Characteristics of Implicature
语言学题库
语言学题库：Chapter 11. Read the following passage carefully and then state your own position concerning the use of knowing some linguistics. ( 2007, 中国人民大学研究生入学试题)One famous scholar says that language is an interesting subject to study on its own right, for the simple reason that everybody uses it every day. It is unbelievable that we know very little about something we are so familiar with. Just a few questions will arouse our interest in language. Why should we call the thing we sit on chair? Can’t we call chair table and table chair? How is ti that children don’t seem to make a big effort in learning their first language while we adults have to word very hard to learn a second language? Why can we talk about yesterday and last year while cats and dogs never seem to make noises about their past experience? Do you think we can think as clearly without language as with language? Does language determine what we think or thought determines what we say? These questions make us curious about language and linguistics can satisfy our curiosity. To seek the answer to any of these questions is a good reason for studying linguistics.I. Please disambiguate each of the following ambiguous sentences by means of tree diagrams.1. She showed her baby pictures.2. The old man was drinking in the open air.3. John left directions for Tom to follow.4. The young bachelor hit the color ball.5. Leave the book on the shelf.6. John saw a girl with a telescope.7. more beautiful flowers8. I went to the bank. (? Polysemy/ homonymy)II. To what extent can we say that constituent analysis is more informative than traditional linear structure analysis?Key points: 1) what is IC Analysis?2) What is traditional linear structure analysis? The weakness of the approach.3) The advantage of IC Analysis北京师范大学2007 年硕士研究生入学考试（英语语言学试题）第一部分：基础题本专业所有方向的考生都必须答此部分试题（1-8题）1. Define the following concepts. (20 points)1) Phoneme2) Deep Structure and Surface Structure3) Speech Act Theory4) The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis2. Explain why the sentence John saw a girl with a telescope is ambiguous, and explicate the ambiguity by drawing two or more syntactic trees for the sentence. (10 points)3. What are gradable antonyms? Explain the concept with example. (10 points)4. Read the following passage and state what wrong is with the use of “hello”from thesocio-cultural perspective.A group of Chinese girls who just arrived at the U.S for their university educationdecided to visit the city of New York together. Since their school was not very far from the city, so they planned to take a Greyhound bus to go there at the weekend. Saturday morning, they got up early and after two hours’ drive thy got to the downtown of the city. They stayed there for a couple of hours, shopping sn sightseeing happily. Everything seemed OK until it was the time for them to go back---- they suddenly realized that they lost their way back to the Greyhound bus station. What made the situation worse was that it was getting darker. In despair, they stopped at a corner on the street and decided to ask for help. At this moment they saw a young couple passing by so they said “Hello!” to this couple. To their surprise, thee couple looked at them coldly and hustled on. Having no way out, they approached to the next group of passersby and tried a louder “Hello!” this time. Again they got nothing but a cold shoulder from these city people.5. Compare and Contrast the following Pairs of terms. Use examples if necessary. (20 points)1) Language learning and language acquisition2) Field dependence and field independence3) Contrastive analysis and error analysis6. Scholars have tried to explain how human beings acquire or learn the language. There are twomajor schools of thought in language learning theories, empiricism and mentalism. Please define and explain these two terms, and then make comments with your own point of view. (10 points)7. It is believed that the study of language (linguistics) is closely related to language teaching. Inwhat ways do you think linguistic studies contribute to the research and practice of language teaching? (10 points)8. Some language teachers argue that we should “teach the language” rather than “teach about thelanguage”. What are the major differences between these two approaches to language teaching?(10 points)南开大学2007年硕士研究生入学考试英语语言学试题I Define each of the following terms (8%)1. Approximant2. Coarticulation3. Arbitrariness4. Complementary distributionII. Work out the distinction features of the following sounds. (10%)1. [t h] ______________________________________________2. [w] _______________________________________________3. [v ] _______________________________________________4. [ɵ ] _________________________________________________5. [ l ] ________________________________________________III. Fill in the blanks with the words that are most appropriate in the given context. (8%)1. In terms of the meanings expressed by words, they can be classified into _____ words and_______ words.2. _______ is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology andmorphology.3. A sentence structure that is made up of layers of word groups is called a _____ structure. IV. Answer the following questions. (12%)1. Describe with tree diagrams the transformations involved in forming the question “Does Johnlike the book?”2. The British linguist F. R. Palmer argues that “There is no absolute distinction betweengradable antonyms and complementary antonyms.”Do you believe so? Support your view with examples.V. Answer the following questions and try to elaborate the points indicated in questions wit knowledge you have acquired. (12%)One of the characteristics of conversational implicature is CANCELLABILITY. What is the basic working principle of CANCELLABILITY? How can we use it to make our meaning well expressed?。
Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用
semantic
pragmatics
1.What Is Pragmatics?
