
主要包括：英语国家概括、英语语言文学知识、和英语语言学知识。
测试要求：1 英语国家地理、历史、文化、教育等等。
4题。
主要考察英国、美国必有（地理、历史、文化和政治），加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰概括，爱尔兰没有出现，2 英语文学知识。
3题。
文学部分英美文学作家作品，流派、文学贡献也会出现，及格律3 英语语言学知识。
3题。
语言学基本概念，及其代表理论、代表著作注意：人文一般不会考很偏的知识第一章英语国家概况第一节美国地理：东南西北地理位置、人口3亿（人口最多的是加州、德州、纽约州、佛罗里达州等，主要为印第安人，首先移民到此是英国人和荷兰人）、星条旗为国旗（13和50）、国徽白头鹰、国歌《星条旗永不落》（1931年通过）、首都华盛顿哥伦比亚特区，属于中央政府管理。
50州，最大阿拉斯加，最小罗得岛州，美国本土最大德克萨斯州。
美国又称为Uncle Sam（1961年美国国会正式承认），国花为玫瑰Rose。
美国本土共分为6大地区：New England：6州，最重要为马萨诸塞州（波士顿）、罗德岛州（普罗维登斯）和新罕布什尔（康科德）。
总统大选初选开始于新罕布什尔。
1 美国诞生地和独立战争的主要战场。
2 波士顿美国最古老的城市，有麻省理工学院和哈佛。
波士顿的龙虾很有名3 新英格兰人又称为yankees.the Middle Atlantic States: 7州、最重要的为纽约州、宾州、新泽西州和马里兰州。
1 白宫和国会山在华盛顿特区。
2 纽约是美国最大的城市，联合国大厦等等著名建筑在此。
共有5个区：分别是曼哈顿、皇后、布鲁克林、布朗克斯和斯塔滕岛。
有帝国大厦和自由女神像。
哥伦比亚大学和康奈尔大学。
纽约称为big apple。
3 尼亚加拉大瀑布在纽约州的水牛城。
4 葛底斯堡位于宾州，林肯曾在此发表过演讲。
英语专八人文知识之语言学(详细简化版)
专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。
英语专业八级考试人文知识点
英语专业八级考试人文知识点(1)__1__ Who was the first to apply the telescope to the study of the skies?A KeplerB CopernicusC GalileoD Newton__2__ Whose discovery of the law of the universal gravitation is the most important of all his achievement in ph ysics?A KeplerB Issac NewtonC GalileoD Copernicus__3__The three biggest newspapers are of the following except ___.A New York TimesB Washington PostC Los Angeles TimesD Reader’s Digest__4__Metropolitan Museum is in__.A Washington D.C.B BostonC New YorkD Philadelphia__5__The New Frontier was put forward by __.A KennedyB JohnsonC NixonD Benjamin Franklin__6__Who resigned because of Watergate Scandal, the first president to do so in American history?A KennedyB JohnsonC Richard NixonD Truman__7__Empire State Building is in___.A ChicagoB New YorkC Washington D.C.D Detroit__8__ “Knowledge is power.” Was said by__.A Francis BaconB ShakespeareC Thomas HobbesD John Locke__9__Which of the following philosophers believed that man is selfish by nature?A John LockeB DescartesC Pierre GassendiD Thomas Hobbes__10__Jazz, a great contribution to the world popular music, was originated from the music of __.A IndiansB SpanishC NegroesD Portuguese答案解析：1选C。
英语专业八级 - - 人文及语言学知识归纳
英语专业八级 - - 人文及语言学知识归纳人文一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language 任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能 informative 人际功能interpersonal 施为功能 performative 感情功能 emotive function 寒暄功能 phatic communication 娱乐功能 recreational function 元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义 4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics 5 语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位 phoneme 3 音位变体 allophones4 互补分布 complementary distribution5 自由变体 free variation6 区别特征 distinctive features7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation 四形态学 1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix2 特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor―edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing 五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment 2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)3 直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis 指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4 向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man 离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
英语专八人文常识 语言学
词义演变（Semantic Change）
1. widening of meaning/generalization（词义扩大） 2. narrowing of meaning/specialization（词义缩小） 3. meaning shift（词义转移）：
degradation（词义降格）
creativity（多产性）
displacement（移位性） interchangibility（可交替性）
cultural transmission（文化传输性）
2. prescriptive and descriptive（规定性和描述性研究） synchronic and diachronic（共时与历时研究） 3. competence and performance（语言能力与应用） 4. langue and parole （语言与言语）
语义学（Semantics）
2. semantic triangle（语义三角）
3. synonymy（同义关系） 4. antonymy（反义关系） 5. hyponymy（上下义关系） 6. polysemy（一词多义） 7. homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）
1. Leech’s seven types of meaning（利奇的七种意义）
1. Context（语境） 2. Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论）： a) John Austin: Locutionary act（言内行为） Illocutionary act（言外行为） Perlocutionary act（言后行为） indirect speech act b) John Searle: representatives（阐述类） directives（指令类） commissives （承诺类） expressives（表达类） declarations（宣一、对知名的语言学家及其基本理论的重点考查
专八国家人文知识+语言学知识点总汇
1789, the Federal Government, George Washington as the first president.
