语言学简答(期末)
语言学简答
1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系？2. 简答语言符号的特点答3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系4口语和书面语的关系5. 语言与言语的区别6. 简答语音中最基本的要7. 简答语音的本质属性体现在那些方面8. 简答国际音标与音素之间的关9. 简述元音分类的依据。
10. 论述音位的性质（特征11. 音位的划分。
12. 简答“对立关系”与“互补”关系。
14. 音位与音素的区别15. 简答复元音与几个相连的单元音的区别16. 简答汉语普通话的音节结构特点17简答语汇的性质和特点18简答语汇的作用19简答汉语同音词产生的原因。
20. 简答同音词与同形词的关系21. 简答单纯词与单音节词的关系22. 简答汉语语素的类别系统。
23. 简答语素、音节与字符之间的关系24简答后缀语素与词尾语素的区别25. 简答词根语素和词缀语素的形式和作用26 简答离合词和词组词28. 简答语法规则的抽象性表现29 简答语法规则的递归性30. 简答词法手段的类别31简答句法手段的类别。
32. 为什么词和句子是最重要的语法单位33. 简答划分词类的标准有哪些34简答语言的理性意义和非理性意义35 简答义素和语素之间的区别36. 简答义素和义项之间的关系37 简答词的通俗意义和科学意义的区别38. 简答义素分析的作用39. 简答多义词和同音词的关系40. 为什么多义词在交际中一般不会造成歧义44. 所有的书写符号都是文字吗？42. 简答语义场的层次性和系统性43. 为什么谓词是处于支配地位的核心地位41. 简答近义词之间的差别42. 简答语义场的层次性和系统性43. 为什么谓词是处于支配地位的核心地位？44. 所有的书写符号都是文字吗45. 什么是文字的作用46. 现代汉语中的“文字”含有那些义项47简答“文字的创制”含义。
48. 简答文字改革的类型有哪些情况49. 为什么劳动创造了语言？50. 语言为什么会发展变化51. 简答语言发展演变的特点52. 简答语言分化的产物53. 简答社会方言与地域方言的关系54. 简答语言规划的主要特点55. 什么是语言规范化？56. 简答语言与思维的关系57. 简答语言和抽象思维的关系58 什么是临界期？ 59 简答语言与民族文化意识的关系60. 为什么母语教学既有利于外语教学又干扰外语教学61. 论述一般语汇与基本语汇的关系1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系？答：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。
现代语言学 简答整理
3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the context of use8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics （数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）.4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.5.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性）or diachronic（历时性）? Why?(The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.)Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?在现代语言学里说话或写作哪一个有优先权？为什么呢？Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons:First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form.Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?索绪尔是如何区分语言和言语类似乔姆斯基的区分能力和表现？和它们的区别是什么？Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study. They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?你认为应该怎样用一个良好的，全面的定义来总结语言的特征？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con¬struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before.3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou¬ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication）While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.12.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?人类的语言是否是完全任意的？为什么？Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.2.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speech and writing are the major media of communication. Speech is considered primary over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to writing in language evolution, speech plays a greater role in daily communications, and speech is the way in which people acquire their native language.3.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么。
英语语言学复习资料 简答题