• It is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader. • It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. • A general definition of pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
• • • • • •
Prediction analysis: DOG(BARK);BAG(BEING HEAVY) An utterance In a certain situation with a certain purpose Some possible interpretations How to understand the sentences depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
• 8.3.1 Relevance theory
CP 合作原则
Characteristics of implicature
Non-detachability: (不可分离性) A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic component of what is said, not to the linguistic form. E.g. He is a bad friend.
The maxim of Quantity
E.g. (1)甲：今天中午吃了什么？ 乙：蛋炒饭。 (2)酒馆
The maxim of Quality
E.g. (1) China is a developing country with a large population. (2) Syntax is more abstract than pragmatics.
Paul Grice (1913-1988) philosopher of language
Conversational Implicature
E.g. (1) A: Let‟s go to the cinema this evening. B: We‟ll have the English exam tomorrow. How can the speaker convey more (2) A: Can yousaid and the time? than what is tell me how the hearer can Well, the milkman has come. B: arrive at the speaker’s meaning?
Characteristics of implicature Click to add Title
语言学教程第八章知识点
Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
语言学 考试题型 标准答案
题型I．简答题5×1’=5’例：类似于自由词素、词根、词干、连着词素、曲折词素等待解释II．判断正误T/F 20×1’=20’例：动词是逆构词法中产生最多的词。
III．单项选择题20’例：奥斯丁、姆斯金、德莱斯提出的理论？IV．写音标10×1’=10’P35～36V．划分词素10×3×0.5’=15’VI．翻译10×1’=10’分英翻汉和汉翻英例：合作原则、聚合关系、组合关系、曲折后缀、词缀、前缀、后缀VII．选择答题2×5’=10’VIII．树形图给词，分析意思，是否有歧义？用树形图解释出来。
样卷AI．1. displacement2. pragnatics3. stem4. syntax5. hyponymyII. T/F9. Lang is arbitrary to the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to. F10. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language. F11. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in umber, and yet there is no limit to the umber of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. F12. Agreement is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each in terms of categories. T13. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use; it originated with John Langs Shaw Austin. T14.15.Vibretion of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voucing. F?16. The word ―flower‖ is the super ordinate of the typonyms ―rose‖―tulip‖ and ―rose‖. T 17．Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. T18.The English sound [m]is a bilabial nasal voice. T19. A study of the features of the Chinese used in the Tang Dynasty in diachronic study. T?20.While English has borrowed most heavily form French, other languages have also made their contributions. F21. Inflectional affixs are those whose major function is to attach themselves to the morphemes to form a new word. F22. A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable. F23. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. F24. The phrase ―green house‖ with the first element stressed means ―a house which is green in colour‖ F25. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order. F26. The compound word ―book store‖ is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaning of its compounments. F27. Only when a maxim under cooperative principle is blatantly violated can the hearer know that it’s being violated and conversational implications arise. T28. The word ―photo graphically‖ is made up of 4 morphemes. TIII.29. The famous quotation from Romeo and Juliet arose by any other name world smell as sweet well illustrates: the conventional nature of language.30. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it’s a said to be: descriptive.31. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? Phonology32. Phonetially, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element.33. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic……36. The word ―trasist~‖ is formed through: lending37. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of classed displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns.38. Concord is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.39. Chomsky uses the term performance to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic com.40. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][s][d][z][n] share the feature of P3541. Translate formational Generative Crammer was introduced by N. Chomsky in 1957.42. The relationship between ―married/ single‖ is complementary.43. Of the 3 speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because of this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.44. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are synomy~s.45. The function of the sentence ―A nice day, isn’t it?‖ is 寒暄46.47. We can do things with words ―this‖ is main idea of the speech act theory.48. The utterance―we are already working 25 hours a day, 8 days a week‖ obviously violates the maxim of quantity.IV.49. voiceless dental fricative50. high front tense unrounded vowel51. voiced alveolar stop52. high back tense rounded vowel53. voiceless bilabial stop54. voiced labiodental fricativeV.55. What are the 4 maxims of the cooperative Principle?56. What are the distinctions between inflectional affix and derivational affix? VIII.Leave the book on the shelf.①leave the book on the shelfPut the book on the shelf.