语言学-期末考试-复习材料
语言学纲要期末复习重点
1、语言学的三大发源地中国、印度、希腊—罗马。
最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。
这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。
2、语言符号的特点语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。
〔1〕任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。
比方：粤方言中读"人〞，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ngæ n]，开平话有的读作[ngæn] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。
〔2〕线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。
在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。
如："庄〞的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。
3、组合关系和聚合关系〔1〕组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的构造关系。
即两个或两个以上同一性质的构造单位〔例如音位与音位、词与词等等〕，按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。
〔2〕聚合关系是指同一构造内一样位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。
即在语言的组合构造的*一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有一样作用〔组合能力〕的单位符号之间的关系。
〔3〕不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同样也处于这两种关系之中。
4、语音四要素〔1〕音高：声音的上下，取决于发音体〔人的发音体是声带〕的振动频率。
音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。
〔2〕音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。
对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。
音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。
〔3〕音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。
音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。
音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。
如英语中的pool[pu:l]〔水池〕与pull[pul]〔拖、拉〕。
语言学纲要期末复习参考资料
导言一、填空题1.语言学是研究语言的学科，语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究人类语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
2.中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
3.我国传统语言学包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学等三门分支学科，合称“小学”。
二、判断题1.综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是具体语言学的任务。
（错）2.世界上有几千种语言，有些语言的研究已经比较深入，大部分语言的研究还很不够，甚至还没有人去研究。
（对）三、名词解释1.普通语言学以人类一般语言为研究对象，探究人类语言的起源、发展、本质。
探究人类语言内部结构的共性及普遍规律的语言学门类。
2.应用语言学狭义的应用语言学指语言教学、文字的创制和改革、正音正字、词典编纂等，广义的应用语言学还包括与计算机有关的及其翻译、情报检索、语音识别、自然语言处理等。
3.小学在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。
小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。
第一章一、填空题1.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际和思维的工具；从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号。
2.文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的辅助交际工具，旗语之类是建立在语言和文字基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
二、判断1.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。
（对）2.语言是文字基础上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）3.文字始终是从属于语言的。
（错）4.思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维。
（对）5.语言和思维互相依存共同发展。
（对）6.在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）7.文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）8.语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
（对）9.会不会说话是人类和动物的根本区别之一。
（对）10．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同的。
（对）11.思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以聋哑人不能进行思维。
期末语言学复习重要资料
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language design features:1.Arbitrariness 2.Duality3.Productivity4.Displacement5.Cultural transmissionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.The scope of linguistics:phonetics语音学the study of how speech sounds are produced and classified.(Phonetics studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. ) Phonology音系学the study of how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning(It identifies the set of speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful units, and the function of each sound.)morphology 形态学:the study of the form of words(It identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and looks into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words)syntax 句法学the study of how words and phrases are combined to form sentences(It investigates the rules governing the combination of words into sentences and identifies the permissible sequences in a language and the relationships between elements in sentence structure.)semantics语义学:the study of meaning pragmatics 语用学:the study of meaning in context of use(It looks into the relation between linguistic expressions on the one hand and objects, persons and events to which the words refer on the other. It also studies the ways in which the meaning in a language is structured and distinguishes different types of meaning.)historical linguistics 历史语言学:the study of language change (It is concerned with the historical development of languages and the processes