4. The South
1)Virginia
2)West Virginia
3)North Carolina
4)South Carolina
5)Georgia
6)Florida
7)Alabama
8)Mississippi
9)Kentucky
10)Tennessee
11)Arkansas
12)Texas
TheOhio River, called the American Ruhr;
The Colorado River and theColumbia Riveron the Pacific side
3. Lakes
The Great Lakes, located betweenCanadaand the U.S.A;
EmpireStatebuilding;
Statue ofLiberty
Wall Street
The Headquarter of the United Nations.
3.Los Angeles
The second largest city in theU.S.A.
Universal StudiosHollywood
山川、河流、湖泊
1. Mountains
The Appalachian阿巴拉契亚Mountains;
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位，是单选题目的重要组成部分，掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分：语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分，这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进，考生逐一理解掌握，才能打牢语言学基础知识，下面我们开始吧！第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal：establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
英语专业八级人文知识（总结）
英语专业⼋级⼈⽂知识（总结）⼈⽂知识英语国家社会与⽂化考题回顾：1999 年:1. The Observer2. The geographical location of North America3. The old universities in U.K.4. Westminster Palace2000年:1.The titles of English nobility2.The features of Irish landscape3.The longest river in Britain4.The legislative branch in U.K.5.The Hundred Years’ War2001年:1.The founding of Harvard2.The settlement of Anglo-Saxons3.The official name of U.K.4.The economic activity of Canada2002年:1.Wall Street—the financial center2.Big Ben, Benjamin Hall3.The compulsory education in U.K.4.Three branches of U.S.A. government2003年:1.The location of California2.British news agency3.The founding fathers of U.S.A.4.The geography of Canada2004年:1.1920s in U.S.A.2.The largest river in U.S.A.3.The discovery of the New World4.The first settlement in America2005年:1.The capital city of Canada2.How long the U.S. President serves3.The important cities in U.S.A.4.The state church in England2006年:1.The President in the Civil War2. The capital city of New Zealand3. The natives of Australia4. The Prime Minister in Britain is head of the Cabinet2007年:1. The origin of the current British population2. The Head of State of Canada is represented by the Governor-general3. The author of the Declaration of Independence4. The original inhabitants of Australia2008年:1.The largest city in Canada.2.The legislative branch of the U.S. government3.The oldest sport in U.S.A.4.The head of the executive branch in New Zealand2009年:1.The Head of State of New Zealand2.The capital of Scotland3.The author of the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. president4.The cities located on the eastern coast of Australia.2010年1. The British Constitution2. The first city in Canada3. The founding of Australian Federation4. The Emancipation ProclamationThe United Kingdom地理、⼈⼝及基本事实:1. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Geographical Names: British Isles, Great Britain and England2. Geographical position: the English Channel3. Four political divisions: England (London), Scotland (Edinburgh), Wales (Cardiff), Northern Ireland (Belfast)4. The Commonwealth: a free association of independent countries, from 1931 to 1991, 50 member nations4. Rivers and Lakes: the longest—the Severn; Thames—the second longest and the most important; River Clyde—the most important in Scotland; Lough Neagh—the largest lake5. Mountains: Ben Nevis (the highest); Scafell (the highest in England); Snowdonia (the highest in Wales)6. The People: English (Anglo-Saxons); (the Celts) Welsh; Scottish; Irish.7. Eisteddfodau—the annual festival for Welsh poetry, music, singing and art历史备考点:The Origins of a Nation1. The first known settlers—Iberians2. The Celts (700 B.C.): three waves—Gaels; Brythons; Belgae3. Romans:Julius Caesar; Claudius (43AD, successful invasion); Christianity4. The Anglo-Saxons: Three Germanic tribes (Jutes, Anglos, Saxons)The foundation of the English state—shires; narrow-strip, three-field farming system; the manorial system; the Witan (贤⼈会议)5. The Viking and Danes:Alfred the Great—“the father of the British navy”; translate into English Ecclesiastical History of the English People (英国⼈民教会史)；established schools; formulate a legal system6. The Norman Conquest: 1066, the best-known event in English history, William the Conqueror; the establishment of the feudal system; the introduction of Norman French culture, language, manners and architecture; closer connection with RomeThe Shaping of the Nation1. The Great Charter: 1215, King John, 63 clauses. The statement of the relationship between the Crown and the baron; a guarantee of the freedom of the Church; a limitation of the power of the king (the spirit of the Great Charter or Magna Carta)2. All Estates Parliament—Simon de Montfort, 1265, the Great Council, the House of Lords, the House of