②leave book on the shelfKeep away from the book on the shelfnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design Features of LanguageArbitrariness (Saussure)This feature means that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. DualityThe elements of the spoken language are sounds that do not convey meaning in themselves. CreativityBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. DisplacementThis means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3.Functions of Language(1) Informative FunctionLanguage serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker thinks, to give information about facts.(2) Interpersonal functionThis is by far the most important socio-logical use of language. People establish and maintain their status in a society.(3) Performative FunctionThis function is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. (5) Phatic communionIt refers to the social interaction of language which is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.(6) Recreational functionThis function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.(7) Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about language itself.4.What is linguistics?Linguistics is scientific discipline with the goal of describing language and speech in all relevant theoretical and practical aspects and their relation to adjoining disciplines.5.Main Branches of Linguistics*PhoneticsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.* MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning---morphemes and word-formation processes.*PhonologyIt studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.*SyntaxIt is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.*SemanticsIt examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.*PragmaticsIt is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.6.Important Distinctions in Linguistics*Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is DESCRIPTIVE if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is PRESCRIPTIVE it tries to lay down rules for “correct‖ behavior.* Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic description refers to a language description at some point in time;Diachronic description is about a language description as it changes through time.* Langue & paroleLANGUE refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;PAROLE refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.*Competence & performanceCompetence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language;Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance.7.CONSONANTS and VOWELSConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity;A vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.8.Manners of Articulation*Stop (or plosive)(爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth.There are two kinds of stops: oral stops and nasal stops* Fricative(摩擦音): close approximation of two articulators so that the air-stream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.* Approximant(无摩擦延续音):This is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air-stream is produced.* Lateral(舌边音): obstruction of the air-stream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.* Affricates (破擦音)：When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates. In English there are two affricates.* Nasals (鼻音):When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English.* Glides (滑音):They are som etimes called ―semivowels‖. They are produced with a narrower passage between the lips and the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction. In English, they are [w,j]9.The place of Articulation* Bilabial(双唇音):In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. In English, bilabial sounds include [p,b,m]* Labiodental(唇齿音):In the obstruction of these sounds, the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f,v* dental(齿音):The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English.* alveolar(齿龈音):The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t,d,s,z,n,l,r]* palatal(颚音):The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.* velar(软腭音):The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum(软腭), or the soft palate.* glottal(喉音):The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English: [h].10.Classification of English vowels* Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.11.12.The Phoneme theoryThe phoneme simply refers to a ―unit of explicit sound contrast‖13.Allophones(音位变体)Peak and speak are not actually pronounced as they are transcribed in dictionaries.We know that in English there is a rule that this sound is unaspirated after /s/ but aspirated in other places. In what we have talked about, different variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution(互补分布) because they never occur in the same context.14.Assimilation(同化)*This is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.*There are two possibilities of assimilation:If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation(逆同化);The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation(顺同化).* Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown in the following:pancakesunglassesYou can keep them.He can go now.Define the following termsconsonant phoneme allophoneWhat is assimilation?15.SuprasegmentalsThe syllable structureStressIntonationTone16.Identification of words*StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement.* Relative uninterruptibility:This means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing can be used to insert in the three parts of the word disappointment: dis+appoint+ment.