语言学conversational-implicature
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Conversational_Implicature__会话含义_
U →由语言符号构成的话语
Z →粗略地代表在听话人那儿产生的信仰或意志力， 或作出的反应。 Grice 的“非自然意义理论”实际上是一种交际理论 （ a theory of communication）。
2.2 Conversational Implicature Unlike conventional implicatures, conversational implicatures are produced by relating to the conversational context. To know what people mean, we have to interpret what they say. But interpretation is a tricky affair, and misunderstandings are always possible. As Leech remarks, ‘interpreting an utterance is ultimately a matter of guesswork’. e.g. A: When is Tom’s birthday? B: It’s sometime in October. B’s implicature: the only thing he remembered about Tom’s birthday was the month in which it occurs, and that he honestly didn’t know whether it was at the beginning, the middle or the end of that month.
the sunset.
The capital of France is Paris and the capital of England is London.
Chapter 7Conversational Implicature
• 但在现实交际中,人们出 于种种原因,并不都严格 地遵守合作原则及其相 关准则.因而就产生了会 话含义。
Flouting the Maxim of quality(说自知是 虚假的话;说缺乏足够证据的话)
• Many figures of speech like irony, metaphor, hyperbole, rhetorical questions and etc.belong to this kind of flouting.eg: He is made of iron.(metaphor) Women are tigers. • The obvious false statement:no human beings are made of iron.No women are tigers. • Its implicature is he has characteristics like iron like hardness, non-flexibility, durability.
(Flouting the maxim of quality) Cal:I had hoped you would come to me last night Rose:I was tired~~~I'm your fiancee Cal:My fiancee! My wife in practice, if not yet by law. So you will honor me~~~
4.2 Cooperative Principle
• Grice introduces Cooperative Principle (CP) in his book Logic and Conversation 《逻辑与会话》in 1975 • 在格赖斯看来，要使交谈顺利进行，就要 求交谈参与者共同遵守一般原则，即在参 与交谈时，要使你说的话符合你所参与交 谈的公认目的和方向。
英语语言学概论会话含义.合作原则.翁京京
Four Principles
1.数量原则（maxim of quantity） 2.质量原则（maxim of quality） 3.相关准则（maxim of relation） 4.方式原则（maxim of manner)
A.数量准则（maxim of Quantity） 1) Make your contribution as informative as required. 2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required say what you believe to be false. 2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
C.关系准则 （maxim of Relevance) Be relevant
2)提供的信息太多 A: When did you come back last night B: Around midnight, we finished the meeting.
B. Violation of quality
1)故意不说真实的话 A：How are you? B: I am dead.
Conversational Implicature
• 话语的隐含意义，即“会话含义” • “会话含义”是语用学的核心内容。格莱斯的会
话含义理论，“本质是关于人们如何运用语言的 理论”。
generalized conversational implicature
• 不需要特殊语境就能推导出来的含义
Thank you!
Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
(完整版)语用学-5--Conversational-implicature
implicature吗？
1. What is an implicature? E.g. A: I have a fourteen year old son. B: Well, that's all right. A: I also have a dog. B: Oh, I'm sorry.
Conversational implicature
Divergence in meaning: Formal devices VS. natural L Formalist VS. informalist Construct an ideal L Inadequte attention to the nature and
E.g. The duck ran up to Mary (p) and licked her (qBut this is not always true in real life as in the above example. Whenever p & q is true, it logically follows that q & p is true:
The logical representation of conjunction: p & q
This logical expression stands for: if p is true and q is true, then p & q is true. If either p or q is not true (i.e. false), then the conjunction of p and q is necessarily false.
B means more than what he or she says, but A can understand it or interpret it well in the context. How does this happen? How does the hearer get from what is said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.
1. What is an implicature? E.g. A: I have a fourteen year old son. B: Well, that's all right. A: I also have a dog. B: Oh, I'm sorry.