Commons, the beginning of Parliament3. Black Death: the deadly epidemic disease; the 14th century; reduced the population from 4 million to 2 million;4. The Hundred Years’ War (1337—1453): blessing for both countries,4. The Peasant Uprising: 1381, Wat Tyler (killed) and Jack Straw; a telling blow to villeinage.Transition to the Modern Age1. The Wars of Roses (1455-1485): the battles between Lancaster (red rose) and York (white rose); Henry Tudor (the descendant of Duke of Lancaster) won, thus the rule of Tudors; the death blow to feudalism.2. The English Reformation: (1529-1534) Henry VIII, began with a struggle for divorce (Catherine of Aragon) and ended in the freedom from the Papacy; an independent Church of England; the king—the Supreme Head of the Church of England.3. Bloody Mary: 300 Protestants; the French port of Calais4. Elizabeth I: the defeat of Armada (the Spanish fleet)5. The English Renaissance: (rebirth) largely artistic; Elizabethan Drama (Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson and William Shakespeare)6. The Divine Rights of Kings: Charles I7. The Civil Wars (1642-1651): between the Cavaliers (the king’s men) and Roundheads (the Parliamentary supporters); Oliver Cromwell (New Model Army) (Lord Protector); the Puritan Revolution; overthrew the feudal system; the beginning ofthe modern history8. The Restoration; the return of Charles II from his exile in France;9. The Glorious Revolution: 1688, the smooth takeover of English throne by William ofOrange, replacing James II (a Catholic king, the brother of Charles II), with no bloodshed, nor execution of the king.10. The Gunpowder Plot of 1605: Guy Fawkes (Catholic) planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellar of the Parliament; the execution of Fawkes; a national annual celebration (bonfire and firework display)The British Empire1. Whigs and Tories (the forerunner of the Conservative Party)2. The Enclosure Movement:3. The Industrial Revolution: the mechanization of industry; the late 18th and early 19th century; after the revolution, by 1830,“the workshop of the world”; the industrial working class—the proletariat4. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)—“the first broad, really mass, political formed, proletarian revolutionary movement”(Lenin)5. The Labor Party—the Independent Labor Party(the origin); then the Labor Representation Committee; the Labor Party (1906).6. The first colony—Newfoundland, 15837. The East Indian Company: 1600, the economic penetration; 1858, ruled by the British crown; 1877, Queen Victoria, Empress of India.8. The Opium War: 18409. WWI: the Central Power (Germany and Austria-Hungary); the “Allies”(Britain, France and Russia); The Treaty of Versailles (1919); the League of Nations10. The Roaring Twenties: women with cropped hair and short dresses; two imports from America: jazz, silent films11. The Swinging Sixties—the permissive age; pop music (the Beatles turned their hometown of Liverpool into a place of pilgrimage)12. 1973: a full member of the European Economic Committee13. Thatcherism: the policies put forward by Margaret Thatcher (the iron lady), the return to private ownership of the state-owned industries, the strengthening of the role of market forces, and an emphasis on law and order.14. The Statute of Westminster (1931)政治1. The Constitutional Monarchy2. The monarch: the symbol of the whole nation, the head of the executive, head of judiciary, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and the “supreme governor” of the Church of England.3. The components of the English Parliament: the Sovereign, the House of Lords (the oldest part of the Parliament) and the House of Commons (the real center of power in the Parliament) (651 members of Parliament); the maximum duration—five years4. The British Constitution: unwritten, including statute law, common law and conventions.5. Prime Minister—the leader of the majority party; the Cabinet—the core of leadership6. The Official Opposition—the party which wins the second largest number of seats, the“shadow cabinet”7. Downing Street No. 10—the official residence of the Prime Minister8. The Speaker—presiding over the House and enforcing the rules of order教育,社会,⽂化传统1. NHS—the National Health Service, a full range of medical services, the largest single employer of labor in U.K.2. Established religion: the Church of England (the Sovereign as the “Defender of Faith”) (changes only with the consent of the Parliament); the Presbyterian in Scotland3. Football: soccer, 19th century4. Rugby—invented at Rugby school in Warwich shire in the 19th century5. Cricket—the most typical English sport6. The home of golf is Scotland7. Magazines and newspapers: the Spectator; the Times; the