欧洲文明史大纲中各章思考题

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西方文化概论思考题

西方文化概论思考题 12新闻 46号刘家璘
十字军东征的原因：商业利益追求是十字军东征的主要原因。

1、这是罗马教会有目的的一场祸水东引运动，是一场根据教皇命令组织的神圣远征，“目的是把欧洲从大量虔诚的信徒坏蛋的手中解放出来。

”教皇教唆信徒们，为了获得上天对他们在本国所犯罪行的宽恕，所以让他们去异邦犯新的罪行。

这样一个堂而皇之又冠冕堂皇的借口，而且出自教皇之口，有足够的可信度，使得愚昧无知的穷困的西欧基督徒以神圣的名义去东方进行掠夺活动，而且想以此获得教皇的赦罪。

对于
2、世俗国王、贵族和骑士们来说，去东方建立拉丁王国和骑士领地有利可图。

早已对东方美丽的传说、辽阔的地域、肥沃的土壤和富庶的资源心驰神往。

3、对于罗马天主教会来说，
A. 十字军东征可以收复被异教徒占领的圣地
B. 也可以将闹独立的君士坦丁堡教会重新统一到罗马教会的旗帜之下
C. 还可以向西欧一切世俗权利充分显示教会在精神上和政治上的巨大
感召力。

世界史思考题

第二题
在完成现代化的历史进程中, 在完成现代化的历史进程中,英,法,美, 德等国的政治体制和政权组织形式发生了重大的变化.请你写出英国,法国, 了重大的变化.请你写出英国,法国, 德国历史上出现过的政体和颁布的宪法或具有宪法性质的法律文件. 或具有宪法性质的法律文件.
答案英国:政体: 权利法案》英国:政体:君主立宪制《权利法案》法国:政体:君主立宪,总统制, 法国:政体:君主立宪,总统制,君主专制 (拿破仑,复辟的波旁王朝) 破仑,复辟的波旁王朝)半总统制宪法(文件): 人权宣言》 ):《 1875年宪法年宪法》宪法(文件):《人权宣言》,《1875年宪法》, 1958年宪法年宪法》《1958年宪法》德国:政体:君主专制,议会共和制, 德国:政体:君主专制,议会共和制,法西斯独联邦制) 裁,总统制 (联邦制) 宪法: 1871年宪法年宪法》魏玛宪法》宪法:《1871年宪法》,《魏玛宪法》, 基本法》《基本法》
38,阅读材料,回答问题. 38,阅读材料,回答问题.
材料一:15世纪末开始,为了寻求海外财富, 材料一:15世纪末开始,为了寻求海外财富,西欧国家的航海家世纪末开始们纷纷扬帆远航,驶向茫茫大海, 们纷纷扬帆远航,驶向茫茫大海,陆续开辟通往世界各地的新航在激烈的贸易竞争和殖民地争夺中,世界市场逐渐形成, 路.在激烈的贸易竞争和殖民地争夺中,世界市场逐渐形成,经济全球化开端. 济全球化开端. 材料二:17至18世纪 19世纪初至19世纪中期是世界市场形成的两世纪, 世纪初至19 材料二:17至18世纪,19世纪初至19世纪中期是世界市场形成的两个重要时期.在这两个时期,西方资本主义国家疯狂对外扩张, 个重要时期.在这两个时期,西方资本主义国家疯狂对外扩张, 积极开拓世界市场,资本主义世界体系逐步确立. 积极开拓世界市场,资本主义世界体系逐步确立. 材料三:19世纪末20世纪初随着科技革命的深入, 世纪末20世纪初, 材料三:19世纪末20世纪初,随着科技革命的深入,人类进入电气时代,世界被列强瓜分,形成了资本主义列强支配的世界体系, 气时代,世界被列强瓜分,形成了资本主义列强支配的世界体系, 资本主义"全球化"趋势增强,世界形成一个整体. 资本主义"全球化"趋势增强,世界形成一个整体.第二次世界大战后,资本主义世界市场朝着制度化,体系化的方向发展. 大战后,资本主义世界市场朝着制度化,体系化的方向发展.20 世纪90年代以来,经济全球化成为世界经济发展的主要趋势之一. 90年代以来世纪90年代以来,经济全球化成为世界经济发展的主要趋势之一. 材料四:随着经济全球化的深入发展,反全球化运动也开始出现. 材料四:随着经济全球化的深入发展,反全球化运动也开始出现. 1999年世贸组织西雅图会议期间年世贸组织西雅图会议期间, 1999年世贸组织西雅图会议期间,发生了震惊世界的反全球化示并导致会议无果而终.在此后一些重大国际会议期间, 威,并导致会议无果而终.在此后一些重大国际会议期间,都爆发了反全球化的示威和抗议活动. 发了反全球化的示威和抗议活动. 以上材料均摘自《经济全球化趋势》 —— 以上材料均摘自《经济全球化趋势》根据材料和所学知识,试评述经济的全球化(22分根据材料和所学知识,试评述经济的全球化(22分)