involved in language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.)Parole 言语---- the realization of langue in actual use. Competence 语言能力---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language二Phonetics：A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”;Auditory phonetics声学语音学----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”;Acoustic phonetics听觉语音学---from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to anotherSpeech organs: three important areas：Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonetics & phonology：Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answerquestions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.四Syntax句法学：a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Morphology形态学refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Derivational morphemes派生语素---- are affixes added to an existing form to create a word.Inflectional morphemes曲折语素---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaningMorphological rules：The rules that govern the formation of words。
语言学纲要_期末复习资料（题库）
语言学纲要_期末复习资料（题库）语言学概论试题(1)一、填空１５%1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。
2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。
3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。
4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。
5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。
6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。
7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。
8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。
9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。
10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。
二、选择题１０%1 、中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是（D ）Ａ、文字学Ｂ、语音学Ｃ、词汇学Ｄ、语法学2、汉语属于（B ）Ａ、屈折语Ｂ、词根语Ｃ、多式综合语Ｄ、粘着语3、一种语言中数量最少的是（B ）Ａ、音素Ｂ、音位Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音节4、文字的前身是（C ）Ａ、结绳记事Ｂ、手势Ｃ、图画记事Ｄ、实物记事5、派生词中包含（B ）Ａ、词尾Ｂ、词根Ｃ、虚词Ｄ、根词6、语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是（C ）Ａ、音素Ｂ、义素Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音位7、汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是（C ）Ａ、主语位置Ｂ、谓语位置Ｃ、状语位置Ｄ、定语位置8、以下各种语言变体中，属于社会方言的是（D ）Ａ、土话Ｂ、客家话Ｃ、客套话Ｄ、黑话9、下列语素中属于自由语素的是（C ）Ａ、初Ｂ、视Ｃ、人Ｄ、民10、在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（D ）Ａ、转换关系Ｂ、组合关系Ｃ、层级关系Ｄ、聚合关系三、名词解释２０%1、专语语言学: 以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。
2、组合关系: 指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。
扬大语言学期末复习资料
题型：选择题30% 30*1填空题15% 10*1.5名词解释20% 5*4简答题10% 5*2论述题25% 10+15填空题：1.Descriptive linguistics aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use.描写语言学Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in usin g language.规定语言学2.Synchronic linguistics studies a language at some point of time in history.共时语言学Diachronic linguistics describes a language as it changes through time.历时语言学ngue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.语言Parole is the realization of langue in actual use.言语4.Derivational morphemes—when they are conjoined to other morphemes a new word isderived.派生词素Inflectional morphemes are morphemes which do not add any lexical meaning, but which represent the concept of tense and aspect.屈折词素5.Polysemy one word with more than one meaning.一词多义6.hyponymy7.Synonymy (different kinds)同义关系Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.[词汇学所学Absolute synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, that is, both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning. (composition/compounding复合构词法）Relative synonyms are words which are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.（alter, change）] 8.Antonymy (different kinds) --- Words which are opposite in meaning.反义关系Relational antonyms: huaband,wife; teacher,student9.Homonymy(3 kinds) 同音同形异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. (same sound, same spelling, butdifferent words)10.Context includes: background knowledge (knowledge of the world; knowledge specific to thesituation of communication. Knowledge of the language used. 语境，上下文11.A locutionary act is the act of saying something; it is an act of conveying literal meaning.言内行为An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.言外行为A perlocutionary act is the act resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, orthe change brought about by the utterance. 言后行为12.Widening of meaning /Extension of meaning refers to the process by which a word originallyhad a specialized meaning has now become generalized.Narrowing of meaning is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.13.Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by aspeaker or a group of speakers in a given context.言语变体14.Pidgin and Creole皮钦语与克里奥耳语Pidgins are mixed languages used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.（洋泾浜语，皮钦语）When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to be a Creole. (克里奥耳语, 混合语）Creole (克里奥耳语)When a pidgin becomes a Creole, the original structure is expanded to enable it to fulfill its new functions. The vocabulary is vastly enriched, and new syntactic-semantic concepts developed.Notable examples of Creole: the English-based Creole of Jamaica; the French-based Creole of Haiti.15.Bilingualism: in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with eachhaving a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.Diglossia: a sociolinguistic situation in which two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a different role to play.双言现象16.Cultural overlap—similarities between cultures due to similarities in natural environmentand human psychology.文化重叠17.Cultural diffusion—through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B andbecome part of culture B, thus creating cultural diffusion. (For example, borrowed words.)文化扩散名词解释1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.Design features of human languageArbitrariness（任意性）refers to one of the design features of language that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds of language signs.Duality of structure（结构二重性）Language consists of two sets of structures. At the lower level there is a structure of meaningless sounds; at the higher level these sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.Productivity（能产性）refers to one of the design features of language that humans can understand and produce new sentences that they have never heard before.Displacement（不受时空限制的特性）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）is one of the design features of language. The details of any language system are not genetically transmitted from generation to generation, but have to be taught and learned.4.Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the soundsthat occur in the world’s languages.语音学5. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value (有区别意义的功能）.It is an abstract unit.音位6.Phonology studies the sound system of a language; it aims to discover how speech sounds ina language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.音位学7.Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed. 形态学8.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.词素9.Syntax is the study of how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that governthe formation of sentences. 句法学10.Semantics is the study of meaning in language.语义学11.Pragmatics is the study of language meaning in context; of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.语用学12.Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, betweenthe uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.社会语言学13.Speech community means a group of people who form a community and share the samelanguage or a particular variety of a language.言语社会14.Connotation means the implication of a word apart from its primary meaning.暗含意义nguage acquisition refers to the child’s acquisiti on of the mother tongue, i.e. how the childcomes to understand and speak the language of his community.语言习得16.SLA: second language acquisition二语习得refers to the systematic study of how peopleacquire a second language subsequent to their native language.简答题Who is regarded as the father of modern linguistics?What theory did John Austin raise?1.Saussure (father of modern linguistics, langue and parole)2.Chomsky(transformational-generative grammar转换生成语法, competence and performance, LAD语言习得机制, innatist语法天生主义者theory)3.John Austin (speech act theory言语行为理论)4.Paul Grice (co-operative principle合作原则)5.Sapir and Whorf (linguistic relativity语言相对性)6.Michael Halliday (register语域theory, functional grammar)7. B.F. Skinners (behaviorist theory)8.John Searle (classification of illocutionary acts)论述题In what ways is linguistics helpful to your learning of English or study in general? 