1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrins ic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symb olic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human l anguages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writt en. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native langua ge, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus alsocalled “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for s omething or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acqui re language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest tha t there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which li stening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart tha t compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he istaken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sen tences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or att itudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to cr eate certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or impo sing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’si mprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studi es not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics,applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitle d “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. (2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before t his century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the real ization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to,F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguis tic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potenti al a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics ofspeech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a p honetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three differe nt[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones。
自己整理的简答(语言学概论)
语言学概论（2014年10月）名词解释一、词类答：词类是词在语法上的分类，指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位臵上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类二、复辅音答：一个音节内两个或两个以上辅音的二组合叫“复辅音” 。
复辅音是一个音节内部的音位组合。
如果两个辅音相连，但却分属不同的音节，就不能算是复辅音，复辅音里的几个辅音并没有像复元音那样一体化，他们各自有各自的发音过程。
三、复合构词答：指词根语素加上词根语素构成一个新词，这样得到的合成词又叫“复合式合成词” ，即“复合词” ，汉语中，按照语素与语素之间的关系，复合词可以分为陈述式复合词、偏正式复合词、支配式复合词、并列式复合词四、屈折答：即词的内部发生语音的交替变化，屈折与附加的作用相同，只不过屈折是给词的外部加点东西，附加是改变词的内部的某个东西。
分析题一、“相互理解程度”不是区分“语言”和“方言”的唯一标准答：正确。
西方的语言学家往往倾向于把“语言”作为识别“民族”的重要标准，而有把“相互理解程度”作为区分“语言”和“方言”的唯一标准。
他们的观点和主张是由这些新兴民族国家的语言和社会历史的特殊情况决定的。
但西方国家这种通过识别“语言”和“方言”从而识别“民族”的惯例并不具有普遍意义。
因此，单纯的根据“相互理解程度” 来确定几种身份未定的：话是属于同一“语言” 的不同“方言”，还是不同的“语言” ，从而确定有关的社会群体是一个“民族”还是几个不同的“民族”，这种方法是把复杂的问题简单化了，且很有可能在政治上引起严重后果。
二、音强由频率的大小决定答：错误。
音强就是声音的强弱，由振幅的大小决定。
振幅的大小又决定于使发音体震动的外力的大小，外力大振幅就大声音就强，反之不同。
三、每个汉字都由意符和音符构成的答：错误。
各种字体的字符大体可以归纳为三类：即“意符“音符“记号”表音文字只使用音符，汉字则三类符号都使用，汉字在隶变之前，由意符音符构成，记号极少四、“新汽车牌照”这个说法有不同理解，这是由语义的模糊性造成答：正确。
语言学概论-语言学概论期末考试及答案一
语言学概论期末考试及答案（一）一、单项选择题（本大题共26小题，每小题1分，共26分）在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。
错选、多选或未选均无分。