Economist8. The most famous music and art festival in Britain9. Easter: the resurrection of Christ, the first Sunday after the first full moon after the spring equinox10. Hogmanay—Scottish New Year’s Eve11. Boxing Day: December 26th, the gift to give “Christmas boxes”, or gifts of money, to servants or tradesmanIreland1.The Emerald Isle: rich green countryside2.The largest river—the Shannon River3.Two official languages: Irish, English4.National Day: March 17th, St. Patrick’s Day (the arrival of St. Patrick—the mostimportant event in Irish history)5.Parliament: the House of Representatives (Dail Eireann); the Senate (Seanad)6.The two political parties: Fianna Fail; Fine Gael7.The oldest university in Ireland: the University of Dublin8.Roman Catholics: 93% of the Irish population9.Ulysses: James Joyce’s masterpieceThe United States of America:地理, ⼈⼝及基本事实1.The Rocky Mountains—the backbone the continent2.The Mississippi—the world’s third longest continental river, “Father of Waters”,“Old Man River”.3.The Five Great Lakes: Huron; Ontario; Michigan; Erie; Superior4.The Niagara Falls—between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie5.Yellowstone National Park—the oldest national park in the world and the largestwildlife preserve in the U.S.A.6.The Statute of Liberty—New York Harbor7.Grand Canyon—the state of Arizona8.Alaska and Hawaii—the two newest states in USA9.Alaska—the largest state in area; Rhode Island—the smallest; Texas—the largeststate on the mainland10.New England—the birthplace of America11.The nickname of the U.S.A.: Yankees1600—1900:1. The discoverer of America2. Magellan3. The 13 colonies4. May Flower5. Stamp Tax6. The Boston Tea Party7. The First Continental Congress8. The Second Continental Congress9. The beginning of the War of Independence10. The turning point of the War of Independence11. The Treaty of Paris12. The Constitutional Convention13. The Bill of Rights:14. The turning point of the Civil War15. Lincoln16. The Louisiana Territory17. The Westward Movement:18. KKK: Ku Klux Klan, terrorized and attacked the black, progressives, Communists and social party members. 1900—1945:1. The “Open Door Policy”—Theodore Roosevelt2. The 1920s—material success and spiritual frustration, confusion and purposelessness3. The Great Depression—1929-1933, the stock market crash, from prosperity to bleak despair,3. “N ew deal”—to save American democracy and capitalist system, social security systems,4. WWI—pro-Ally partiality5. Isolationism—1930s, to keep the U.S. out of the war in Europe and Asia6. WWII—(guiding principles) establish postwar political structure in accordance with American interests and; prevent Soviet Union from over-expansion1945—:1. The containment policy2. The Civil Rights Movement: Martin Luther King (non-violence) and Malcolm X(violence)3. The Sino-US relations: 1972, the Shanghai (Joint) Communique; 1979, the diplomatic relations was established4. The Vietnam War5. Baby-boomer: 1946-1961, helped to bring an end to the Vietnam War5. The Counterculture Movement6. The New Frontier.7. The Watergate Scandal—Nixon, the first to resign in American history8. New Right conservatism9. Desert Storm政治1. The American constitution; 1787, 1789; the oldest written constitution; principles—rule by law: popular sovereignty; separation of power; judicial review; civilian supremacy in military matters; protection of individual rights and federalism2. The Bill of Rights3. The Separation of three powers: Congress (the legislative branch); President (the executive branch); the judicial branch4. The Congress: the Senate (2 members from each state) (vice president as the president of the Senate 副总统为参议院议长); the House of Representatives (based on population) (the presiding officer—the Speaker of the House众议院主持官员)5. The President can appoint the federal court judges, preside over the government, sign and veto laws passed by the Congress;6. Impeachment7. The judicial branch: the Supreme Court; the circuit court of appeals (巡回上诉法院); district court8. The bipartisanship (the two party system)—the Republican; the Democratic The emblem of the two parties9. The Democratic: Anti-Federalists; Thomas Jefferson; greater federal involvement in economic issues and less state’s rights10. The Republican: a less powerful central government; more rights to the states11. “Winner-take-all” principle: applied in all states except Maine教育,社会,⽂化传统1. The higher education: two-year colleges, four-year colleges and universities.2. The best research universities: Harvard (1636), Yale, Princeton, Columbia, MIT (on the east); Stanford, Berkeley (on the west)—private.3. Three functions of the higher education: teaching, research and public service.4. The age of the students admitted by schools: 65. Graded schools: elementary schools (grades 1—8); high school (9—12).6. No national system of education, the state establishes policies for the education within its boundary7. Three main types of popular music: Jazz (U.S.’unique contribution to music);Rock-and-roll; the Western Country music.8. “The Lost Generation”9. Nationally observed holiday of America10. Important cities:Washington D.C.