(0174)《欧洲文化入门》复习思考题

（0174）《欧洲文化入门》复习思考题I. Complete each of following sentences with the most likely answer.1.____ culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C..a. Greekb. Romanc. Egyptiand. Chinese2. Two major elements in European culture are ____.a. the Greek and Romanb. the Judaism and Christianityc. the Greco-Romand. a and b3. ____ deals with the Trojan War (the Greek states led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy ).a. The Odysseyb. The Iliadc.Prometheus Boundd. Persians4. The play Prometheus Bound was written by _____.a. Aeschylusb. Aristophanesc. Euripidesd.Sophocles5. The best writer of comedy of the ancient Greece was ____ , who is Father of Comedy.a. Euripidesb. Aristophanesc. Sophoclesd. Aeschylus6. Herodotus , Father of History, wrote about the war between ____ .a. Athens and Spartab. Athens and Syracusec. Athens and Persiansd. Greeks and Persians7. _____ ever said that “ You can not step twice into the river?”a. Homeb. Heracleituec. Democritusd. Socrates8. _____ by Plato is a book about the ideal state ruled by a philosopher but barring poets.a. Dialoguesb. The Apologyc. The Republicd. Symposium9. Dante called _____ “ the master of those who know”.a. Aristotleb. Platoc. Socratesd. Archimedes10. Euclid is even now well-known for his ____.a. Elementsb. Poeticsc. Ethicsd. Politics11. The theory of ____ is that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.A. the Epicurans b. the Stoics c. the Sceptics d. the Cynics12. ____ has been a big subject for discussion among writers and artists.a, Discus Throwe r b, Venus de Milo c, Laocoon group d, Parthenon13. It is _____ who was the founder of scientific mathematics.a. Heracleitusb. Aristotlec. Socratesd. Pythagoras14. Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus in ______.a. 146 B.C.b. 27 B.C.c. 27 A. D.d. 30 B.C.15. In _____ the West Roman Empire ended when the last emperor of the West was deposed by the Goths.a. 27 B. C.b. 395c. 476d. 145316. After the 27 B. C. the Romans enjoyed a long period of peace lasting 200 years . It is known as _____.a. the Roman Lawb. the Roman roadsc. the Roman Empired. the Pax Romana17. ____by Julius Caesar are models of succinct Latin.a. The Aeneidb. Poeticsc. Commentariesd. Elements18. The great epic, The Aeneid, was written by _____.a. Lucretiusb. Virgilc. Julius Caesard. Cicero19. ____ wrote the philosophical poem On the Nature of Things to expound the ideas of Epicurus the Greek atomist.a. Lucretiusb. Crassusc. Julius Caesard. Pompey20. ____ is not Roman architecture.a. The Colosseumb. Pont du Gardc. The Parthenond. The Panthenon21. ____ is a statue which illustrates the legend of creation of Rome.a. The Colosseumb. Spoils from the Temple in Jerusalemc. Constantine the Greatd. She-Wolf22. _____ is by far the most influential in the West.a. Buddismb. Islamismc. Christianityd. Judaism23. _____ was the land promised by God to Abraham.a. Canaanb. the Middle Eastc. Egyptd. the Garden of Eden24. The word “Testament” means _____.a. Jesus Christb. God and Manc. the agreement between God and Mand. God and Christ25. The first five books, called ______, are the oldest and most important of the Old Testament of 39 booksa. Deuteronomyb.Exodusc. the Pentateuchd. Genesis26. Around 1300 B. C., Moses led the Hebrews to leave Egypt. With this began_____.a. Genesisb. Leviticusc. Numbers d the Exodus27. ____ is a collection of 150 poetic pieces.a. Book of Psalmsb.Proverbc. Book of Jobd. Ecclesiastes28. In ____ the Jews were carried away into the Babylonian Captivity(巴比伦之囚).a. 169 B. C.b. 586 B. C.c. 536 B. C. d, 721 B.C.29. In Babylon the Hebrews formed ____ to practice their religion.a. synagoguesb. lawsc. Paradised. the Law of Torah30. In ____, Emperor ____ made Christianity the official religion of the empire andoutlawed all other religions.a. 313, Constantineb. 305, Diocletianc. 64 A. D., Nero Caesard. 392, Theodosius31. Towards the end of ____ four accounts ( Gospels ) were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of ____.a. the 4th century, Christianityb. the 1st century, Jesus Christc. the 3rd century, Crucifixiond. 392, Christianity32. Revelation is the last book of ____.a.the Bibleb. Jesusc. the Old Testamentd. the NewTestament33. Juses went with his disciples to Jerusalem for the ____ , but was betrayed by Juda and caught at ____.a. Easter, Templeb. Passover, the Last Supperc. Big Day, the Last Supperd. high day, supper34. The most important and influential of English Bible is ____, first published in 1611.a. The Septuagintb. The Vulgatec.Wycliff’s versiond. Authorized version35. ____ is the oldest extant Greek translation of t he Old Testament.a. The Septuagintb. The Vulgatec. Wycliff’s versiond. Authorized version36. The standard American edition of the Revised Version appeared in ____.a. 1539b. 1885c. 1901d. 197937. It is generally accepted that ____ and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.a. the Bibleb. the English Biblec. the New Testamentd. the Old Testament38. In European history, the period between ancient times and modern times is also called ____.a. The Germanic Agesb. the Age of Faithc. Medievald. Scholasticism39. Under feudalism, ______ were the three classes of people of western Europe.a. clergy, knights and serfsb. Pope, bishop and peasantsc. clergy, lords and peasantsd. knights, nobles and serfs40. A knight was not pledged to ____.a. be loyal to his lordb. fight for the churchc. respect women of noble birthd. collect taxes41. In 1054, the Christian Church was divided into ____ and the Eastern Orthodox Church.a. Christianityb. the Roman Churchc. the Roman Catholic Churchd. the Western Catholic42. _______, ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, inspired the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.a. St. Thomas Aquinasb. Alfred the Greatc. Charlemagned. Roger Bacon43. _____ by Aquinas forms an enormous system and sums up all the knowledge of medieval theology.a. Summa Theologicab. Summa Contra Gentilesc. Opus maiusd. Beowulf44. The Anglo-Saxon epic ____ originated from the collective effort of oral literature.a. Song of Rolandb. the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.c. Beowulfd. the Divine Comedy45. Dante Alighieri’s masterpiece , _____, is one of the landmarks of world literature.a. Song of Rolandb. the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.c. Beowulfd. the Divine Comedy46. _____ were Ch aucer’s most popular work for their power of observation, piercing irony, sense of humor and warm humanity.a. Beowulfb. The Canterbury Talesc. Song of Rolandd. the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.47. The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, and it flourished during ____.a. the 11th and 12th centuriesb. the 12th and 13th centuriesc. the 12th and 14th centuriesd. the mid-12th and the end of 15th centuries48. Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between ____.a. the 13th and 15th centuriesb. the 14th and mid-17th centuryc. the 15th and 16th centuriesd. the 14th and 16th centuries49. ____ is the essence of the Renaissance.a.The revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman cultureb.Attempts to get rid of conservatismc.The flowering of paintings, sculpture and architectured.Humanism50. With ____ by Boccaccio the courtly themes of medieval literature began to give way to the voice and mores of early modern society.a. the Decameronb. Canzoniersc. Davidd. Sleeping Venus51. Fracesco Petrarch, the author of ____, is known as Father of Humanism.a. the Decameronb.Canzoniersc. Davidd. Sleeping Venus52. ____ , Father of political science in the West, wrote Prince and Discourses.a. Fracesco Petrarch,b. Dantec. Niccolo Machiavellid. John Calvin53. ____ , one of the creators of modern painting, was a close friend of Dante.a. Petrarchb. Giottoc. Boccacciod. Da Vinci54. Which one of the following is Da Vinci’s painting?a. The Ssistine Madonnab.Betrayal of Judasc. Sleeping Venusst Supper55. Which one is NOT true about Michelangelo?a. A Florentine painterb. A poetc. A towering figure of the Renaissanced. A musician56. Raphael was best known for his _____.a. Virgin Maryb. portrait paintingc. eleganced. short life57. The Reformation happened in the _____ century.a. 14thb. 15thc. 16thd. 17th58. The main idea of ____ was to make open protests against the indulgences.a.Martin Luther’s 95 Theseb.Wycliff’s Version of Whole Biblec. Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religiond. the Hus War59. The head of the Church of England is _____ .a. the Popeb. the king or queenc. the Archbishopd. Juses60. After Reformation, _____ came into being.a. Christianityb. Calvinismc. Lutheranismd. Protestantism61. “ What do I know?” is ____’s world-famous motto.a. Montaigneb. Ronsardc. Descartesd. Francis Bacon62.With the publication of Miguel de Cervantes’s _____ in 1602, the European novel entered a new stage.a. the Praise of Follyb. the Decameronc. Canzoniersd. Don Quxiode63. ____, a great Dutch scholar and humanist, published the first Greek edition of the New Testament.a. El Grecob. Erasmusc. Bruegeld. Durer64. Which was NOT true about Durer?a, The leader of the Renaissance in Germanyb, A master of woodcutc, Never being to Italyd, A follower of Martin Luther65. _____ discovered the Cape of Good Hope.a. Nicolaus Copernicusb. Bartholomen Diasc. Vasco Gamad. Amerigo Vespucci66. Father of modern astronomy is ____.a. Da Vincib. Amerigo Vespuccic. Nicolaus Copernicusd. Marchiavelli67. Andreas Vesalius’s work _____ marked the beginning of a new era in the study of anatomy.a. Fabricab. Lives of the Artist sc. the Revolution of the Heavenly Orbsd. Prince68. Vasari was best known for his entertaining biographies of _____.a. Fabricab. Princec. the Divine Comedyd. Lives of the Artist s69. _____’s laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of _____ .a.Kepler , heliocentric theoryb. Kepler , the laws of gravitationc. Galileo , the colors of the spectrumd. Copernicus, the laws of gravitation70. _____’s theories have given rise to important developments of modern science, ranging from Freudian psychology to Einsteinian physics.a. Galileo Galileib. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnizc. Sir Isaac Newtond. Johannes Kepler71. In the first _____ , Locke flatly rejected the theory of divine right of kings.a.the Advancement of Learningb.the New Atlantisc. Essay Concerning human Understandingd. Treatise of Civil Government72. Thomas Hobbes’s _____ is one of the most celebrated political treatises in European literature.a.Leviathanb.the Advancement of Learningc. Essay Concerning human Understandingd. Treatise of Civil Government73. The theme of _____ is the fall of men.a.New Methodb.Treatise of Civil Governmentc.Essay Concerning human Understandingd.Paradise Lost74. _____ was the best representative dramatist of French classical comedies.a. Corneilleb. Racinec. Molièred. Descartes75. Which of the following artists helped to bring the Roman Baroque style to its climax?a. Rubensb. Berninic. Borrominid. Caravaggio76. Whose doctrines of the separation of powers became one of the most important principles of the U.S. constitution? ______a. John Lockeb. Rousseauc. V oltaired. Montesquieu77. In which of Diderot’s works, the author developed his materialist philosophy and fore-shadowed the doctrine of evolutions as later proposed by Charles Darwin? ______a. Philosophical Thoughtsb. Rameau’s Nephewc. Elements of Physiologyd. Encyclopedia78. _____ , novelist, is often called the founder of English domestic novel.a. Walter Scottb. Henry Fieldingc. Samuel Johnsond. Samuel Richardson79. Which of the Lessing’s works was a landmark in the 18th-century German drama?_____a. Minna Von Barnhelmb. Laocoonc. Hamburgische Dramaturgied. Nathan the Wise80. In _____ , Goethe draws on a immense variety of cultural material. It is not only his own masterpiece but the greatest work of German literature.a. the Sorrow of Young Wertherb. Faustc. Wilhelm Meister’s Travelsd. Poetry and Truth81. Among Schiller’s works, _____ was a play best known to the Chinese audience.a. The Robbersb. Wallensteinc. Cabal and Loved. Wilhelm Tell82. Kant’s years of his philosophical studies are crystallized in three difficult books; among them ,_____ was the most important single book by any modern philosopher.a.General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavensb.Critique of Practical Reasonc.Critiquue of Judgementd.Critique of Pure Reason83. It has been said that “ the world had waited centuries for _____ and he was only to remain here a moment”.a. Beethovenb. Haydnc. Mozartd. Bach84. Which of the following writers or poets is usually called the father of European historical novel? ______.a. Goetheb. Victor Hugoc. Daniel Defoe d Walter Scott85. Romanticism, which developed in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, started from the ideas of ______ in France and from _____ movement in Germany.a.Rousseau, the Storm and Stressb. V oltaire, Hamburgischec. Diderot, Pantheismd. Montesquieu, Lyric Songs86. In 1798, _______, a volume of poems by Wordsworth and Coleridge, made literary history.a. Songs of Experienceb. Lyrical Balladsc. Isles of Greeced. Ode to the West Wind87. Which of the following Romantic writers ever fought for women’s freedom in love and marriage? _____a. George Sandb. Victor Hugoc. Daniel Defoed. Henry Fielding88. ______ stood in the van of the Romantic movement in Russia, ______ is generally recognized as his masterpiece.a. Lermontov, A Hero of Our Timeb. Pushkin, Luslan and Liudmilac. Pushkin, Boris Godunovd. Pushkin, Eugene Onegin89. The publication of Mickiewicz’s _____ is uaually taken as the beginning of Romanticism in Polish literature.a. Sonnets from the Crimeab. Konrad Wallenrodc. Ballads and Ramancesd. Pan Tadeusz90. _____ was among the first ones in European art history to comment in his art onthe events of the day.a. Goyab. Davidc. Delacroixd. Gericault91._____ was the foremost painter of the romantic movement in France.a. Goyab. Davidc. Delacroixd. Gericault92. Beethoven’s _____ is a choral symphony, choosing as a text for the finale Shiller’s Ode to Joy.a. Symphony No. 3b. Symphony No. 5c. Symphony No. 6d. Symphony No. 993. _____ sought to revolutionize the opera by making it a combination of the arts: dramatic, musical, and scenic.a. Berliozb. Chopinc. Wagnerd. Verdi94. Based on _____ , Marx and Engels developed their own dialectical materialism.a.the German classical philosophyb.the English classical political economyc.the Utopian Socialismd.the Manifesto of the Communist Party95. After his long and careful study, Marx discovered that _____ was the source ofprofit, the source of the wealth of the capitalist class.a. capitalb. surplus valuec. remunerationd. property96. Just as Darwin discovered the law of development of _____, so Marx discovered the law of development of _____.a.the survival of the fittest, the communist partyb.the natural selection, the scientific socialismanic nature, human historyd.natural species, historical societies97. _____, a French naturalist, developed the ideas on the evolution of animals 50 years before Darwin.a. Lamarckb. Lyellc. Marxd. Henslow98. In 1858 Darwin received a letter from _____, who, working independently, also came to the conclusion concerning the origin of the species by means of natural selection.a. John Stevens Henslowb. Charles Lyellc. Thomas Huxleyd. Alfred Russel Wallace99. According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, the evolution of species is the result of _____.a. survival of the fittestb. natural selectionc. all animal lifed. super-organic evolution100. In Europe, the realist movement arose in _____ of the 19th century and had its origin in _____.a. the 30s, Britainb. the 40s, Francec. the 50s, Franced. the 60s, Britain101. Zola defined the theory of _____ and illustrated it in his great work entitled _____.a.naturalism, Les Rougen-Macquartsb.naturalism, Madame Bovaryc.realism, the Human Comedyd.realism, the Charterhouse of Parma102. ____ was the first master of fiction in Russia to leave romantic conventions and go to life for his subjects.a. Nikolai Gogolb. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenevc. Fyodor Dostoyevskyd. Count Leo Tolstoy103. ____ was the first Russian author to gain recognition in the West.a. Nikolai Gogolb. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenevc. Fyodor Dostoyevskyd. Count Leo Tolstoy104. ____ by Fyodor Dostoyevsky is another study of criminal psychology.a. The House of Deathb. The Brothers Karamzovc. Crime and Punishmentd. Idiot105. _____ holds an important position in his own country’s cultural history as an ethical philosopher and religious reformer.a. Nikolai Gogolb. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenevc. Fyodor Dostoyevskyd. Count Leo Tolstoy106. Among Ibsen’s masterpieces, _____ is a plea for the emancipation of women. a. Ghosts b. A Doll’s Housec. the Wild Duckd. Hedda Gabler107. August Strindberg’s first significant play was _____ which is considered Sweden’s first great drama.a. the Son of Servantb. A Fool’s Defensec. Master Olafd. the Dance of Death108. Among Ch arles Dickens’s works, _____ has the most intricate, complicated plot.a. Oliver Twistb. Hard Timesc. David Copperfieldd. Bleak House109. _____, George Eliot’s masterpiece, is regarded by some critics as the finest English novel of the 19th century.a. Middlemarchb. The Mill on the Flossc. Adam Beded. Silas Marner110. _____, Whitman’s best known poem, expresses his grief over the death of Lincoln.a. Song of Myselfb. When Lilacs Last in the Dooeyard Bloom’dc. I sit and Look Ou td. Leaves of Grass111. _____ was noted for his great psychological subtlety and devotion to the art of fiction and was hailed as “ the Master beyond all masters”.a. Walt Whitmanb. Mark Twainc. Henry Jamesd. George Eliot112. Millet’s works, such as _____, generally depict one or two peasant figures quietly engaged in earthly or domestic toil.a. the Sowerb. the Stonebreakersc. the Portrait of a Ladyd. Burial at Ornans113. The term “ impressionism” was taken directly from the title of _____ Impressionism: Sunrise (1872).a. Renoir’sb. Pissarro’sc. Manet’sd. Monet’s 114. _____ was particularly good at doing portraits of ballet dancers in opera houses.a. Renoirb. Degasc. Monetd. Pissarro115. ______ reacted against impressionism by using color to suggest his own emotion and temperament.a. Paul Cézanneb. Paul Gauguinc. Vincent van Goghd. Auguste Rodin116. _____ led sculpture into the realm of Art for Art’s Sake , and was the first sculptor of genius since Bernini in Renaissance Italy.a. Paul Cézanneb. Paul Gauguinc. Vincent van Goghd. Auguste Rodin117. _____ has been described as the founder of modern musical impressionism.a.Claude Deussyb. Antonín Dvorákc. Sibeliusd. R. Strauss118. _____ was made up of many facets, such as symbolism, surrealism, cubism, expressionism, futurism, etc.a. Realismb. Naturalismc. Modernismd. Impressionism119. _____ discovered X-rays in 1895.a. Becquerelb. Roentgenc. Soddyd. Einstein 120. In Freudian system, _____ is the container of the instinctual urges.a. Idb. Oedipus Complexc. Superegod. Ego 121. T.S. Eliot’s long poem _____ is his major contribution to English poetr y.a.the Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrockb. Four Quartetsc. the Waste Landd. imagism122. _____ by James Joyce is considered his most mature work and the single best fiction ever written since the beginning of the 20th century.a. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manb. Dublinersc. Finnegans Waked. Ulysses123. The major theme of Thomas Mann’s novel _____ is the psychological effect of isolation.a. the Buddenbrooksb. the Magic Mountainc. the Counterfeitersd. Remembrance of Things Past124. Sholokhov established an international reputation for his monumental novel of Cossack life, _____ , written between 1925 and 1940.a. My Apprenticeshipb. The Strangerc. The Quiet Dond. Remembrance of Things Past125. The term “ Angry Young Man” came to be widely used only after the publication of _____ play Look Back in Anger (1956).a. John Osborne’sb. Kingsley Amis’sc. Allen Ginsberg’sd. Jack Kerouac’s126. _____ poem Howl, written in 1956, was regarded as an important development in American poetry.a. John Osborne’sb. Kingsley Amis’sc. Allen Ginsberg’sd. Jack Kerouac’s127. _____ is kno wn as the first “ cubist” novel: in his novels , one finds a precise, neutral description of things, registered with a camera’s eye.a. Samuel Beckettb. Nathalie Sarrautec. Jean-Paul Sartred. Alain Robbe-Grillet128. _____ masterpiece was a play called Waiting for Godot(1952), which was remembered as one of the most famous Absurd Drama.a. Nathalie Sarraute’sb. Samuel Beckett’sc. Jean-Paul Sartre’sd. Alain Robbe-Grillet’s129. _____ drew mustache upon Mona Liza, a photograph of Mona Liza, as if defacing a attack upon those who had betrayed the humanist idea of the Italian Renaissance.a. Marcel Duchampb. Umberto Boccionic. Salvador Dalid. Jackson Pollock130. _____ by Igor Stravinsky is among the most famous and most important compositions written in the 20th century.a.Symphony No. 7 in C major, Op.60 (Leningrad)b. A Survivor From Warsaw, Op.46 (chorus and orchestra)c.The Rite of Springd.The FirebirdII, Match the names of Column A with the appropriate items of Column B.Part OneColumn A Column B1. Sophocles a. the founder of the inductive method2. Democritus b. Don Giovanni3. Virgil c. one of the earliest exponents of the atomictheory4. Thomas Aquinas d. a universal genius5. Da Vinci e. The Execution of the Third of May6. John Calvin f. Eugene Onegin7. Andreas Vesalius g. the Oedipus complex8. Giorgio Vasari h. The Aeneid9. Goya i. Fabrica10. Percy Bysshe Shelley j. Prometheus Unbound11. Alessandro Manzoni k. Critique of Pure Reason12. Aleksander Pushkin l. The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs13. Immanuel Kant m. Encyclopédie14. Jean-Jacques Rousseau n. the first to use the term Renaissance15. René Descartes o. Institutes of the Christian Religion16. Francis Bacon p. the supreme figure in scholasticism17. Nicolaus Copernicus q. The Betrothed18. Jean Racin r. The Social Contract19. Diderot s. Phaèdra20. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart t. the founder of analytical geometryPart TwoColumn A Column B1. Karl Marx a. Symphony in E Major(“From the NewWorld”)2. Charles Darwin b. The Portrait of A Lady3. Stendhal c. The Charterhouse of Parma4. Anton Pavlovich Chekhov d. The German Ideology5. George Bernard Shaw e. Remembrance of Things Past6. Henry James f. Catch-227. Édouard Manet g. The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems8. Auguste Rodin h. Man and Superman9. Antonín Dvorák i. The Thinker10. Joseph Conrad j. Symphony No.7 in C Major( Leningrad )11. William Butler Yeats k. Portrait of A Man Unknown12. William Faulkner l. Lord Jim13. Marcel Proust m. The Luncheon on the Grass14. Jack Kerouac n. On the Origin of Species15. Nathalie Sarraute o. As I Lay Dying16. Jean-Paul Sartre p. The Man in the Shell17. Joseph Heller r. Being and Nothingness18. Max Beckmann s. On the Road19. Pablo Picasso t. The Dream20. Dmitry Shostakovich q. Three DancersIII. Decide the following statements true or false.1. Sappho was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece.2.Diogenes is chiefly noted for his doctrine that “ man is the measure of all things.”3.Venus de Milo was discovered in the island of Milo in 1920.4.Roman law eventually became the core of modern civil and commercial law inmany Western countries.5.The Romans greatly admired Greek works and freely borrowed from them. Andbesides being profound, powerful and beautiful, their own writings showed little originality.6.After 392 A.D., Christianity had changed from an object of oppression to aweapon in the hands of the ruling class to crush their opponents.7.The Bible is much more than a religious book; it is really an encyclopedia: history,literature, philosophy and record of great minds8.The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew, the New Testament in apopular form of Latin.9.During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. Theonly organization that seemed to unite Europe was feudalism.10.Some of the hermits were great scholars known as “ Father of the Church”, whosework is generally considered orthodox.11.Charlemagne wanted to rule as the emperors of Rome had done in ancient timesand e ventually was crowned “ Emperor of the Romans” by himself in 800.12.Dante’s the Divine Comedy while itself is the greatest Christian poem with aprofound vision of the medieval Christian world, expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance.13.The Gothic style started in France, quickly spread through all parts of westernEurope and flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 17th .14.Where the impact with Italy was most strongly felt in fine arts, in France it wasliterature and in England it was philosophy and drama.15.After Reformation, in religion, Protestantism brought into being different formsof Christianity to challenge the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church.16.Pierre de Ronsard wrote the first literary history criticism in the literary history ofFrance.17.Chritopher Columbus was discoverer of the New World and the Americancontinent was named after him.18.It is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Francis Bacon inEngland and with René Descartes in France.19.The Cartesian doubt is summarized in his motto: “ I doubt, therefore I think: Ithink , therefore I am.”20.Baroque art, flourished first in Spain was characterized by dramatic intensity andsentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and color.21.The designing and building of St. Paul’s Cathedral is the landmark in Frencharchitecture.22.The most important forerunners of the Enlightenment were two 17th centuryEnglishmen Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton.23.The three composers of the classical music , Bach ,Haydn and Mozart are knownas the Viennese School.24.The representatives of the Later Romantics in music are Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner,Verdi, Brahms, and Tchaikovsky.25.As Isaac Newton dominated 17th-century science with his discovery of the laws。