1．关于“说话”这种口头交际行为，下列说法正确的一项是（）A．只涉及心理问题，不涉及物理和生理问题B．只涉及物理问题，不涉及生理和心理问题C．只涉及生理问题，不涉及物理和心理问题D．既涉及心理问题，又涉及生理和物理问题2．判断两种话是不同语言还是同一种语言的不同方言应该主要参考（）A．相互理解程度B．语言结构的差异程度C．共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感D．是否属于同一个国家3．关于语音四要素，下列说法不正确．．．的一项是（）A．在任何语言中，音高变化都是语调的主要构成要素B．能起区别语言意义作用的是绝对的音高、音强和音长C．音长是由发音体振动的持续时间决定的D．音强是由发音体振动的振幅大小决定的4．下列关于区别特征的表述中，不正确．．．的一项是（）A．音位是通过区别特征相互区别的B．区别特征完全取决于语音的自然属性C．音位的辨义功能由区别特征负担D．区别特征通常都表现为二项对立5．关于“复辅音”，下列说法不正确．．．的一项是（）A．复辅音是一个音节内两个或几个辅音的组合B．复辅音内的几个辅音彼此之间有过渡音联结C．复辅音内的几个辅音的音质变化是突变式的D．复辅音并不是所有语言中都存在的语音现象6．下列各项中，都是低元音的一组是（）A．[y,æ]B．[a,Λ]C．[u,ε]D．[Aα,]7．下列各组辅音中，发音部位相同的一组是（）A．[k,η]B．[m, n]C．[n, η]D．[k,p]8．北京话“面”单念时读作[miæn],但“面包”却读作[miæmpαu],这种语流音变现象是（）A．弱化B．增音C．同化D．异化9．关于现代汉语“洗”和“浴”两个语素，下列说法不正确．．．的一项是（）A．“洗”是成词语素，“浴”是不成词语素B．“洗”是自由语素，“浴”是黏着语素C．“洗”是不定位语素，“浴”是定位语素D．“洗”和“浴”都是实义语素10．下列各组中，三个复合词构词类型不一致．．．的一组是（）A．席卷耳鸣地震B．打倒切断推翻C．发光散热出气D．天地欢乐爱好11．下列各组词，吸收外来成分的手段存在不一致．．．情况的一组是（）A．丹麦挪威法兰西B．沙拉咖啡麦当劳C．卡车啤酒立邦漆D．香波克隆好莱坞12．语法规则的“抽象性”是指（）A．对语言的结构和成分进行类的概括B．相同规则可在一个结构里重复使用C．语法规则之间可以相互推导和解释D．语法规则的发展变化过程十分缓慢13．语法现象可以分成“核心语法现象”和“外围语法现象”，其中“核心语法现象”主要是指（）A．词语搭配问题B．意义表达问题C．语音实现问题D．句法结构问题14．主要功能是用来“造句”的同一级语法单位是指（）A．语素和语素组B．语素组和词C．词和词组D．词组和句子15．汉语中的词类（词的语法分类）可以首先分出的两个大类是（）A．基本词和非基本词B．实词和虚词C．典型词和兼类词D．体词和谓词16．下列关于“直接组成成分分析法”（层次分析法）的表述，不正确．．．的一项是（）A．从最大的词组开始逐层切分，一直切分到词为止B．从最小的词开始逐层组合，一直组合到词组为止C．分析时要依据两条原则：“成结构”和“有意义”D．分析时采用的方法是“先分主干”和“后添枝叶”17．“汽车”和“卡车”是（）A．上下位词B．同义词C．等义词D．近义词18．下列各项中，语义结构属于复合述谓结构的一项是（）A．这样做不值得B．他跑过去开门C．我们单位需要增加编制D．他们正在研究如何筹集资金19．下列各项中，甲和乙是预设关系的一项是（）A．（甲）他买了一支钢笔//（乙）他买了一支笔B．（甲）老王在小李的左边//（乙）小李在老王的右边C．（甲）他早就不在学校工作了//（乙）他以前在学校工作过D．（甲）什么水果他都吃过//（乙）他吃过苹果20．文字最基本的单位是（）A．笔画B．字符C．偏旁D．部首21．根据字符跟什么样的语言单位相联系的标准来分类，已知自源文字都属于（）A．词语文字B．语素文字C．音节文字D．音位文字22．在语言谱系分类的层级体系中，最大的类别是（）A．语族B．语支C．语系D．语群23．在儿童学会说话的过程中，“双词阶段”标志着儿童产生的语言能力是（）A．语音能力B．语汇能力C．语法能力D．语义能力24．“萨丕尔（E.Sapir）-沃尔夫（B. L. Whorf）假说”之所以被称作“语言相关论”，主要是因为他们认为（）A．思维决定语言B．语言决定思维C．语言和思维互不相干D．语言和思维相互作用25．关于“中介语”现象，下列说法正确的一项是（）A．“中介语”越到外语学习后期发展越快B．较高级的“中介语”也不能用于交际C．人们的中介语发展遵循大致相同的规律D．儿童学习母语过程中存在中介语现象26．从语言信息处理技术本身来看，下列各项中，属于未来一段时间研究的主攻方向的是（）A．文字编码B．语音识别C．文本检索D．机器翻译二、多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分）在每小题列出的五个备选项中有二个至五个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。
语言学概论-本科版期末测试卷二(含答案)
期末试卷二一、单项选择题：（每题1分，共10分）1. 关于“言语活动”、“语言”和“言语”三者之间的关系，下列说法不正确的一项是（）A．“语言”等于“言语活动”减去“言语”B．“语言”是主要的，而“言语”是次要的C．“言语”是“言语活动”中的社会部分D．“语言”是从“言语活动”抽象出来的一个均质的系统2．索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为（）A．传统语言学B．历史比较语言学C．结构主义语言学D．社会语言学3．说话人根据表达需要有意识地加上去的句重音是（）A．节律重音B．语法重音C．固定重音D．强调重音4、汉语普通话音节结构（）A．最长由三个音素组成B. 最长由四个音素组成C．最长由五个音素组成D．最短由两个音素组成5．下列词组中，属于多义的是（）A．两只学生送的花瓶B．两位学生送的花瓶C．两只学生送的花篮。
D．两个学生送的花篮6. 英语的‘foot”（脚，单数）变为“feet”（脚，复数）运用的语法手段是（）A．附加B．异根C．内部屈折D．重叠7. 汉语普通话中的：“卡通片”中的“卡”是一个（）A．语素B．音节C．前缀D．词8．下列词的词义，属于词义缩小的是（）A．“皮”原指兽皮B．“涕”原指眼泪C．“瓦”原指一切烧好的上器D．“江”原捐“长江”9. 人类几种古老文字的原始字形，都是（）A．象形的B．会意的C．表音的D．形声的10. 文字的前身是（）A. 结绳记事Ｂ. 手势Ｃ. 图画记事Ｄ. 实物记事二、多项选择题：（每题2分，共20分）1．语流中有些音在发音上变弱，这种现象叫弱化。
弱化的表现有（）A．脱落B．清辅音变成浊辅音C．浊辅音变成清辅音D．单元音变成复元音E．单元音向央元音靠拢2. 下列关于音位的表述，不正确的有（）A. 音位区别意义的作用叫做“辨义功能”B. 音位可以从听感的角度直接切分出来C. 音位的分析和归纳可以跨语言和方言D. 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位E. 音位的归纳主要依据语音单位的发音3. 下列关于歧义的表述，正确的有（）A. 歧义指语言片段的多个意义难以划分清楚B. 歧义以语言符号序列的同形为前提条件C. 语义的模糊性是歧义产生的根本原因D. 词语的一词多义也可能造成歧义E. 歧义可通过上下文和情景语境消除4. 下列可用于证明概念和词语、判断和句子、推理和复句不完全相等的证据有（）A. 语言中的虚词基本不表示概念B. 多义词并不表示单一的概念C. 祈使句和疑问句都不表示判断D. 并列关系的复句不表示推理E. 略去大前提的复句不表示推理5. 语法单位的“形成(实现)关系”指（）A. 长度增加，功能改变B. 长度增加，功能不改变C. 长度不增加，功能改变D. 长度不增加，功能不改变E. 与长度和功能无关的其他特性6. 从发音方法上看，一个辅音的特征取决于（）A. 音高的高低B. 发音部位的前后C. 送气不送气D. 声带振动不振动E. 形成和克服阻碍的方式7. 下列关于语义场的表述中，正确的有（）A. 