(1800, John Adams ordered the transfer of the capital from Philadelphia to Washington D.C.);New York City (city of the world; Times Square; the United Nations; Manhattan—the heart of the city; Wall Street; Broadway); Chicago—the second largest city; “Great Center Market of U.S.”San Francisco—the Golden Gate BridgeLos Angeles—Hollywood and DisneylandPhiladelphia—the city for two Continental Congress; the capital city from 1790 to 1800 Huston—“the Pearl in the Gulf”; “the Space City of the U.S.A.”Detroit—the motor city;11. Independence Day: July 4th, the birthday of the nation;12. Halloween: October 31st, “Trick or Treat”;13. Thanksgiving Day: a typical American holiday; (began with) the Pilgrims; the first celebrated on December 13th, 1621.14. Veterans’ Day: (or the Armistice Day); (celebrated) the signing of 1918 Armistice15. The plane—1903, the Wright brothers16. Newspaper and magazines: the New York Times; Washington Post; the Los Angeles Times; the Wall Street Journal; Time; Newsweek; Readers’ DigestCanada1.The National Day: July 1 (1867)2.The origin of the name “Canada”: “kanata”, a settlement, Indian3.The national flag: Maple Leaf Flag, white square in the centre, a red stylized11-pointed maple leaf4.Two discoverers of Canada: John Cabot (Newfoundland, east coast); JacquesCartier (the St. Lawrence river)5.Official languages: Bilingualism—English, French; the official Language Act (1969)6.Important cities: Ottawa (the capital, the 4th largest city); Vancouver (the thirdlargest city, ice-free harbor); Montreal (the second largest city); Toronto (the largest city, Toronto university—the largest university)7.Seven Years’ War: 1756-1763; between France (defeated) and England8.Quebec: the largest province; strong French culture9.The Constitutional Act of 1791: Upper Canada (English law and constitution);Lower Canada (French law and institutions)10.The British North America Acts in 1867: the dominion; the Statute of Westminster in1931: independence.11.The Parliament: the Crown, the Senate and the House of Commons12.Constitution: partly written, partly unwritten, including fundamental acts, customsand parliamentary traditions of British originAustralia1. “T he Land Down Under”.2. Australia’s National Day: January 26 (1788), the date of the first European settlement of the continent3. Great Barrier Reef: the longest coral reef in the world, from southern Queensland to the Gulf of Papua4. National flower: wattle; national bird: lyrebird5. Important cities: Canberra (the capital); Sydney (New South Wales); Melbourne (Victoria); Brisbane (Queensland); Adelaide (South Australia); Perth (West Australia); Hobart (Tasmania); Darwin (the Northern Territory);6. 1901: the Commonwealth of Australia; 1931: independence, the Statute of Westminster 《威斯敏斯特法案》7. Elementary education: 5-11; secondary education: 11-188. Animals: koala; kangaroos9. William Dampier: the first Englishman to reach Australia, the author of the book A New V oyage Around the World; James Cook: the English put Australia on map, British colony;10. Convicts from Britain11. Multiculturalism: coined in Canada in 1960s, adopted by Australia in 1973, emphasizing the unique characteristics of different cultures in the world .12. Politics: a written Constitution; Legislature: the Queen, the House of Representatives, the Senate13. The gold rushes: 1850s, the discoveries of gold in New South Wales and Victoria New Zealand1.National Day: December 6th, 1840, the anniversary of the signing of the Treaty ofWaitangi, Waitangi Day2.The land of the long white cloud3.Cities: Auckland (the largest city, the North Island), Wellington (the capital, theNorth Island)4.Official languages: English, Maori5.Haka: a dance performed to daunt the enemy and to prepare warriors for the battle6.The International Date Line—just west of the line, the first country to get the newday7.fault line: the cause of the frequent earthquakes8.The Kiwis: the national symbol, the name the New Zealanders called themselves9.Abel Tasman: the first European to visitor, who named the area Statenland, laterNieuw Zeeland10.No single written constitution, including parliamentary statutes, judiciary rulings,administrative practices.11.Only one chamber: the House of Representatives12.the world’s biggest farm, the world’s largest exporter of lamb and mutton, diaryproducts。