150 words After learning linguistics, I know that language acquisition is a result of an interaction between the learner's mental abilities and the linguistic input. Both internal and external factors are important. While we learn the second language or the third or the fourth, we must take both internal factors and external factors into consideration, especially the language aptitude and motivations. If a person's lack of natural ability, his or her effort may seem being wasted in the language study. But for most people, motivations play the crucial role in language acquisition. English major students should try to cultivate the intrinsic motivation which will have us find enjoyment and pleasure in learning the second language not simply learn for functional reasons: to pass an exam, to get a better job, to get a place at university. With fun and interest, I believe I will have more fun while learning English.选择题（PPT上课前复习）nguage is arbitrary in that there is no logical connection between meanings and__.A. wordsB. soundsC. objectsD. ideasnguage is ____in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.A. instructiveB. constructiveC. intuitiveD. creativenguage is passed on from one generation to the next through __, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. only learningD. both A and B4. A scientific study of language is based on the ___investigation of language data.A. symbolicB. systematicC. thorough5.Traditional grammar regards the ___form of language as primary.A. oralB. writtenC. printed6.The description of a language at some point in time is a ____study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparative7.___ are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through interveningpositions.A. vowelsB. consonantsC. diphthongs8.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ___ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. consonantal9. A ___ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining thehighest position.A. backB. centralC. front10.__is concerned with all language sounds that occur in th e world’s languages.A. phonologyB. phoneticsC. phonemics11.___aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these soundsaffect meaning in linguistic communication.A. linguisticsB. phoneticsC. phonology12.Th e word “singer” contains two ___.A. phonemesB. allophonesC. morphemes13.____morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. Affix14.____modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. Affixes15.A sentence is considered __when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind ofnative speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical16.The syntactic rules of any language are __in number.A. largeB. smallC. infiniteD. finite17.The relationship between ‘fruit’ and ‘apple’ is _______.A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymy18.T he pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are _______.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms19.Once the notion of ___was taken into consideration, semantics branched into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content20.___act is the act resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech21.The goal of _______is to explore the nature of language variation and language use amonga variety of speech communities and different social situations.A. psycholinguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. historical linguisticsD. pragmatics22.Black English is a (n) ______ dialect.A. socialB. genderC. ethnicD. individual23.The __variety of diglossia is used for more formal or serious matters.A. formalB. informalC. highD. low24.Black English is probably the most widespread and most familiar ___variety of the Englishlanguage.A. regionalB. ethnicC. socialD. lower25.In normal situations, _____speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their _____counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old26.There is a gradation of _____ ranging along a continuum between two extremes of veryformal and very informal.A. dialectB. registerC. variationD. slangBDDBB ABACB CCBAC DBBBC BCCBA B课后练习：1.Decide whether they are true or false: (Syntax)Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.Major lexical categories equal to the open class.Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.D-structure is the same as S-structure.2.Based on your own learning experiences, please illustrate to what extent it is necessary tolearn its culture when learning a foreign language.3.Below is a passage from Shakespeare’s Hamlet,King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send thither to see.If your messenger find him not there, seek him i’ the other place yourself. But indeed, if you find him not within this month, you shall nose him as you go up the stairs into the lobby.Act IV, scene iiiStudy these lines and identify every different in expression between Elizabethan and Modern English that is evident.4.Try to think of contexts in which following sentences can be used for other purposes thanjust stating facts:a)The room is messy.b)Oh, it is raining!c)The music of the movie is good.d)You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.5.Point out the grammatical meaning of the inflectional morphemes in these sentences:Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.We have moved to the new apartment.The tree branches are moving back and forth.Add derivational morphemes to ‘move’. (movement, movable, mover, unmoved)6.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)Voiced palatal affricate2)Voiceless labiodental fricative3)Voiced alveolar stop4)Front, close, short5)Back, semi-open, long6)Voiceless bilabial stop7.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to aphoneme?Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.8. A boy is named Wang Jingsheng. His name tells us that his family name is Wang, and mostprobably he was born in Beijing.Does this prove that language is not arbitrary?。
语言学期末复习
格，时，体，态，人称等。 25.词的概念意义：也叫理性意义，词汇意义的主体部分，是指说一种语言的人在对现实世 界的认知中形成的共同的主观映像，是认知的成果。 26.词的色彩意义：指词汇主体意义之外，还包涵感情色彩，语体色彩，象征功能等其他与 概念义相关的意义。 27.隐喻：引申的两种形式之一，建立在两个意义所反映的现实现象的某种相似的基础上。 其相似可以是外形的相似，某种性质的相似等等，认知语言学的莱可夫和约翰逊把隐喻分为 实体，结构和空间三种。 28.派生意义：词义中由本义衍生出来的意义。 29.词的中心意义：多义词在语言的发展过程中，某一个意义可能会占据中心地位，语言学 中把这种意义叫做中心意义，是就多义词在某个时代的各个意义的关系说的。 30.转喻：引申的两种形式之一，其基础不是现实现象的相似，而是两类现实现象之间存在 着某种联系，这种联系在人们的心目中经常出现而固定化，因而可以用指称甲类现象的词来 指称乙类现象。 31.词的语义特征：某一小类词中所特有的能对其所在格式起制约作用的并足以区别于其他 小类词的语义要素。 32.语义场：具有相同的语义特征的词义所构成的集合叫做语义场，同一义场内的词义相互 有一定的制约关系，体现了词义的结构系统性。 33.构词法：同一个词在造句时因其句法位置的差异而发生的不同变化，语言学家把专门研 究词形变化现象和规则的学问称为词形学通常简称为构词法。 34.语义角色：句中名词和动词有不同的语义关系，语义学中称之为“语义角色”，是可以涵 盖许多句子动-名关系的抽象角色，如施事，受事，工具等。 35.蕴涵：通俗地说，句子真值的蕴涵关系就是，从一个句子的句义一定可以推导出另一个 句子的句义，反向推导却不成立。 36.预设：通俗地说，如果一个句子的肯定和否定两种形式都以另一句子的肯定式为前提， 则另一句子是该句的预设。 37.语境：语言出现的环境，包括三个方面：话语的物理语境，又叫做“言谈现场”；话语语 境；说话人和受话者的背景知识。 38.话题：一个句子中句义信息所关涉的那个实体是句子的“话题”。 39.说明：针对话题展开的句子其它部分是“说明”。 40.焦点：从信息的角度看，句子中的新信息是说话者所传递信息的重点所在，是说话者认 为受话者不知道因此希望受话者特别关注的部分。 41.会话合作原则：它是指交际双方为使会话合作顺利进行，以达到共同的沟通目的而必须 相互配合，共同遵循的某些准则。它具体包括：量的准则（指所提供的信息的量），质的准 则（所说的话力求真实），关系准则（所说的话是相关的），方式准则（清楚明白说出要说的 话）。 42.言语行为：人们说出的话是一种社会行为，本身也构成新的人类经验，与现实世界中的 其他人，物，现象，事件有着“行为-效力”的关联。这些是语言在另一层次上的意义。语 言行为可以分为三个环节，分别是言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。言语行为可以分为不同 的类型，如阐释，命令，请求，询问等等。 43.社会方言：根据社会因素而区分的社团与语言特点相关，因此这些社会社团又被称为不 同的“言语社团”。各个言语社团的语言是在全民语言基础上产生的各有自己特点的语言分 支或语言变体，这就是所谓社会方言。 44.地域方言：从同一语言分化出来的地域分支，如果处于不完全分化的社会条件和同一语
语言学概论考试资料(期末考试笔记资料)
绪论一、语言学的概念（一）以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的性质、结构和发展规律：语言的性质：1、人类最重要的交际工具；2、人类的思维工具；3、符号系统。
语言的结构：1、由语音（外在形式）[+载体：文字]、意义（内容）统一构成。
语言的发展：怎样产生？有哪些演变规律？历史发展的情况。
（二）语言学的对象——语言“任何语言”：横向研究——包括书面语、口语和外语；纵向研究——包括“活”语言和“死”语言；从结构上说，语言学研究包括语音、词汇、语法、语义和文字等方面。
四、语言学的三大发源地中国、印度、希腊——语文学五、语言学的分类1、理论语言学包括（1）、专语语言学——是以某一种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。
它又包括共时语言学和历时语言学；（2）、普通语言学——是以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言的研究成果而建立起来的语言学的重要理论部分。
2、应用语言学——是将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究问题而产生的新的学科。
ppt5六、什么是文言和文言文？文言是我国“五四”以前通行的书面语，文言文是用文言写成的文章或著作。
七、什么是“小学”？是指我国传统的语文学，包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学三方面的内容。
八、古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？第一，研究的对象不同。
古代：主要以书面语为主要研究材料，不重视口头语言的研究；现代：十分重视口语的研究。
第二，研究目的不同。
古代：主要给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解；现代：主要是分析语言的结构，以探索语言发展的共同规律。
第三，地位不同。
古代：还不是独立的学科，处于附属地位，现代：一门独立的学科，产生了许多边沿性学科。
九、语言学在科学体系中的地位1、语言交际过程分为五阶段：编码：发话人利用词语组织语句，发送：把思维成果变成话语通过发音器官表达出来，传递：通过空气振动成声波，把话语传达给受话人，接收：受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话，解码：经过大脑把声波还原成语言，理解对方话语的含义，从而完成信息传递接受。
语言学期末复习资料
语⾔学期末复习资料语⾔学复习纲要说明：1.此份材料最多只考80%，还有20%不在范围内2.请务必结合教材复习，例⼦没列举的请看教材3.匆忙整理，答案有不够完整的，请⾃⾏补充更正4.语⾔学太抽象请保证有充⾜的时间来复习祝⼤家考试顺利加油1、语⾔的作⽤是什么？) 语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
⼈类传递信息，进⾏交际和交流思想，除了使⽤语⾔外，还可以使⽤⽂字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号以及⾝势、表情等，在⼀定场合使⽤，可以弥补语⾔的⼀些不⾜，但是这些交际⼯具使⽤范围有限，有的仅⽤于特定的范围，最重要的是，这些交际⼯具，都离不开语⾔，都是在语⾔的基础上产⽣的，是辅助语⾔进⾏交际的，没有语⾔，这些⼿段的存在没有任何意义。
（即为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
）2) 语⾔是⼈类的思维⼯具。
语⾔不但是⼈类的交际⼯具，同时也是⼈类思维的⼯具，是认识成果的贮存所。
思维过程离不开语⾔，需要借助语⾔来进⾏⽐较、分析、综合等⼀系列活动，需要借助语⾔来形成思想，利⽤语⾔把它储存在头脑中，再借助语⾔把思想表达出来，传达给听话⼈，同时使听话⼈产⽣思想。
⽽且⼈类思维的成果－概念，还可以通过词语固定下来。
总之，思维活动的过程不可能离开语⾔⽽单独进⾏，思维离不开语⾔，必须借助语⾔材料才能进⾏。
语⾔也离不开思维，⼆者是互相依存，共同发展的。
（即语⾔和思维的关系）2、为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具？1) 语⾔存在于说话和所说出来的话中，说明语⾔在社会⽣活中具有⾮常重要的作⽤，因为不会说话⼈就失去了它的本质，与动物⽆异。
⼈们⽤语⾔进⾏交际，交流思想，以便在认知现实、改造现实的过程中协调相互之间的⾏为，以取得最佳的效果。
所以，语⾔是⼈们的⼀种交际⼯具。
2) ⼈类的交际⼯具不⽌语⾔⼀种，其它如⽂字、⼿势表情等也都能实现交际的任务，也是交际⼯具，但它们与语⾔相⽐重要性就要差多了。
根本上说⼈类各种辅助性交际⼯具，都是在语⾔基础上制定的，没有语⾔基础，这些⼯具也就失去了存在的意义。
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一、选择（20个）二、判断（10~20个）三、填空（5分）四、词语解释（3个，各5分）五、简答（2个，各10分；其中一个是语用学）六、句子分析（4个）IC analysis 是倒着的树形图Chomsky 是有S, NP,VP…与其中的树形图。
1. Phonetics & Language Introduction:1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is __B____one of the design features of language.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is __B__ . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement3. __C___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement4. ___D__ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn‟t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement5. ___D___ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission6. ___C___ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission7. To say “How are you. ”“Hi”to your friends is the ___C____of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic function (adj. 交流感情/交际应酬的)D. interrogative function8. “Tell me the result when you finish.”If you want to get your hearer to do something, you should use the ___B__ function of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic functionD. interrogative function9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _____.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. natural C. abnormal10. A linguist is interested in _______.A. speech sounds onlyB. all soundsC. vowels only C. consonants only11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [t]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate?A. [y]B. [t∫]C. [z]D. [dЗ]13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel?A. [ ə ]B. [ i ]C. [ou]D. [a: ]14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ?A. [ s ]B. [∫]C. [ l ]D. [θ]15. In the following sounds , ______ is a voiceless affricative ?A. [dЗ]B. [ v ]C. [t∫]D. [θ]16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel17. Of the “words”listed below, _____ is not an English word ?A. [r∧b ]B. [ læ b ]C. [məsta:∫]D. [lmæp]18. _____ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released.A. Back vowelsB. StopsC. Fricatives C. Glides19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in ______.A. 1965B. 1957C. 1888D. 178820. ____ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A. PhoneB. PhonemeC. AllophoneD. SoundII. Tell which statements are true or false.1. [ f ] is a dental consonant.2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methodsfor their description, classification and transcription.3. Phoneme is a phonological unit.4. Phone is a phonetic unit.5. When we study the different [ p ]’s in “[ pit ], [tip ], [spit ]”, they are similarphones which belong to phonetics.6. But the three [ p ] belong to the different phoneme / p /.7. The three / p / are allophones.8. ‘peak’is aspirated , phonetically transcribed as [ph]; ‘speak’isunaspirated （不送气的）phonetically[ p=].9. [ph ], [p=] do not belong to the same phoneme / p /.10. [p h] and [ p=] are two different phones, and are variants of the phoneme / p /,which is called ALLOPHONES of the same phoneme.key: BACDD CCACA DDABC DDBCB FFTTT FTTFTI. Choose the best choice(语音)1. Which is a voiced bilabial stop?A. [m]B. [v]C. [p]D. [b]2. Which is a voiceless affricate?A. [w]B. [f]C. [t∫]D. [n]3. Which is monophothong?A. [i]B. [au]C. [ai]D. [ei]4. Which is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]5. Which is a voiced affricate?A. [j]B. [z]C. [t∫]D. [dЗ]6. Which is a central vowel ?A. [i]B. [ə:]C. [ou]D. [a:]7. In English if a word begins with [l] or [r] , then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel8. Which is a palatal fricative?A. [s]B. [k]C. [∫]D. [l]9. Which is not a English word?A. [r ٨b]B. [læb]C. [sta:∫]D. [ lmæp]10. Which is a unaspirate?A. skyB. killC. likeD. kite2. Semantics 练习1._______ is not included in Leech‟s associative meaning.A. Connotative meaningB. Social meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Thematic meaning2. Among Leech‟s seven types of meaning is concerned with the relationship betweena word and the thing it refers to _______.A. conceptualB. affectiveC. reflectedD. thematic3. According to the referential theory, a word is not directly related to the thing it refers to. They are connected by ______.A. meaningB. referenceC. conceptD. sense4.”Big” and “Small” are a pair of ______ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. Converse5. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ______.A. gradable opposites B, converse opposites C. co-hyponyms D. synonyms6. A word with several meaning is called ______ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multiple7. The semantic compone nts of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as ___.A. +animate, +male, +human, -adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultA. +animate, -male, +human, -adult D. + animate, -male, +human, +adult8. _____ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of themeaning of each constituent word.A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD. Synonym9. In the triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards, “thought or reference” is____A. word, sentenceB. the objectC. conceptD. symbol10. A linguistic is interested in _____.A. What is said.B. What is right both in syntax and in semantics.C. What is grammaticalD. What ought to be said.11. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are _____.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. synonymsD. co-hyponyms12. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. Lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words13. What is t he meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip” ?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy14. The words “railway” and “railroad” are _____.A. synonyms differing in emotive meaningB. dialectal synonymsC. collocationally-restricted synonymsD. synomyms differing in styles15. The pair of words “wide/narrow” are called____.A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites16. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementaries?A. single/marriesB. lend/borrowC. hot/coldD. old/youngDACBB _BBBB BACBA AII. Answer the questions with “Yes”or “No” .1.Is reference tied to a particular time and place? Y2.Every word in a language can find at least one referent in the objective world. ?N3.Can different expressions have the same referent? Y4.Can reference be applied to words such as “and” ,”very” in English? NIII.State the following sentences “True” or “False”.1. Sense is regarded as a kind of intra-linguistic relationship. T2. In most cases, “sense” and “meaning” are different terms for the same thing. T3. Every word has its own sense. F4. A word may have several different senses and several words may have the samesense. T5. Extension, like denotation, is a kind of relation between elements and theobjective world. T6. Extension can only be applied to the things at present. F7. The relation between extension and intension is the same as that betweendenotation and sense. T8. People of different cultures may choose different prototype for the same predicate,e.g. …bus‟. T9. All the words in a language can be used to refer , but only some have sense. F10. Two synonymous words must be identical in sense in every dimension. F11. There are very few perfect synonyms in a language. T12. Entailment is more inclusive than paraphrase. T13. Almost every word in a dictionary is polysemic. T14. Dry and wet are a pair of gradable antonyms. T15. Innocent and guilt are a pair of relative antonyms. F Complementary16. The relationship between the Argument and Predicate is Subject to predicate.F17. The meaning of each expression can be defined in terms of its semanticcomponents so as to contrast with the meaning of all the expressions in the same language. T18. The proposition of a sentence may be more simply stated as a verb and a selection of case ---categories. T19. According to case grammar, the part of proposition in a sentence is a tensed set of relationships between a verb and a noun phrase ( or noun phrases).4. Exercises to Chapter 4 SyntaxI. General view of syntax1. Syntax: studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences.2. gender: as masculine, feminine, neuter, or animate, and inanimate.3. case: the syntaxtic relationship between words. Teacher‟s , kiss him宾格，主格，与格，芬兰语有15种格4．Concord: agreement: a syntactic relationship agree with each other.5. Government : A word determines the form of others.支配关系6. langue and paroleLangue: abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity. StabilityParole: actual speech7. signified (concept) and signifier (sound image)1. 所指 2 能指之间的关系是任意的8. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: what precedes or follows9. synchronic and diachronic linguistics10. “Rheme” “Theme”负载交际能力最小的是主位。