语义场与上下位词没有关系B. 语义场是具有共同类属义素的义项的聚合体C. 语义场是一个层级体系D. 语义场是词义系统性的重要表现E. 不同语义场的系统性是均衡的8. 下列关于语素的表述中，正确的有（）A. 语素是最小的有意义的语言单位B. 有些语素只有语音形式而没有意义C. 语素分为自由语素和不成词语素两大类D. 一个汉字就是一个语素E. 词都是由语素形成或组成的9. 下列有关汉字的表述中，正确的有（）A. 汉字是一种自源文字B. 汉字是一种表意文字C. 汉字是一种音节文字D. 汉字是一种词语文字E. 几千年来，汉字的性质发生了根本的变化10.“民族语言政策”所包含的内容主要是（）A. 关于民族语言教育的政策B.关于官方语言的选择问题C. 关于一个国家内部主体民族语言的政策D. 关于一个国家内部少数民族语言的政策E. 关于少数民族语言文字的法律地位问题三、名词解释：（每题5分，共15分）1．聚合关系2. 音位3. 符号四、简答题：（共35分）1．什么是组合关系？（7分）2．语言的作用是什么？（8分）3. 简述词缀与词尾的区别。
语言导论期末考试试题及答案
语言导论期末考试试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言的基本功能是：A. 交流思想B. 表达情感C. 记录历史D. 传递文化答案：A2. 下列哪个选项不属于语言的任意性原则？A. 单词与意义之间没有必然联系B. 语言符号是任意的C. 每个语言都有其独特的语法规则D. 语言符号是约定俗成的答案：C3. 语言的最小意义单位是：A. 音素B. 词C. 句D. 语素答案：D4. 下列哪个选项是语言的组合规则？A. 语音学B. 音韵学C. 语法学D. 语用学答案：C5. 语言的演变主要受到以下哪个因素的影响？A. 社会变迁B. 科技发展C. 地理环境D. 所有以上因素答案：D6. 语言的普遍性指的是：A. 所有语言都有相同的语法结构B. 所有语言都有相同的词汇量C. 所有语言都有相同的音素系统D. 所有语言都具有表达复杂思想的能力答案：D7. 语言学中的“同源词”是指：A. 来自同一词源的词语B. 意义相同的词语C. 发音相似的词语D. 形式和意义都相同的词语答案：A8. 下列哪个选项是语言的交际功能？A. 描述功能B. 表达功能C. 指示功能D. 命令功能答案：B9. 语言的“方言”是指：A. 同一语言内部的变体B. 不同语言之间的相似性C. 语言的书面形式D. 语言的口头形式答案：A10. 语言的“借词”是指：A. 从其他语言借用的词汇B. 从其他语言借用的语法结构C. 从其他语言借用的发音规则D. 从其他语言借用的语用规则答案：A二、简答题（每题10分，共30分）1. 简述语言与思维的关系。
答案：语言与思维的关系是相互影响的。
一方面，语言可以影响个体的思维方式和认知结构，因为语言提供了分类和概念化的框架。
另一方面，思维也会影响语言的使用和发展，因为人们在交流思想时需要选择合适的语言来表达。
2. 解释什么是“语境”以及它在语言交际中的作用。
答案：语境是指语言交际中除了语言本身之外的所有相关因素，包括说话者和听话者的知识背景、交际场合、时间地点等。
《语言学概论》期末试题A卷及答案
语言学概论期末试题及答案A卷一、单项选择题（本大题共30小题，每小题1分，共30分）在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。
错选、多选或未选均无分。
1．首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是( B )A．洪堡特 B.索绪尔 C．乔姆斯基 D.萨丕尔2．词义的核心部分是指（C ）A．词的附加意义 B．词的色彩意义 C．词的理性意义 D．词的语法意义3．广义地说，汉语动词词尾“着”、“了”、“过”属于语法范畴中的（ C ）Ａ.时范畴Ｂ.态范畴Ｃ.体范畴Ｄ.数范畴4．音素i和u的不同是由（ D ）决定的A．音高 B．音重 C．音长 D．音质5．在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（ D ）Ａ.转换关系Ｂ.组合关系Ｃ.层级关系Ｄ.聚合关系6．听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是（ D ）A.音素B.音位C.音渡D.音节7．下列各组辅音中，发音部位相同的一组是( B )A.[m，n]B.[k，x]C.[p，d]D.[s, v]8．北京话“慢”单念时读[man]，但“慢慢儿”却有人读做[mai mar]，前一音节的语流音变现象是（ B ）A.同化B.异化C.弱儿D.增音9．关于现代汉语“洗”和“浴”两个语素，下列说法不正确的一项是（C）A．“洗”是成词语素，“浴”是不成词语素B．“洗”是自由语素，“浴”是黏着语素C．“洗”是不定位语素，“浴”是定位语素D．“洗”和“浴”都是实义语素10．下列各组中，三个复合词构词类型不一致的一组是（A ）A．席卷耳鸣地震 B．打倒切断推翻C．发光散热出气 D．天地欢乐爱好11．下列汉语词语中的“儿”不属于词根语素（实义语素）的是（D）A.健儿B.女儿C.少儿D.花儿12．语法规则的“抽象性”是指（A ）A．对语言的结构和成分进行类的概括B．相同规则可在一个结构里重复使用C．语法规则之间可以相互推导和解释D．语法规则的发展变化过程十分缓慢13．语法现象可以分成“核心语法现象”和“外围语法现象”，其中“核心语法现象”主要是指（D）A．词语搭配问题 B．意义表达问题 C．语音实现问题 D．句法结构问题14．主要功能是用来“造句”的同一级语法单位是指（C）A．语素和语素组 B．语素组和词 C．词和词组 D．词组和句子15．汉语中的词类（词的语法分类）可以首先分出的两个大类是（B）A．基本词和非基本词 B．实词和虚词 C．典型词和兼类词 D．体词和谓词16．下列关于“直接组成成分分析法”（层次分析法）的表述，不正确的一项是（D）A．从最大的词组开始逐层切分，一直切分到词为止B．从最小的词开始逐层组合，一直组合到词组为止C．分析时要依据两条原则：“成结构”和“有意义”D．分析时采用的方法是“先分主干”和“后添枝叶”17．“汽车”和“卡车”是（A ）A．上下位词 B．同义词C．等义词 D．近义词18．下列各项中，语义结构属于复合述谓结构的一项是（B）A．这样做不值得 B．他跑过去开门C．我们单位需要增加编制 D．他们正在研究如何筹集资金19．下列各项中，甲和乙是预设关系的一项是（C）A．（甲）他买了一支钢笔//（乙）他买了一支笔B．（甲）老王在小李的左边//（乙）小李在老王的右边C．（甲）他早就不在学校工作了//（乙）他以前在学校工作过D．（甲）什么水果他都吃过//（乙）他吃过苹果20．人类几种古老文字的原始字形，都是( A )A、象形的B、会意的C、表音的D、假借的21．文字最基本的单位是（B）A．笔画 B．字符 C．偏旁 D．部首22．把句子分成“单句”和“复句”，这种分类是（ D ）A.句子的句型类B.句子的句式类C.句子的功能类D.句子的简繁类23．“吓唬”和“恐吓”在非理性意义上的主要差别是（ C ）A.语气意义不同B.感情色彩不同C.语体色彩不同D.形象色彩不同24．下列各项词义引申中，采用比喻方式的一项是（ D ）A.“锁”本指一种器具，后引申指凭借这一器具的行为B.