* A minimum free form:This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as ―the maximum free form‖ and word ―the minimum free form‖, the latter being the smallest unit that can constitutea complete utterance.17.Classification of wordsVariable & invariable words*Variable words refer to those that we can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms, for the word write, there are several grammatically different forms: wrote, written, writing* Grammatical words & lexical words:Those which express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words, also known as function words. Those which have lexical meanings,i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words, also known as content words.* Closed-class words and open-class words:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.New expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.* Word class:Traditionally, we had such word classes as ―n. adj. v. adv. prep. etc.‖ But here are some of the categories newly introduced:a. ParticlesThey include the infinitive m arker ―to‖, the negative marker ―not‖ and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as ―get by‖, ―do up‖, ―look back‖.Chapter Three: Morphologyb. AuxiliariesAuxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs, but linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class:Negation: I can’t come. *I wantn’t come.Inversion: Is he coming? *Keeps he coming?Code: I’ll come and so will Bill.*I intend to come and so intend Bill.Emphasis: He has come. *He seems to come.c. Pro-formIn order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, it is advisable to regard pro-form as a separate word class.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: Jane’s hiding there, behind the door.d. Determiners:This is a new word class which refer to words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference: the, a, some, all, etc.Quirk, et al proposes that there are three subclasses of determiners:Predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third,etc.Central determiners: the, a, this, that, these, those, etc.Postdeterminers.next, last, past, other, (a) few, much, etc.18.The formation of word* Morpheme & morphologyMorpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g.boys---boy+-schecking---check+-ingdisappointment---dis-+appoint+-mentMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. For example, the verb purify consists of two parts: pur(e) and –ify, from which we can work out a rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may explain the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ify, such as simplify, beautify, amplify,etc.* Types of morphemesa. Free morpheme and bound morphemeMorphemes can be classifies into two types.Those which may occur alone, i.e. those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. E.g. close, dog, nation are free morphemes. All monomorphemic words are freemorphemes. And polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds.Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur alone and must appear with another morpheme, e.g.nations---nation+-s; dogs---dog+-sworked---work+-ed; reading---read+-ingThe word distempered has three morphemes: dis-, temper, -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme while dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes* Root, affix and stemPolymorphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.a. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e.it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved, e.g.bound morphemes: inter-, -al, -isminternationalismroot: nationAll words contain a root morpheme.b. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three types: prefix, suffix and infix, depending on the position with reference to the root or stem of the word.prefix: dis-, mono-, poly-, un-, pre-, in-, re-suffix: -er, -ism, -ify, -tion, -ly, -ologyinfix: tooth/teeth, foot/feetA root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound. Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words such as black in blackboard, blackbird,blacksmith. And there are few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive, in receive, perceive and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit; -cur in incur, recur and occur.c.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.* Inflectional affix and derivational affixThis is also a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. Inflectional affixes in English are used to show various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case, e.g. –(e)s, -ing, -er, -est, -’s, -ed. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class while derivational affixes very often change the lexical meaning.19.Inflection and word formationInflection: It is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached, e.g.a. number: table/tables, car/carsb. person, finiteness and aspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc. case: boy/boy’s, John/John’sWord formation: It refers to the process of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type(derivation).pound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as icecream, sunrise.b.Derivation: It shows the relation between roots and affixes.20.Morpheme and phonemeA phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. A single may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. The phoneme /z/ in goes represents the third-person singular present tense morpheme –es, but /z/ occurs very often when it has nothing to do with this specific morpheme.Let’s look at the following examples:a. boysb. boy’sc. raiseIn a, the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme; in b, it represents the morpheme that means the possessive case. But in c, it means nothing at all.21.Lexical change*Invention(新创词语)Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xeros Frigidaire, granola* Blending(混成法)It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word. E.g.