智慧树西方文明史导论问题详解(一)

智慧树西方文明史导论问题详解(一)智慧树西方文明史导论是一门非常基础且重要的历史课程。

在学习过程中，我们必须掌握许多核心问题，这些问题涵盖了西方文明的发展历程以及历史中一些重要的事件和人物。

在本文中，我们将对智慧树西方文明史导论中的一些重要问题进行详细的解释和阐述。

1.西方文明的起源是什么？西方文明的起源是一个复杂而多面的问题。

许多学者认为西方文明的起源可以追溯到古希腊和罗马文化。

这两个文化都对后世的西方文明产生了深远的影响。

在古希腊，哲学、政治和艺术得到了大力发展。

希腊人通过研究自然现象和人类行为，提出了许多重要的理论和思想，他们认为人类可以通过理性思维来探索世界的真理。

罗马则在军事、法律和政治方面进行了伟大的发展。

罗马共和国和罗马帝国的成立，对西方文明的形成和发展产生了深远的影响。

2.文艺复兴是怎么开始的？它在文化方面起到了哪些作用？文艺复兴是一个重要的历史时期，它发生在14至17世纪的欧洲。

它标志着欧洲文化、艺术和文学的重要变革。

文艺复兴的起源可以追溯到意大利，它是在城市重新兴起和贵族阶层重新崛起的背景下开始的。

在这个时期，人们开始对古希腊和古罗马文化进行重新学习。

人们开始对生命和人类存在的本质进行思考，产生了许多新的文学和艺术作品。

文艺复兴在文化方面起到了重要的作用。

它改变了人们的思考方式和审美标准，使人们开始重视科学和艺术。

它在建筑、雕塑、绘画和文学方面产生了许多重要的成果。

3.工业革命是怎么开始的？它产生了什么影响？工业革命是18世纪到19世纪期间在欧洲和美国发生的革命性变革。

它是一次从手工业制造到机械化和工厂化制造的重要转变。

工业革命的开始可以追溯到英国，这是因为英国有丰富的煤炭和铁矿资源。

随着机器的发明和生产技术的提高，工业生产的效率和规模得到了极大的提高。

工业革命对全球产生了深远的影响。

它引领了后来的科技革命和信息革命。

它改变了社会的生产方式和生活方式，使人们从传统的手工业过渡到工业化生产。

九年级上册历史第2单元《古代欧洲文明》预习提纲

九年级上册历史第2单元《古代欧洲文明》预习提纲第二单元古代欧洲文明第4课希腊城邦和亚历山大帝国一、希腊城邦1.地理位置：希腊半岛是古代希腊的主体，其地理环境呈现、多山、多岛屿的特点，平原面积很小，耕地身份有限。

一方面影响了希腊的统一，而另一方面适宜和的发展。

2.希腊文明的发展历程1）爱琴文明：希腊最早的文明产生于地区。

爱琴文明包括克里特文明和迈锡尼文明。

迈锡尼各国后来被多利亚人攻占，迈锡尼文明中断。

2）荷马时代：迈锡尼文明中断后，希腊进入相对落后的时代。

3）希腊城邦：公元前8世纪，希腊出现了几百个城邦。

城邦以一个城市或市镇为中心，把周围的农村联合起来，组成一个小国。

3.希腊城邦的特点希腊城邦的突出特点是“ ”。

小的城邦公民甚至不过几千人，最大的城邦是，领土也只有8400平方千米。

4.希腊城邦的居民居民分类及关系：分为和，是统治与被统治的关系。

二者界限分明，非公民想转化为公民极为困难。

公民权利：公民有参与统治的权力；只有公民才能占有土地，占有一定数量的土地也是公民权的必要保障。

公民义务：是公民的义务。

公民活动：城邦的宗教活动、节庆演出、文体竞赛都以公民为主体。

非公民：包括和。

外邦人虽然是自由人，但没有政治权力，不能占有土地。

奴隶几乎没有任何权力和自由。

二、雅典的民主政治1.地理位置：雅典城邦位于中部。

2.发展状态：经历几次改革后，雅典建立了，经济发达，国势强盛，一度成为200多个城邦的盟主。

3.民主政治：1）高峰：公元前5世纪中后期主政时期，雅典达到全盛，民主政治也随之发展到高峰。

2）内容：伯里克利完善了雅典的民主机制。

① 几乎都是从全体公民中抽签产生，这就使每一名公民都有参政的机会。

②代表各地的10个轮流主持城邦日常事务，召集公民大会。

这些主席团由各地产生，主席团主席也经抽签产生。

③ 是最高权力机构，具有立法、司法等多种职能。

④为了保证贫穷公民参政议政，伯里克利还建立了制度。

西方史学史思考题

一、古典时代1、古代希腊罗马史学的特点及其影响通常指古代希腊和罗马时代的史学，也被称为西方古典史学，西方史学的母体。

特点是：以人文主义观念为主导；注重历史的垂训作用；认真探索的求真精神；宽宏的历史眼光；注重历史著作的文采。

影响：成为西方史学的母体。

奠立&范型&精神&写作方法2、希罗多德和俢昔底德的史学贡献希罗多德：西方的“史学之父”撰写了西方史学的开山之作《历史》（《希波战争史》）。

其中表明了希罗多德的著史目的：道德垂训，歌颂民主制度（符合道德，优于专制）著史态度：求真求实（广泛收集，参证，互证史料）著史立场：放眼世界；注重“文化”；突破“华夷”之辨《历史》的基本特点：取材广泛、规模宏大、史料充实、内容丰富，堪称“通史”和“文化史”之作。

开创了欧洲历史著述的正宗体裁——“叙述体。

”写作特点：以散文为写作形式，以爱奥尼亚方言为基本语言，词汇丰富、文笔华美，具有高度的文学价值《历史》的自相矛盾之处：宿命论与批判精神；道德垂训与求真存疑原则修昔底德：传统范型的奠基人著史学则：求真求实的立场；坚持理智的批判态度；以叙述历史真实为最高目标。

政治叙事史的理论基础。

目的：试图站在世俗的立场上寻找历史事件之间的因果关系，从人事活动的角度总结伯罗奔尼撒战争的原因及其教训，用以垂训后世。

《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》：否定“命运”和“神意”对“人事”的干预；看到了某些个人的性格差异对历史进程产生的不同影响，甚至关键性作用；注重经济对战争进程的影响；从哲学的高度对雅典民主政治和原则进行赞扬3、李维和塔西佗的史学成就李维（《罗马史》，全称《罗马字建成以来的历史》）：创立了西方史学的通史体例（写作计划周密，涉历时间久远，内容广播、上下古今融于一体）；编年史+纪事本末；重在道德教育，宣扬爱国注意、振奋民族精神。

李维著史贵在道德教育、坚持独立精神；文体精炼、叙事写人生动逼真。

塔西佗：古罗马的修昔底德其史学成就代表了罗马史学发展的最高成就A.提出了“抽离自我”“超然物外”的客观主义治史原则，既是他史学成就的最高体现，也标志着西方史学本体的认识上达到了一个新高度B.赏罚分明C.写作技巧高超，文字风格独特词汇丰富雅驯，文笔多变不繁，语言精练，结构紧凑，文约事丰，言简意远；擅长塑造个性人物D.塔西佗历史研究的最大主题：反对暴君统治，怀念共和制度其著作意在鞭笞、意在揭露、意在发泄一个怀念共和制度的人对专制制度蓄之已久的愤怒情绪4、波里比乌斯的史学贡献“历史学家中的历史学家”A.提出了一套比较完整的史学理论和史学方法（独有的贡献）论述了历史研究和历史著述的领域、方法和目的（3个层次：排列处理文献档案；地质学；政治事务）；2个基本任务提出了关于研究历史事件之间的因果关系和历史的普遍联系性的理论。

(0560)《西方文化史》复习思考题

（0560）《西方文化史》复习思考题
一、名次解释
1、十二铜表法
2、塔西佗
3、罗马五大法学家
4、七艺
5、骑士精神
6、经院哲学
二、简述题
1、人类社会共经历了几种婚姻形态？
2．荷马时代部落或部落联盟实行军事民主制，它的主要机构是什么?
3．简述亚里士多德的哲学观。

4．简述中世纪大学的兴起与发展。

5．文艺复兴产生的社会背景？
6．试述马基雅维里有关政治学的主要观点？
7．为什么宗教改革首先发生在德国？
8．试述路德改革思想的意义？
9．试述卢梭《社会契约论》的主要观点及其意义。

10．简述巴洛克艺术的主要特点。

11．简述空想社会主义的主要人物及思想活动。

12．简述马克思主义劳动价值论与剩余价值论的主要内容。

13．简述马克思主义唯物史观的主要内容。

14．简述尼采的哲学思想。

15．简述精神分析学说的主要内容。

三、论述题
1．试论罗马法的主要内容及影响。

2．试评基督教对中世纪西欧文化的影响。

3．试论中世纪西欧的世俗文学。

4．论述科学社会主义理论产生的根源。

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目录第一章希腊文明 (2)1、希腊文明有哪些特点 (2)2、分析雅典民主制度的利与弊（P11） (2)3、希腊文明在哪些方面对欧洲文明的发展产生了重要影响。

(2)4、希腊文明的历史是如何体现其人本主义精神的 (3)第二章罗马文明 (4)1、西罗马帝国灭亡的原因。

（P23） (4)2、罗马共和国大规模军事征服取得成功的原因。

（P21） (4)3、罗马共和国是如何向帝制转变的。

（P21） (4)4、在罗马文明发展过程中都在哪些方面体现了罗马文明的规则性。

（？） (4)5、罗马文明都有哪些特点。

（P24） (4)第三章中世纪的基督文明 (4)1、简述政教之争。

（P35） (4)2、中世纪的西欧封建制度的具体含义是什么。

(4)3、分析基督教在欧洲中世纪的地位和作用。

(5)第四章文艺复兴 (5)1、比较欧洲主要国家的封建制度 (5)2、分析文艺复兴运动是如何体现其人文主义精神的。

(6)3、分析地理大发现的背景、条件及意义（P37） (6)4、分析文艺复兴、地理大发现、宗教改革运动是如何互相影响的。

(6)第五章启蒙时代 (7)1、分析启蒙运动对资产阶级革命的意义 (7)2、比较英法资产阶级革命的异同 (8)第六章工业文明 (8)1、第一次工业革命最早出现在英国的原因。

(P48) (8)2、简述德国统一过程中的三次王朝战争。

(P45) (8)3、分析由于德国的崛起给欧洲局势带来的巨大影响。

(P45) (8)第一章希腊文明1、希腊文明有哪些特点（一）、城邦制度发达（二）、工商航海业发达（三）、民主政治发达（四）、文化具有明显的人文主义和理性的特征2、分析雅典民主制度的利与弊（P11）3、希腊文明在哪些方面对欧洲文明的发展产生了重要影响。

纵观古希腊文化, 古希腊不同城邦的公民在自由、民主的空气下, 相互学习、相互竞争、努力创造, 由此涌现了无数的天才, 在文学艺术、哲学、宗教神话、政治学、建筑和自然科学等诸多方面均取得了巨大的成就, 并不断与世界其他民族的文化相互借鉴与吸收, 逐步使古希腊文明成为西方文明的摇篮; 古希腊文明中所倡导的哲学观、历史观、伦理道德观、社会与国家学说, 都对西方近现代社会发展发挥了不可替代的重要作用。

一、古希腊宗教神话文化为后世欧洲文学艺术的发展提供了肥沃的土壤古希腊的宗教与神话是紧密联系在一起的, 进一步说就是古希腊的各种神灵信仰是神话传说的思想基础, 而神话传说反过来又进一步丰富和发展了古希腊宗教, 神话是宗教的核心。

首先, 古希腊宗教没有经典教义, 没有教会组织及神职人员, 这种宗教的世俗性是希腊城邦理性主义的萌芽。

其次，神人同形同性的特点, 拉近了神与人之间的联系, 为希腊及以后的西方世界创作无数优秀的文艺作品提供了不竭的题材。

二、古希腊哲学开启了世界哲学研究的诸多领域, 奠定了哲学派别的基础古希腊留给西方哲学的遗产就是西方哲学的本身, 正如德国历史哲学家卡尔·雅斯贝斯所指出的: “古希腊城邦奠定了西方所有的自由意识、自由的思想和自由的现实基础。

”三、古希腊的文学艺术成就对西方文化的开创性影响史诗和悲剧是古希腊文学中的两颗明珠, 光耀夺目。

《荷马史诗》是欧洲最早的文学巨著, 成为欧洲文学的渊源, 是西方文学史上的开山之作除了史诗, 古希腊文学艺术的另一伟大成就是出现公元前5世纪雅典时期的悲剧。

当时雅典先后涌现出三大悲剧诗人。

埃斯库罗斯是第一位重要的悲剧诗人，有“悲剧之父”之称，是古希腊悲剧的真正创始人, 据说, 我们今天看到的戏剧演出时的布景、舞蹈、高底靴和轻飘鲜明的服装, 都是埃斯库罗斯首先采用而流传至今的。

索福克勒斯是三大悲剧家中最具有才华的一位。

在他的著作里突破了抒情诗式的悲剧形式, 诗歌队退到台外, 减少合唱的作用, 加强了戏剧的作用, 使悲剧艺术趋于完善。

在欧里庇得斯的作品中, 命运实际上已是人物自身的性格, 所以他的悲剧注重人物的心理描写, 以此表现发生在家庭伦理关系方面的可悲事件。

由于这一特点,欧里庇得斯被认为是开创西方家庭问题剧的第一人。

四、自然科学成就是西方科学的重要组成部分数学方面, 泰勒斯证明了许多几何学命题，毕达哥拉斯是西方最早证明勾股定理的人, 该定理也因此被称为毕达哥拉斯定理。

天文学方面, 泰勒斯曾正确地预言了公元前585 年5月28日的日全食; 毕达哥拉斯提出了宇宙是球形的, 其中心是“中心火”, 各天体都围绕它运行。

欧克多斯则提出了“地球中心论”, 认为地球是宇宙的中心, 并据此建立了世界上第一个宇宙几何模型。

他们中的一些理论今天仍为我们所借鉴。

生物学方面, 亚里士多德是一个百科全书式的学者, 他平时注重观察动植物, 亲自解剖动物, 著有《动物志》、《植物学》等著作, 并按照从低级的无生命到高级的动物界的不同层次对生物进行了分类, 这对后来的达尔文进化论也产生了较大的影响。

医学方面, 贡献最大的要数希波克拉底, 因为他第一次将医学从宗教迷信中解放了出来, 被尊为“医学之父”。

他著有60篇医学著作, 提出“四体液说”, 他还根据四体液把人划分为四种气质类型, 这种划分法在心理学中仍在沿用。

另外, 希波克拉底也很注意医德, 其医德规范被称为“希波克拉底誓词”, 誓词中宣布要处处为病人着想, 要保持医生及其行业的纯洁与神圣等, 这一直影响到今天欧洲医学组织制定医德规范。

4、希腊文明的历史是如何体现其人本主义精神的所谓希腊文化的精神，一言以蔽之，就是朴素的“人文主义”精神。

这种人文主义精神体现在他们的文化中对理性、美及自由的自觉追求之中。

希腊理性精神是深入彻底的反思和怀疑。

他们上天入地寻求事物的终极真理，这种彻底求真的精神孕育了希腊哲学、文学以及自然科学，于是就有了普罗塔戈拉提出“人是万物的尺度”，主张把人置于世界和社会的中心。

这种观点构成古希腊人文精神的基本内涵，对推动雅典民主政治和民众的思想起了启蒙作用。

古希腊文明成就中浓墨重彩的一笔就是其悲剧，古希腊的悲剧并不等同于悲感故事，其崇高和严肃是一场净化人心灵的教育。

希腊文化中的理性精神也表现在他们客观冷静地对待人生中的一场场悲剧：悲剧总在发生，问题的关键在于我们如何面对。

可以说，就是这种理性精神成就了希腊悲剧前无古人后鲜来者的成就。

古希腊尊崇个人和现世的土壤孕育了人神同形同性的神话传说基底。

流传至今的希腊神话传说的命运悲剧里，不论是阿喀琉斯还是美狄亚，他们都有一种强烈的悲剧抗争精神。

命运让他们承受巨大的不幸，面对为勇士慷慨赴死或是苟且偷生，忍受被遗弃的痛苦或者为自己抗争的选择中，他们理智而决绝地取舍，敢于抗争、殊死搏斗，敢于为自己的行为后果承担责任，他们较之常人更具有独立自主和超越死亡的气魄。

正是这种强烈的悲剧精神，让希腊悲剧的悲剧性和希腊精神的理性追求格外强烈集中。

希腊悲剧中的英雄在从抗争到毁灭、对生命执著不休的过程中，人格力量得以提升，人的精神境界得以升华，人的价值得以最充分的显示，因此而使人们敬重、叹服、仰慕他们。

尼采说：“悲剧恰好证明，希腊人不是悲观主义者。

”古希腊文明理性精神中这种对于英雄的崇拜而不是对于单纯“神”的崇拜，正是人文主义颂扬人的价值、尊严和力量的思想表现。

这种思想也使希腊人产生一种用乐观主义态度勇敢地直面现实，直面生活中的悲剧的精神。

希腊人对美的崇拜是对于自然的崇拜，主要表现为对人的自然形体的崇拜。

他们认为只有自然才是最美的，而人是自然的一部分，是自然美的精华。

这是西方文化的伊甸园时代，肉体和精神并没有因为差别而对立。

希腊人眼中的美要求智力与健强并重，原始质朴，自然和谐，“思想者”的雕塑就是这一观念的最好证明。

他们对美的追求同样体现出一种人文主义精神，并将这种精神籍由运动会传承至今。

今天的奥运会不仅是运动场，更是人文主义教育的大课堂，培育的是对个人的体力成就的崇尚、对个人价值的发掘与发扬，其精神背后的价值支柱是人的崇拜，尤其是个人及其潜能与英雄人格的崇拜。

希腊人文主义精神的另一表现就是对个体与精神自由的追求，对命运的反抗。

从俄狄浦斯王到美狄亚，他们所传达的都是一种不屈的抗争精神以及对人性自由的不懈追求。

当理想遭遇现实的阻力，强烈的破灭感反而激起他们对自由与理想更强烈的渴望和坚持为自由意志献身的精神。

希腊人身上那种不可磨灭的自由主义精神，是希腊民族精神中自由独立的意志的表现，同时，对人性自由的崇尚也是人文主义重要的一环。

直到今天，希腊国旗上蓝白相间九条文代表的“不自由，毋宁死”这句话的九个首字母，仍昭示着他们追求自由的信念。

正是希腊人这种对自由与理性自觉追求的人文主义精神，让希腊文化显示出一种高贵静穆之态，也正是这种人文主义精神使我们在希腊文化中看到了希望与爱，看到了生命与存在。

也许，这才是希腊文化最终要告诉我们的。

正如希腊德尔斐神庙上所示——认识你自己。

第二章罗马文明1、西罗马帝国灭亡的原因。

（P23）2、罗马共和国大规模军事征服取得成功的原因。

（P21）3、罗马共和国是如何向帝制转变的。

（P21）罗马共和国后期,军阀割据,内战不断,人民处在水深火热之中.自屋大维登基称帝之后,国家安定,经济发展.其实罗马早期的共和制转变成帝制也是历史发展的必然:当罗马贵族腐化堕落,变得软弱无能时,元老院就无法维持他们的统治,国家的动荡使得人们期望出现一个强有力的统治者.这种现象还出现在其他国家, 如法国拿破仑称帝,英国克伦威尔就任护国主,都是在国家动荡不安时由共和制转为帝制的典型。

在政治体制上应该是一个退步，专制独裁的帝制和共和制比起来的优劣我想大家已经很清楚了，但从实际效果来说也可以说是一种罗马社会历史发展的必然趋势，由于斯巴达克起义给罗马政权造成的冲击，导致元老院的权力开始集中到几个少数人手中，就像汉尼拔给罗马造成的冲击一样，不过这次掌权的人的权力更大，已恺撒，苏拉和克拉苏为首的前三巨头已极大地剥夺了元老院的权力，其中最重要的是元老院失去了对海外行省和军队的控制，这就导致了元老院势必只能作为拥有兵权的三巨头的傀儡，而当恺撒打垮其他二人时，拥兵自重的恺撒当然成为罗马的实际统治者，而屋大维在军事上的胜利则进一步把元老院推到了尴尬的境地，屋大维时期应该已经是罗马共和制崩溃的前兆，戴克里先只是享受了一下前人的成果罢了。

4、在罗马文明发展过程中都在哪些方面体现了罗马文明的规则性。

（？）5、罗马文明都有哪些特点。

（P24）第三章中世纪的基督文明1、简述政教之争。

（P35）2、中世纪的西欧封建制度的具体含义是什么。

①封建主之间形成了特殊的封君封臣关系；②形成了与封主封臣制相适应的封土制度；③中央权力衰落，各封建主在其领地内有独立的政治权力。

3、分析基督教在欧洲中世纪的地位和作用。

基督教对中世纪欧洲的影响已经渗入到社会的各个方面。