Conversational implicature
Divergence in meaning: Formal devices VS. natural L Formalist VS. informalist Construct an ideal L Inadequte attention to the nature and
E.g. The duck ran up to Mary (p) and licked her (qBut this is not always true in real life as in the above example. Whenever p & q is true, it logically follows that q & p is true:
The logical representation of conjunction: p & q
This logical expression stands for: if p is true and q is true, then p & q is true. If either p or q is not true (i.e. false), then the conjunction of p and q is necessarily false.
B means more than what he or she says, but A can understand it or interpret it well in the context. How does this happen? How does the hearer get from what is said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.
语言学The Theory of Conversational Implicature
Content
• • • • Violation of the Maxim of Quantity Violation of the Maxim of Quality Violation of the Maxim of Relation Violation of the Maxim of Manner
Violation of the Maxim of Relation
· be irrelevant
• A: What time is it? B: The mail has already come. • A: What do you intend to do today? B: I have a terrible headache.
Content
• 8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle (CP) • 8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims • 8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature
8.2.1 The cooperative Principle (CP)
• To specify the CP further, Grice introduced
four categories of maxims as follows： • Quantity:(数量准则) • Quality:(质量准则)
• Relation(关系准则) • Manner(方式准则)
Quantity
2. Not be brief
A: Did you get my assignment?
B: I received two pages clipped together and
covered with rows of black squirrels.
conversational implicature
Traugott & Pratt, 1980:237
Four Maxims of Cooperative Principle
• • • • Quantity Maxim Quality Maxim Relation Maxim Manner Maxim
Quantity Maxim
• 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current perpose of the exchange). • 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. • Michael has four dictionaries. • Michael has five, six or even more dictionaries.
"Good night"
• Father: I think I'll go downstairs to say "good-night" to Nancy's boyfriend. He has been here long enough. • Mother: Now, George, don't you forget how we were when we were young? • Father: That does it! Out he goes!
Four types of violation-1
• 1. The speaker deliberately violates cooperative principle without making the hearer realize it. (e.g. telling lies; being less informative) • 2. The speaker explicitly tells the hearer that he is unwilling to cooperate. Eg. I don't want to talk about it now.
Four Maxims of Cooperative Principle
• • • • Quantity Maxim Quality Maxim Relation Maxim Manner Maxim
Quantity Maxim
• 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current perpose of the exchange). • 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. • Michael has four dictionaries. • Michael has five, six or even more dictionaries.
"Good night"
• Father: I think I'll go downstairs to say "good-night" to Nancy's boyfriend. He has been here long enough. • Mother: Now, George, don't you forget how we were when we were young? • Father: That does it! Out he goes!
Four types of violation-1
• 1. The speaker deliberately violates cooperative principle without making the hearer realize it. (e.g. telling lies; being less informative) • 2. The speaker explicitly tells the hearer that he is unwilling to cooperate. Eg. I don't want to talk about it now.
Conversational Implicature 会话含义
The Cooperative Principle
• The maxim of quantity: • 1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange); • 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than required. • The maxim of quality: • 1. Do not say what you believe to be false; • 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
The Cooperative Principle
• The maxim of manner: • Be perspicuous, and specifically; • 1. Avoid obscurity; • 2. Avoid ambiguity; • 3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity); • 4. Be orderly. • The maxim of relation: • Make your contribution relevant.
• Metaphor draws the most attention and interest among the figures of speech from scholars, since: 1. Its long history; 2. Grice: Metaphor can be treated as a special CI (from pramatics to explain metaphor), which is critisized as over simplify the issue and can only provide partial criterior for the illustration of metaphor; 3. It's complexity: the cooperation of semantics, pramatics, and psychology (the psychological basis of metaphor is to establish the assosiation of similarities of two things). e.g. : (Hu, p.165) a. We were on the same boat. b. Freud lived here.
语用学 5 Conversational_implicature
How
is it possible for the speaker and the hearer to understand each other? B means more than what he or she says, but A can understand it or interpret it well in the context. How does this happen? How does the hearer get from what is said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.
Grice (1975) published an article "Logic and conversation" which raises the question how it is possible for a theory to deal with the fact that natural language utterances do not convey the same meaning that the corresponding logical proposition would. He made an attempt to offer a solution: The philosopher's assumption that natural language expressions diverge from the formal devices of the logicians is wrong. In other words, natural language expressions cannot be fully explained by formal logic.
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Conversational Implicatures
A conversational implicature is an inference from the semantic content depending on context, speaker's intention, hearer's attitude and the mutual assumption. Grice's Theory of Conversational Implicature (1967) is "one of the single most important ideas in pragmatics" (Levinson, 1983)
Two Categories
Generalized Conversational Implicature Particularized Conversational Implicature
Generalized implicature is the
implicature that arises as a result of observing the maxims.
Non-detachability
Conversational implicatures are attached to the content rather than to the form. In other words, it is not possible to get rid of the implicatures by substituting words with synonyms. Bob is a genius. Bob is a mental prodigy. Bob is an exceptionally clever human being. Bob is an enormous intellect Bob is a big brain. Compare: Bill didn't manage to save the child. Bill didn't save the child.
This type of implicature can be understood
and interpreted without making reference to any conversa- tional contexts. (不需上 下文也能产生的会话含义叫一般会话含义) e.g. I walked into a house. +> The house is not my house. (一般会 话含义)
Non-conventionality
The literal meaning remains the same in all contexts, but conversational implicature will vary or be lost as the context changes.
By :LБайду номын сангаас Cuihong
Outline
Grice Cooperative Principle Conversational Implicature
Grice(1913—1988)
a British-educated philosopher of language Study: The differences and relationships between speaker meaning and linguistic meaning. nonliteral speech as the outcome of a cooperative principle, and some derived maxims of discourse,speaker meaning
Manner Maxim
Be perspicuous: 1) Avoid obscurity of expression. 2) Avoid ambiguity. 3) Be brief (Avoid unnecessary prolixity) 4) Be orderly. Open the door. Go to the door, put the key into the lock, turn the key clockwise two times and push. Husband: What should we buy for the kids? Wife: Let's veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
Particularized implicature （特殊会话
含义）arises from the act of flouting or violating the maxims. By flouting the maxims, the speaker wants to force the listener to draw extended implicature. Therefore,the interpretation of a particularized implicature has to rely on certain specific context as in the following example： The dog is looking very happy. （需要上下文才能产生的会话含义)
Calculability
An addressee would make the inference in question to preserve the assumption of cooperation. a set of factors which have to be analyzed if we want to work out the implicature: 1) the conventional meaning of the utterance, i.e., the propositional content. 2) the Cooperative Principle and submaxims. 3) the context. 4) the mutual understanding of the participants, what has been said and what is expected to follow. 5) all these things must be accessible to the participants in the conversation.
Categories of Implicature
Cooperative Principle
Cooperative principle is a very important factor in the process of generating implicature. Grice:"Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted perpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged." (Cole&Morgan, 1975:45)
examples for implicature
A:How are you? B:I'm dead. (possible speaker meaning:I'm very tired.) A:Would you like a cocktail?It's my own invention. B:Well,mmm,uh it's not that we don't not drink. (possible speaker meaning:No,I don't like it.)
Special features of implicatures
Cancellability 可取消性 Non-detachability 不可分离性 Calculability 可推导性 Non-conventionality 非规约性 Indeterminacy 不确定性
Cancellability
Quality Maxim
Try to make your contribution true: 1) Do not say what you believe to be false. 2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Honesty is the first policy.
add more clause to cancel the implicature. 1) Bill has four books. (Implicature: Bill has only four books and no more or no less.) Bill has four books, perhaps five or more. 2) A: There is a young lady with him, sir. She is crying. B: Pretty? A: I should say she is pretty, sir, in a quite inoffensive way. You are the cream in my coffee. In fact, I don't like cream.
Four Maxims of Cooperative Principle