(See P97)*Abbreviation(缩写词)It is also called clipping, i.e. a new word is created by the following processes:i. Cutting the final part: ii. Cutting the initial partadvertisement ----- ad aeroplane ---- planebicycle ---- bike telephone ---- phonetelevision ---- telly omnibus ----- busiii. Cutting both the initial and final partsinfluenza ---- flu refrigerator ---- fridge* Acronym (缩略语)It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E.g.WTO--World Trade Organization （世贸组织）UNESCO--United Nations Education Science &Cultural Organization (联合国教科文组织)scuba—self-contained underwater breathingapparatus (配套的水下呼吸器)*Back-formation (逆构词法)It refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E.g.television/televise editor/editlaser / lase calmative/calm*Analogical creation (类推造字法)In the conjugation of some English verbs, there is a co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular. E.g.old newwork wrought workedbeseech besought beseechslay slew slayedChapter Three: Morphology* Borrowing (借用词)English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. E.g.Chinese: taji, chowmien, wok, kung-fu, etc.There are several types of processes with regard to borrowing. Let’s take a look at the following:ii. Loanblend (混合借词)：It is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E.g.coconut (Spanish+English)China-town (Chinese+English)iii. Loanshift（转移借词）:It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E.g.bridge from Italian ―ponte‖;artificial satel lite from Russian ―sputnik‖iv. Loan translation (翻译借词)：This is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.E.g. ―almighty‖ translated from Latin ―omnipotens‖―free verse‖ translated from Latin’s ―verse libre‖―black humor‖ translated from French ―humour noir‖22.Semantic changeThere are five types of semantic changes:Broadening(词义扩展)：It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. E.g.―holiday‖ used to mean ―holy day‖;it means ―a day for rest‖.(more examples on P108)Narrowing (词义缩小)：The original meaning can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. E.g.―meat‖ used to mean ―food‖ in the 7th century;but the meaning is restricted to ―the edibleflesh of mammals‖.(More examples on P108)Meaning shift(词义转换)：This means that the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above. What makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. E.g. ―bead‖ originally means ―prayer‖, but later it refers to ―the prayer bead‖, finally ―small, ball-shaped p iece of glass, metal or wood.‖Class shift(词类转换)：By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notionto a process or attribution. It is also known as zero-derivation or conversion. E.g.―engineer‖ as n. means ―a person trained in a branch of engineering‖, but it means ―to act as an engineer‖ when used as a verb.Folk etymology (俗词源学、民间词源)：It refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.23.SyntaxThis word is derived from Greek and is composed of two morphemes: /syn/(together) + /tax/(to arrange). In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.24.Syntagmatic relation (组合关系)It is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. There are syntactic and semantic conditions that the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet. For example,a. The boy kicked the ball.b. *Boy the ball kicked the.c. *The ball kicked the boy.25.Horizontal Relations. (替代词关系)26.Paradigmatic relation (聚合关系)It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.For example, what should be filled in the blank?The _______ is smiling.Only singular human nouns like boy, girl, man, woman, student, baby, doctor, nurse, etc.27.Endocentric and exocentric constructions*Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It also known as a headed construction.*Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases.Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes:Exocentric construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center, or head, in it. Prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, e.g.prepositional phrases: in the school, on the desksubordinate clauses: if he is going28. CategoryNumber: 数字 Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural …Gender: 性别Gender displays such contrasts as ―masculine: feminine: neuter ‖.Case: 场合Agreement: 认同29. <Leech> Semantics7 types of meanings (G. Leech, 1974):7. ThemanticAssociative meaning (meaning （主题意义）—what is communicated by the way inwhich the message is organized in terms of order & emphasis.联想意义)：2. Connotative meaning —what is communicated by virtue of what language（内涵意义）refers to.3. Social meaning —what is communicated of the social circumstances of（社会意义）language use.4. Affective meaning —what is communicated of the feelings & attitudes of the（情感意义）speaker/writer.5. Reflected meaning —what is communicated through association with another（反映意义）sense of the same expression.6. Collocative meaning —what is communicated through association with words（搭配意义）which tend to occur in the environment of another word.1. Conceptual meaning Logical, cognitive, denotative content30. The referential theory. <Ogden, Richards> The meaning of Meaning。
天津外国语大学801英语语言文学历年考研真题
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unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.