“兵”本指兵器，后引申指使用兵器的人C.“南瓜”本指一种植物，后引申指这种植物的果实D.“后台”本指舞台的后面，后引申指在背后操纵、支持的人或集团25．下列各项中，谓词和变元之间属于动作与结果关系的是( C )A．写黑板 B.打篮球 C．织毛衣 D.寄包裹26．分析性的语法手段是（ B ）Ａ.零形式Ｂ.语序Ｃ.外部附加Ｄ.内部屈折27. “老王说服了小李”中“老王”是行为的施事，“小李”是行为的受事，这种意义是（ B ）A.语汇意义B.语法意义C.语境意义D.蕴含意义28．从词的构造类型上看，汉语“动人”一词属于( B )A．单纯词 B.复合词 C．派生词 D.简缩词29．“老师鼓励我考大学”是( B )A．主谓词组 B.兼语词组 C．连动词组 D.复句词组30. 语言的发展演变是不平衡的，变化最慢的是( C )A.语音B.词汇C.语法D.修辞二、多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分）在每小题列出的五个备选项中有二个至五个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。
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1. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do nobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language答：On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means OK/YES for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying NO. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.2. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them (1)Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2)colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3)civilized : This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.答：They are undoubtedly descriptive, Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way antisexist advocators speak and write.3.(1)What organs are involved in speech production答：Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the luns, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth.(2)Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word ‘fish’ as ‘ghoti’答：This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in ‘enough’, o as [I] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.(3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels答：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.(4)To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ答：Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.(5)’Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation’. Discuss.答：Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation,which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.(6)The pronunciation of tell is [tɛ], but that of teller is [tɛlɚ]. Discuss why the phoneme/l/ is realized as [ɛ] and [l] respectively in this situation.答：The world teller is formed by adding a suffix –er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɛ]. We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle for division of syllable. By MOP, the [l] must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme [l] is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others.following words contain different forms of the negative prefix in-. Group the data according to the variants and try to determine which kinds of base word take which kinds of prefix variant and what kind of mechanism is word responsible for the variation. Formulate a rule and then test it against words that are formed in this way but are not mentioned here.答：There are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation: [In]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable; [In] or [Iŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent; [Im]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile; [Il]: illiterate, illegal, illogical; [Ir]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregular. It is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [Im]before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [Il] before the lateral [I], [Ir] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [Iŋ] in rapid speech and [In] in careful speech. In all other cases [In] is always the case.each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following. State whether it is headed or non-headed. If headed, state its headword. Name the type of constructions.(a)Ducks quack.答：non-headed, independent clause(b)The ladder in the shed is long enough.答：non-head, prepositional phrase.(c)I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.答：headed; headword-damaged; adjectival group(d)Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.答：headed; headword-singing; gerundial phrase.(e)His handsome face appeared in the magazine. A lady of great beauty came out.答：headed; headword-face; nominal group.(f)He enjoys climbing high mountains.答：non-headed; prepositional phrase.(h)The man nodded patiently.答：non-headed; independent clause.(i)A man roused by the insult drew his sword.答：headed; headword-roused. Adjectival phrase.6. Analyse the poem below from the semantic point of view, taking a special account of sense relations.答：This poem is about the use of the word ‘colored’. The author cleverly makes use of ‘colored’ in the sense of ‘different colors’ to oppose the proactive to refer to black people as ‘colored’. This shows from another point of view that ‘colored’is not a superordinate to ‘red’, ‘green’, ‘yellow’, etc.7. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word ‘wireless’, which has been replaced by ‘radio’. Do you agree In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other答: It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.British linguist ……We can treat male/female, married/single, alive/dead as gradable antonyms on occasions. Someone can be very male or more married and certainly more dead than alive. Comment on it.答：It is not advisable to tell beginners of linguistics that the distinction between gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms is relative. The expression ‘more dead that alive’ is not a true comparative.you ask somebody ‘Can you open the door’ he answers ‘Yes’ but does not actually do it, what would be your action Why Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.答：I would be angry with him. ‘Can you open the door’ is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers ‘Yes’but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.10. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks ‘What’s on TV tonight’he answers ‘Nothing.’ What does A mean in normal situations Think of two situations in which this interpretation of ‘Nothing’ will be cancelled.答：Normally ‘Nothing’here means ‘Nothing interesting,’If A adds after ‘Nothing’‘The workers are on strike’or ‘There’s going to be a blackout tonight’, then the interpretation of ‘Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。