5) _____refers to the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Section Four:英语语言学方向 分 (70 points) Questions in this section are set for applicants to the MA program of English Linguistics. 1.Multiple Choice: (20 points) Directions: Fill in the blanks with appropriate linguistic terms or answer the questions as required. Write the answers on the ANSWER SHEET. 1) ____means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 2) ____________ deals with the way in which speech sounds are produced. 3）____________ refers to a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. 4）____________is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a
IMPLICATURE 语用学
A: Shall we hold the football match tomorrow?
B: It is raining.
Semantic and literal meaning: his answer unrelated to the question. Intended meaning: the football match will be canceled as ground is wet and slippery after the rain.
(c) Carmen: I hear you’ve invite Mat and Chris. Dave : I didn’t invite Mat. (Did Dave invite Chris?) →Dave invited Chris.
The notion of implicature provides some explicit account of how it is possible to mean more than what is actually “said” , or more than what is literally expressed.
a) Tom : Are you going to Mark‟s party tonight? Annie : My parents are in town. (No.) Shared knowledge : Annie‟s relation with her parents b) Tom : Where‟s the salad dressing? Gabriel : We‟ve run out of olive oil. (There isn‟t any salad dressing.) Shared knowledge : Oliver oil is a possible ingredient in salad dressing and they only use salad dressing made from olive oil.
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1> if any of them changes, the implicature will also change.
Eg:
a: John has three cows. b: John has only three cows. c: John has three cows,if ont more. d: John has at least three cows.
2> A conversational imlicature may even be cancelled simply by the situational context.
Eg:Βιβλιοθήκη <iii> Non-detachability 不可分离性
A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Eg:
a: John is a genius. b: John is a mental prodigy. c: John is an enormous intellect.
<iv> Non-conventionality 非常规性
Entailment: is a logical relationship between two sentences
Eg:
a: I saw a boy. b: I saw a child.
a: John has some cows. b: John has some animals. c: John something. d: Somebody has three cows. e: Somebody has some cows. f: Somebody has some animals. g: Somebody has something. Entailment is part of the conventional meaning.
<ii> Cancellability 可取消性
1> change the factors 2> according to the situational context The presence of a conversation implicature relies on a number of factors: the convensational meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts,etc
1> The conventional meaning of the words used,together with the identity of any references that may be involved, 2> the CP and its maxims; 3> the context, linguistic or otherwise,of the utterance; 4> other items of background knowledge;and 5> the fact (or supposed fact) that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.
If you were John, what do you think of?
a: She just say it casually. b: She missed him. c: She envyed them. so, that is the calculability of conversational implicatures
Characteristics of Implicature
Class two grade three Jiaotingting 2012.5.22
<i> Calculability-可推导性
speakers -- try to convey his conversational implicatures hearers -- can understand what they say implicatures are calculable there are many necessary data was given to the previous information by Crice:
general pattern Marry John "today I walked in campus,I saw a couple of lovers walking together.They hand in hand and worn in some colthes.How happy they are! " Eg: