西卡鲁：小西Argu逻辑错误段落
逻辑错误fallacy1.调查错误the survey upon which the argument depends is informative and statistically reliable.(1)It is very likely that the respondents only stand for a tiny proportion of the whole. (数量不够)For example, if the total number is …, ... is only a small percent of the total population that cannot draw any firm conclusion. (绝对数值)For example, if the total number of sampling is …, …% is only a small number of total population that cannot draw any firm conclusion. (相对数值)(2)It is very likely that the sample is not representative enough to reflect the generalattitude of … (代表性不足)For example, they are just…which could not represent a diverse cross section of the population. Another possibility is that the respondents would not be inclined to provide authentic and believable answer out of consideration for their privacy or personal affairs. Or, perhaps they are influenced by the surveyor.2.负面影响there is no possible detrimental effect of …3.因果关系… is responsible for …4.未来变化the trend in …will continue in the future. / the strategy would ensure the similar result nowadays.It is most likely that many background conditions upon which the trend/ strategy’s effectiveness depend have changed over this time span.5.空间变化the strategy that… would ensure the similar result at…It is most likely that there are inherent differences between A and B which might make the same course of action ineffective and insufficient to ensure the similar result at B.6.非此即彼there are only two alternatives : … and …It is possible that there are other solutions contributing to solving the problem.7.画蛇添足It is necessary to…他因销量上升The author assumes that no factor other than … is responsible for the increasing sales of A.1.价格因素It is most likely that the price of A has fallen with the purpose of touting consumers. For that, the increase of the sales of A is due to the more attractive price other than the particular relish among people.2.品牌因素It is most likely that A has advantage of brand that B does not possess, which is impossible to duplicate, if so, the increase of the sales of A is the result of the advantage of brand other than the price.3.供求因素As we know, property values are a function of supply and demand. It is most likely that the increasing of the sales of A is on account of an influx of a large amount of population.Or, perhaps the supply of A has decreased.4.大公司消费It is most likely that most of consumption of A is from big companies and firms. In this case, the business object is different, and they should focus more attention on developing the relationship with big companies other than…5.旅游因素It is most likely that … is a tour resort which makes the most of consumers may be tourists instead of local residents.In this case, the business object is different, and they should …销量下降The author assumes that no factor other than … is responsible for the decline of the sales of A. 1.价格因素It is possible that A is priced at too high levels for majority of consumers to buy, if so, the decline of the sales is the result of the imprudent pricing strategy other than…2.其他因素Rigid policy Poor management lacking investments or qualified workers未来销量得不到保证The author assumes that if we …, the sales of A will definitely increase.1.竞争因素It is possible that the competitive opponents will manufacture similar products with higher quality but priced at lower level in the instant future insomuch that these products will be more popular with consumers and diminish A’s sales sharply.2.流行因素Moreover, even if …achieves a monopoly in this field, it can’t predict the success in the future, because its’popularity may be just a result of fashion and the tastes of people is changing with each passing day at the rate that no one could imagine. As the saying goes, what is in favor today may shift to be landfill in tomorrow, so when A is not in fashion the sales of A would dwindle and the profits would be seriously affected.3.环境因素Or, perhaps the nationwide economic depression of the coming future may reduce the demand of the consumers.事故原因The author assumes the high rate of accidents of A is due to …1.司机因素It is most likely that more drivers of A lack consciousness of security or rarely keep alert when driving.For example, a large portion of the drivers of A, who are in pursuit of high speed and breathtaking feeling, are mostly bold and careless, which may bring on lurking danger for accidents.2.地形因素Moreover, with respect to the geological terrain of A, it is entirely possible that A is an areawith more sharp turns, dangerous intersections and potholes where accidents are more likely to occur.3.时间因素Moreover, it is possible that the living habit of the drivers may encourage them to drive in unsafe period of time, such as a foggy morning or a dark midnight, which will contribute to increasing the number of accidents.措施没有减少事故The author assumes that the measure is of no effect because the number of accidents has not decreased. As matter of fact, a lapse of six months is not enough to test and determine the effectiveness of the measure.1.天气因素It is possible that the weather condition during this period of time is harsh which conduce to increasing the number of accidents.2.人口因素Moreover, is there an influx of population during this time span? If so, the unchanged rate of accidents is a result of increase of the number of automobiles on the road.空间变化the strategy that… would ensure the similar result at…It is most likely that there are inherent differences between A and B which might make the same course of action ineffective and insufficient to ensure the similar result at B.For example, …prevails in A merely for the merely reason that it meets the tastes and preference of local residents, which perhaps is totally different in B.Another example is that the convenient transportation conditions that A embraces to improve the sales of … may be totally different in B which makes it more difficult to convey their products and materials. As a result, the inconvenient will obviously increase the cost of the product to affect the profits of it.例子人口因素A has experienced a large growth in population.管理因素·imprudent (pricing and distribution) strategies or poor management偶然因素... was an aberration先天因素was more relatively healthy/relatively bright than average to begin with.For example, they exercise regularly and eat healthily竞争因素A’s com petitive opponent firms and companies move to other cities. (go bankrupt)成本因素the cost for ... may has risen rapidly, which will have to be included in the retail price of ...顾客因素many customers are indeed disgruntled about...,but too busy to take time and effort to formally complain.习惯原因the consumers’ habits have become so well entrenched that consumers might be unwilling to change.流行因素It is well known that the taste of the public especially when it comes to such vogue cases as ... shifts quicker than anyone can imagine. Today’s hot issue may well be in tomorrow’s landfill. Maybe at that time ... are in the fashion due to... other than...。
西卡鲁：小西事例残缺版
例子1.Jan Vermeer 艰辛的画家One apt illustration involves the story about Jan Vermeer. In retrospect, Jan Vermeer, a Dutch Baroque painter who seems to have never been wealthy and left no legacy but debt to his family eventually since he has never sold one of his paintings during his life, clang tenaciously to creating a more perfect world through paintings and delivering the eternal theme of his paintings: love. After have been virtually forgotten for nearly one hundred years, his paintings began to focus people’s attention and bring lasting value to the society. Nowadays, he is considered to be one of the greatest painters during the “Dutch Golden Age”.2.艺术家例子段落Van Gogh’s most famous still life, Sunflowers exhibits the eternal love to the life and promotes the thoughts about life and death; Jules Verne’s famous novel, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea shows the original desire to travel space, air, underwater and everywhere human want to travel and helps us to fancy what the scene of the future of world looks like; Beethoven’s famous symphony, symphony NO.5 “destiny”deliver a spirit and eternal theme about facing frustration and fight the destiny for one’s dream and hope, thus convulsing the whole world with this spirit and humanity.3.罗斯福奋斗的故事One apt illustration of this point involves the story about Roosevelt. In retrospect, Roosevelt, a former U.S. president, was disabled from his childhood which gave him few opportunities to cooperate and communicate with other children, thus he was not socialized well at that time. However, he clang tenaciously to his ideal and immerged himself in efforts to achieve his dreams. As a result, he became one of the greatest presidents of America.4.科技进步推翻前人以前的作用怀疑的作用Galilei who is hailed as the “father of modern science”gave a denial to the theory of velocity of Aristotle, who dominated the authoritative views; Heliocentrism of Copernicus has toppled over the mainstream geocentric theory;Einstein put forward theory of relativity which indicates the deficiency of the classic mechanics.5.领导者应该具备的素质、个人与群体对历史的影响Hidalgo is hailed as the “Father of the Nation” whose speeches gave courage to an entire nation. He is considered to be precursor and creator of the rest of the heroes of the Mexican War of independence. The story about him is deeply embedded into the political and educational system of the country for years to come. Yet, achievement of independence would have been impossible without the endeavors of the liberal insurgents who adhered to resist tyranny. These people rarely have been in the limelight while the history is replete with stories about a few famous individuals.6.领导或者人需要的坚忍不拔的精神、商家应该给社会带来回报、技术给人们带来的变化Cyrus West Field was an American businessman who led the Atlantic Telegraph Company which laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable. Against all odds, Field adhered to finish the engineering even if the first cable broke down only three weeks afterward. As a result, the transatlantic telegraph cable sped up communication to within minutes which could only happen over ship before, integrating two continents into one world.7.丑闻的例子The majorities always focus on the Nixon's Watergate affair which will most likely overshadow the entire achievements of his administration.Media scrutiny killed Princess Diana as her car crashed into the pillar of the tunnel for getting rid of the trailing from the journalists.The Watergate affair can underscore this point. In retrospect, while the scandal tarnish the public image of legal profession, it revealed the existence of dirty political tricks and sparked a renewed call for changes in campaign financing. Obviously, our society would be the beneficiary of the changes.8.历史建筑的意义旅游A city is an animated person, having past and stories, stands in the world. The old architectures provide vivid proofsand concrete scenes for persons to see and feel its existence while the words and pictures cannot. For instance, for those who want to experience the local customs as well as the history and culture of Beijing, the Siheyuan (quadrangle) is an indispensible part of a visit as unique Beijing architectural structures. Actually, it’s not only a ki nd of architecture,but also serves as a window into Beijing folk life and the encyclopedia of the history and culture of Beijing.9.历史建筑Paris Arc De Triomphe Beijing Forbidden city New York the State of Liberty Sydney the Sydney Opera House10.历史的作用孙子兵法One example aptly illustrate this point involves that the book “The Art of War”, a Chinese military treatise written during 6th century BC by Sun Tzu, also exerts a huge influence on Eastern military thinking and business tactics to make the commanders and leaders more effective and wise.11.贪污腐败Nasdaq Stock Market former chairman, Bernard Michael Adolf12.艺术反应现实<Notre Dame cathedral> Hugo反映当时法国的社会状态<Les Miserables> Hugo 反应了当时社会典型的悲惨人物的生活13.How could a leader keep honesty and moral while he cannot always tell truth to the public? To answer this question, itis crucial to draw a distinction between honesty and telling truth all the time. There is no one but longs to hear the truth and want all the persons around to be honesty. However, sometimes you also want to enjoy the kindness and amity within the beautiful lies told by your friends, family, teachers or leader, which are with the purpose of making you happy, such as bringing a surprise in your birthday, hiding the frustrated fact that you failed in your exam or you loosed your job and so forth. In short, genuine honesty is not always telling the truth, but facing people with a sincere mind considering your interests and feelings.14.It is widely acknowledged that honesty, like sincerity, seems a laudable trait, but on examination it proves to be deeplyproblematic.兴趣15.Without motivation based on the interest, there can be no impetus to explore in uncharted territories and survive inthe race to the achievement of the goals or dreams. Conversely, only interest no responsibility always turns out to be a dire consequence to the society in the long run. Consider, for example, scientists boost development of the harness of the power of atom and experiment nuclear military application for interest flying in the face of thousands persons might be murdered and maimed by the nuclear blast.。
文不对题逻辑谬误例子
文不对题逻辑谬误例子
以下是 6 条文不对题逻辑谬误的例子：
1. 咱就说啊，有人说“今天太阳真好，所以我晚饭想吃火锅”，这两者有啥关系啊！太阳好跟吃火锅八竿子打不着呀，这不是文不对题吗？
2. 你听听这个，“我喜欢蓝色，因此我应该去学舞蹈”，哎呀呀，喜欢蓝色和学舞蹈有啥必然联系啊，这不是瞎扯嘛！
3. “他今天迟到了，那肯定是他不喜欢这份工作”，哇塞，迟到就等于不喜欢工作啊，这逻辑也太牵强啦，这不是明显的文不对题嘛！
4. “她买了新衣服，所以她数学成绩肯定会提高”，天哪，买新衣服和数学成绩能扯到一块儿去？这完全说不通呀！
5. “狗很可爱，所以我的车坏了”，哈哈，狗可爱和车坏了能有啥关联呀，这不是胡闹嘛，完全文不对题啊！
6. “下雨了，所以他肯定长胖了”，哎呀呀，下雨和长胖有啥关系呀，这也太奇怪了吧，这就是典型的文不对题逻辑谬误呀！
我的观点就是：这些例子都好离谱呀，明明说的是一件事，却硬要和毫不相干的另一件事扯上关系，真是让人哭笑不得！。
爱情与逻辑谬误的故事 总结
爱情与逻辑谬误的故事总结一个是巴尔扎克时代最具风情、最另类的小说家，一个是欧洲最富诗意、最浪漫的钢琴家，他们的第一次见面没有擦出任何火花。
26岁的肖邦甚至觉得那个爱穿男装、嗜抽烟斗的32岁的乔治；桑没有女人味。
两年后，在法国一个叫诺昂的小镇里，他们不可遏制的相爱了。
此后长达9年的光阴里，他们相互依赖、相互欣赏，又彼此折磨彼此伤害。
他们的密友画家德拉克洛瓦希望将这对情人永久的铭刻在画里，但却以外的被肖邦制止。
于是留下了一副未完成的作品：坐在钢琴旁边的肖邦刚画好面部，而站在肖邦身后的乔治，桑则像百合花一样幽寂的绽放。
德拉克罗瓦去世后，这幅名的未完成画像被人分割成两半，据说为了多点儿钱。
如今右边的肖邦像留在巴黎的卢浮言，左边的乔治桑像被哥本哈根博物馆收藏。
轰轰烈烈的爱情见证略带荒谬地收场，不知道该伤感还是叹息。
再伟大的爱情也经不起生活的琐屑。
难怪张爱玲的《红玫瑰白玫瑰》总被人叨念：每一个男子全都有过这样的两个女人，至少两个。
娶了红玫瑰，久而久之，红的变成了墙上的一抹蚊子血，白的还是“床前明月光"；娶了白玫瑰，白的便是衣服上的一粒饭粘子，红的却是心口上的一粒朱砂痣。
爱情不可以逻辑，无所谓对与错，怕只怕爱到无情。
作家杨沫与学者张中行先生的感情恩怨，在面有多个版本，又因为《青春之》被更多人揣测。
但吴祖光先生亲口讲的一段话，让人想起来就觉得揪心。
杨沫追悼会，吴祖光给张中行，问他去不去，张答复：所谓告别有两种，或情牵，或敬重，也可兼而有之，对于她两者都没有。
就算整个世界在背离、在失语，真正的爱只追随自己的心灵，与他人无关。
一代名媛章含之今年初去世，她出人意料地选择与养父章士钊合葬，而不是深爱的第二任丈夫乔冠华，并留下意味深长的一句话：“到另外一个世界，就不想再有这个世界的是是非非了。
”最美好的东西往往用深痛巨创来换取。
就像传说中的荆棘鸟，“一生只唱一次。
从离开巢窝的那一刻起，她就在寻找荆棘树，直到如愿以偿。
常见逻辑谬误(中英对照Fallacy)
分散注意力的谬误（Fallacies of Distraction）两难推理（False Dilemma）错谬：为多于一个答案的问题提供不足（通常两个）的选择，即是隐藏了一些选择，最典型的表现是非黑即白观点。
例子：萨达姆是邪恶的，所以美军是正义之师。
解释：除正邪之争外，还有邪邪之争及许多难分正邪的纷争，所以不能单以萨达姆邪恶便认定美军正义。
诉诸无知（From Ignorance）错谬：因为不能否定，所以必然肯定，反之亦然。
例子：没有人能证明鬼不存在，那么鬼肯定存在。
解释：总有些事是既不能否定，亦不能肯定的。
除了肯定和否定，我们还可以存疑吧！滑坡谬误（Slippery Slope）错谬：不合理使用连串因果关系。
例子：迟到的学生要判死刑。
因为迟到是不用功的表现；将来工作也不勤力；不勤力导致公司损失；公司损失就会倒闭；公司倒闭会使人失业；失业造成家庭问题；家庭问题导致自杀率上升，为了防止自杀率上升，我们应判迟到的学生死刑。
解释：滑坡谬误中假定了连串“可能性”为“必然性”。
比方说，迟到是否“必然”是不用功的表现？将来工作又是否“必然”不勤力？答案可想而知。
例子虽然夸张，但其实许多时候大家亦会犯相同错误而不自知。
复合问题（Complex Question）错谬：一条问题内包含两个无关的重点。
例子：你还有没有干那非法勾当？（你有干非法勾当吗？是否还有继续？）解释：简单的一句提问，其实隐藏了两个问题。
你给予其中一条问题的答案，并不一定和另外一条的一样。
例如你有干非法勾当，但未必等于你还有继续。
诉诸其他支持（Appeals to Motives in Place of Support）诉诸势力（Appeal to Force）错谬：以势力服人。
例子：若你不想被解雇，你必须认同公司的制度。
解释：这是以工作机会强迫员工认同制度，员工不是依据制度好坏来决定认同与否。
诉诸怜悯（Appeal to Pity）错谬：以别人的同情心服人。
发现潜藏的逻辑谬误
发现潜藏的逻辑谬误一、基础练1 .分析下面的例子，指出其中的逻辑错误。
①鲁迅的作品不是一天能读完的，《孔乙己》是鲁迅的作品，所以，《孔乙己》不是一天能读完的。
②在法国某地，一个耍戏法的人招携观众：“快来快来，这里有拿破仑的头骨。
”围观的一个人说：“奇怪，听说拿破仑的脑袋是很大的，这个头骨怎么和普通人的没有区别啊？”耍戏法的人解释道：“没错，这是拿破仑小时候的头骨。
”③有人说，《红楼梦》值得读，有人说不值得，两种意见我都不贽成：读，太花时间；不读，又有点儿可惜。
④庄子日：“请循其本。
子曰'汝安知鱼乐’云者，既已知吾知之而问我，我知之濠上也。
”（《庄子与惠子游于濠梁之上》）⑤《儒林外史》第三回中，范进中举前，胡屠户说：“不要失了你的时了！你自己只觉得中了一个相公，就‘痛虾蟆想吃起天鹅肉'来！你不看见城里张府上那些老爷，都有万贯家私，一个个方面大耳，像你这尖嘴猴腮，也该撒抛尿自己照照！不三不四，就想天鹅屁吃！”范进中举后，胡屠户说：“我的这个贤婿，才学又高，品貌又好，就是城里头那张府、周府这些老爷，也没有我女婿这样一个体面的相貌！”⑥《祝福》中，鲁四老爷知道祥林嫂的死讯后说：“不早不迟，偏偏要在这时候——这就可见是一个谬种！”2 ,分析下列各句的逻辑错误。
①概念混乱例：中华人民共和国公民在年老、疾病或者丧失劳动能力的情况下，有从国家和社会获得物质帮助的权利。
【解析】“年老、疾病或者丧失劳动能力”并列不当，这三个概念的范围有交叉。
练：社区服务中心为孩子们准备了跳绳、羽毛球、拼图、棋类、卡拉0K等19项体育活动，并将20万元活动经费发动到各社区。
②自相矛盾例：该型飞机在运营成本上是其他同级别机型的1.3至2倍，优势明显；在商载、航程、航速等方面也极具竞争力。
【解析】“在运营成本上是其他同级别机型的1.3至2倍”是劣势，而不是优势。
练：近年来，生态保护意识渐入人心，所以当社会经济发展与林地保护管理发生冲突时，一些地方在权衡之后往往会选择前者。
逻辑矛盾的经典例子
逻辑矛盾的经典例子全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：逻辑矛盾可以说是哲学中一个非常重要的概念，它涉及到我们思维的一些基本原则和规律。
在逻辑学中，矛盾是指两个或多个命题或陈述之间的不一致性或矛盾性。
当我们在思考某个问题时，如果存在逻辑矛盾，那么这个问题就很可能是无法解决的。
下面我们将介绍一些关于逻辑矛盾的经典例子。
第一个例子是著名的“蒙提霍尔悖论”，也称为巴贝尔塔的悖论。
这个悖论源自古希腊哲学家蒙提霍尔提出的一个问题：“所有克里特人都是说谎者。
”问题的关键在于，如果这个命题是真实的，那么所有克里特人都在说谎；但如果他们在说谎，这个命题也就是假的。
这个命题既不可能是真实的，也不可能是假的，形成了逻辑矛盾。
第二个例子是“理发师悖论”。
这个悖论源自奥地利数学家庞加莱提出的一个问题：“假设一个村庄中的所有男性都只接受那些不为自己理发的理发师的理发。
”这个问题看似简单，但实际上产生了一个逻辑矛盾。
因为这个命题要求男性只能让那些不为自己理发的理发师给自己理发，但如果有一个理发师不为自己理发，那么他就符合了这个条件，但他只能为不为自己理发的人理发，也就是他自己。
这样就形成了一个循环推理，无法解决。
第三个例子是“罗素悖论”，也被称为巴克斯悖论。
这个悖论源自数学家、逻辑学家罗素提出的一个问题：“考虑一个集合，其中所有不属于自己的集合都属于自己。
”这个问题看似简单，实际上也会导致逻辑矛盾。
因为如果存在这样一个集合，那么它必然包含了所有不属于自己的集合，但这样一来，这个集合也应该属于自己。
这种循环推理导致了逻辑矛盾。
以上这些例子只是逻辑矛盾问题中的一部分，但足以说明逻辑矛盾在我们思维中的重要性。
逻辑矛盾不仅仅是一种哲学概念，它也经常出现在我们生活和工作中的各个方面。
在处理逻辑矛盾时，我们需要保持头脑清晰，客观分析，避免陷入无解的困境。
逻辑矛盾虽然很有趣，但在解决问题时我们应该避免它。
逻辑矛盾可以帮助我们发现问题，但解决问题时我们还是需要遵循逻辑规律，保持思维的清晰和连贯。
Descartes was wrong.
Descartes was wrong. ‘A person is a person through other persons’By Abeba BirhaneAccording to Ubuntu philosophy, which has its origins in ancient Africa, a newborn baby is not a person. People are born without ‘ena’, or selfhood, and instead must acquire it through interactions and experiences over time. So the ‘self’/‘other’ distinction that’s axiomatic in Western philosophy is much blurrier in Ubuntu thought. As the Kenyan-born philosopher John Mbiti put it in African Religions and Philosophy (1975): ‘I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am.’We know from everyday experience that a person is partly forged in the crucible of community. Relationships inform self-understanding. Who I am depends on many ‘others’: my family, my friends, my culture, my work colleagues. The self I take grocery shopping, say, differs in her actions and behaviours from the self that talks to my PhD supervisor. Even my most private and personal reflections are entangled with the perspectives and voices of different people, be it those who agree with me, those who criticise, or those who praise me. Yet the notion of a fluctuating and ambiguous self can be disconcerting. We can chalk up this discomfort, in large part, to René Descartes. The 17th-century French philosopher believed that a human being was essentially self-contained and self-sufficient; an inherently rational, mind-bound subject, who ought to encounter the world outside her head with skepticism. While Descartes didn’t single-handedly create the modern mind, he went a long way towards defining its contours.Descartes had set himself a very particular puzzle to solve. He wanted to find a stable point of view from which to look on the world without relying on God-decreed wisdoms; a place from which he could discern the permanent structures beneath the changeable phenomena of nature. But Descartes believed that there was a trade-off between certainty and a kind of social, worldly richness. The only thing you can be certain of is your own cogito–the fact that you are thinking. Other people and other things are inherently fickle and erratic. So they must have nothing to do with the basic constitution of the knowing self, which is a necessarily detached, coherent and contemplative whole.Few respected philosophers and psychologists would identify as strict Cartesian dualists, in the sense of believing that mind and matter are completely separate. But the Cartesian cogito is still everywhere you look. The experimental design of memory testing, for example, tend s to proceed from the assumption that it’s possible to draw a sharp distinction between the self and the world. If memory simply lives inside the skull, then it’s perfectly acceptable to remove a person from her everyday environment and relationships, and to test her recall using flashcards or screens in the artificial confines of a lab. A person is considered a standalone entity, irrespective of her surroundings, inscribed in the brain as a series of cognitive processes. Memory must be simply something you have, not something you do within a certain context.Social psychology purports to examine the relationship between cognition and society. But even then, the investigation often presumes that a collective of Cartesian subjects are the real focus of the enquiry, not selves that co-evolve with others over time. In the 1960s, the American psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané became interested in the murder of Kitty Genovese, a young white woman who had been stabbed and assaulted on her way home one night in New York. Multiple people had witnessed the crime but none stepped in toprevent it. Darley and Latané designed a series of experiments in wh ich they simulated a crisis, such as an epileptic fit, or smoke billowing in from the next room, to observe what people did. They were the first to identify the so-called ‘bystander effect’, in which people seem to respond more slowly to someone in distress if others are around.Darley and Latanésuggested that this might come from a ‘diffusion of responsibility’, in which the obligation to react is diluted across a bigger group of people. But as the American psychologist Frances Cherry argued in The Stubborn Particulars of Social Psychology: Essays on the Research Process (1995), this numerical approach wipes away vital contextual information that might help to understand people’s real motives. Genovese’s murder had to be seen against a backdrop in which violence against women was not taken seriously, Cherry said, and in which people were reluctant to step into what might have been a domestic dispute. Moreover, the murder of a poor black woman would have attracted far less subsequent media interest. But Darley and Latané’s focus ma ke structural factors much harder to see.Is there a way of reconciling these two accounts of the self –the relational, world-embracing version, and the autonomous, inward one? The 20th-century Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin believed that the answer lay in dialogue. We need others in order to evaluate our own existence and construct a coherent self-image. Think of that luminous moment when a poet captures something you’d felt but had never articulated; or when you’d struggled to summarise your thoughts, but they crystallised in conversation with a friend. Bakhtin believed that it was only through an encounter with another person that you could come to appreciate your own unique perspective and see yourself as a whole entity. By ‘looking through the scr een of the other’s soul,’ he wrote, ‘I vivify my exterior.’ Selfhood and knowledge are evolving and dynamic; the self is never finished – it is an open book.So reality is not simply out there, waiting to be uncovered. ‘Truth is not born nor is it to be found inside the head of an individual person, it is born between people collectively searching for truth, in the process of their dialogic interaction,’ Bakhtin wrote in Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics (1929). Nothing simply is itself, outside the matrix of relationships in which it appears. Instead, being is an act or event that must happen in the space between the self and the world.Accepting that others are vital to our self-perception is a corrective to the limitations of the Cartesian view. Consider t wo different models of child psychology. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development conceives of individual growth in a Cartesian fashion, as the reorganisation of mental processes. The developing child is depicted as a lone learner – an inventive scientist, struggling independently to make sense of the world. By contrast, ‘dialogical’ theories, brought to life in experiments such as Lisa Freund’s ‘doll house study’ from 1990, emphasise interactions between the child and the adult who can provide ‘scaffolding’ for how she understands the world.A grimmer example might be solitary confinement in prisons. The punishment was originally designed to encourage introspection: t o turn the prisoner’s thoughts inward, to prompt her to reflect on her crimes, and to eventually help her return to society as a morally cleansed citizen. A perfect policy for the reform of Cartesian individuals. But, in fact, studies of such prisoners suggest that their sense of self dissolves if they are punished this way for long enough. Prisoners tend to suffer profound physical and psychological difficulties, such asconfusion, anxiety, insomnia, feelings of inadequacy, and a distorted sense of time. Deprived of contact and interaction – the external perspective needed to consummate and sustain a coherent self-image – a person risks disappearing into non-existence.The emerging fields of embodied and enactive cognition have started to take dialogic models of the self more seriously. But for the most part, scientific psychology is only too willing to adopt individualistic Cartesian assumptions that cut away the webbing that ties the self to others. There is a Zulu phrase, ‘Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu’, which means ‘A person is a person through other persons.’ This is a richer and better account, I think, than ‘I think, therefore I am.’This article was originally published at Aeon and has been republished under Creative Commons.笛卡尔错了：“他人在，故我在”乌班图哲学起源于古代非洲。
塞万提斯悖论
塞万提斯悖论令人左右为难的悖论塞万提斯（1547—1616）是西班牙文艺复兴时期最杰出的现实主义小说家. 他的代表作《堂吉诃德》是闻名遐迩的世界文学名著，在全球范围影响深远.小说中叙述了一个有趣的故事，堂吉诃德的仆人桑乔·潘萨成了一个岛的国王，不知是随心所欲，还是心血来潮，他竟然颁布了一条奇怪的法律——每一个到达这个岛的人都必须回答一个问题：“你到这里来做什么？”若说真话，就允许上岛游玩;若说假话，就要被绞死. 很明显，对于每一个有意无意来到岛上的人，都有可能被认为说假话而送上绞架，风险实在太大，因此一直没人敢贸然上岛. 一直到有个胆大包天的智者出现，才算彻底打破了这个局面.当时，国王照例让手下向这位智者询问：“你到这里来做什么？”智者不假思索地回答：“我到这里来是要被绞死的！”桑乔·潘萨一听立刻愣住了，因为他发现自己陷入两难境地：如果认为他说的是真话，当然就是要绞死，可根据国王的法律说真话者应该上岛游玩而不是上绞架，前后产生矛盾;如果认为他说的是假话，根据法律就要上绞架，可一旦上了绞架，那他说的“要被绞死”就成了真话，他就应该上岛游玩而不是上绞架，前后又产生矛盾. 桑乔·潘萨这才发现国王一点儿也不好当，自己颁布的这条法律竟然完全无法执行. 他冥思苦想仍始终无法摆脱两难的境地，最后只能让手下释放了这位有备而来的智者，并且宣布这条有漏洞的法律作废.这个故事的本质其实就是数学中的悖论，所谓悖论就是让人自相矛盾、左右为难的问题. 为了强化大家对悖论的印象，下面再介绍一个由著名数学家伯特兰·罗素（1872—1970）提出的悖论.欧洲某国的一个偏僻的小城镇里，只有一个理发师，他对自己的手艺非常自负，渐渐地对自己的判断也自信起来. 于是他在店门上贴出公告：本人郑重承诺，只给那些不给自己理发的人理发，绝无例外. 没有谁对这则看似平常的公告提出疑问，直到聪明的汤姆来理发.汤姆一到门口就被店门上的公告吸引住了，然后便哈哈大笑，弄得理发师“丈二和尚摸不着头脑”. 看到汤姆那头又脏又长的头发，理发师有点不屑一顾.“小不点儿，如果是来理发，就待在那边静静地等，别高兴得那么早啊！”理发师话里带刺.“我笑只不过是因为这店门上的公告有问题，看来您太过于自信了，或者可以说是有点儿笨. ”汤姆也是话中有话.理发师一听这话就不乐意了：“公告有问题？”“没错！”汤姆点点头.“那好，只要你能说服我，我免费为你服务. 不过你要说不通，对不起，那就得破回例，让你自己给自己理发. ”理发师明显有点恼火.“好啊！”胸有成竹的汤姆和理发师耳语了两句，理发师一下子就愣住了，琢磨了一会儿，便一言不发地为汤姆理发.理发师沮丧地将汤姆送出店门，一把将公告扯下来撕个粉碎.顧客们纷纷问其中的缘由，理发师面红耳赤地扭捏了半天才道出原委. 原来汤姆问理发师：“你的头由谁来理呢？”这个问题一针见血点中漏洞：如果理发师不给自己理发，那他就是一个不给自己理发的人，根据承诺他就应该给自己理发;而如果理发师给自己理发，那他就是一个给自己理发的人，根据承诺他又不能给自己理发. 出现如此矛盾的情况，理发师不好处理自己的理发问题，所以只能自认倒霉喽！众所周知，数学理论体系相当严密完备，并经得起推敲，而事实存在的悖论却几乎动摇了数学坚实的基础. 罗素的这个悖论就使集合理论产生了危机. 德国著名逻辑学家弗里兹在其所撰的集合基础理论著作《算术的基本法则》付印时，收到了罗素关于这一悖论的信. 他沮丧地发现，自己付出无数心血的工作有可能付诸东流. 尽管著作出版问世，可忧心忡忡的他在书尾这样写道：“一个科学家所碰到最倒霉的事，莫过于是在他的工作即将完成时却发现所干的工作的基础崩溃了. ”还有一位德国著名数学家戴德金也因此推迟了《什么是数的本质和作用》一书的再版. 可以说，悖论就像在平静的数学水面上投下了一块巨石，而它所引起的巨大反响则导致了第三次数学危机.令人欣慰的是，悖论的出现逼迫数学家投入最大的热情去解决它. 而在解决悖论的过程中，各种数学理论应运而生，现代数学也得以更为蓬勃地发展. 可以毫不夸张地说，数学家对于悖论的研究，不仅大大开拓了数学空间，而且有力地推进了理论基础的研究，使数学更坚实地建立在牢固的基础之上. 就此而言，悖论可谓功不可没.悖论：错误还是智慧？在古希腊，如果你设计不出一两个悖论，你都不好意思说自己是哲学家或逻辑学家。
常见逻辑谬误（中英对照Fallacy）
分散注意力的谬误（Fallacie s of Dis traction）两难推理（False Di lemma）∙错谬：为多于一个答案的问题提供不足（通常两个）的选择，即是隐藏了一些选择，最典型的表现是非黑即白观点。
∙例子：萨达姆是邪恶的，所以美军是正义之师。
∙解释：除正邪之争外，还有邪邪之争及许多难分正邪的纷争，所以不能单以萨达姆邪恶便认定美军正义。
诉诸无知（From Ig norance）∙错谬：因为不能否定，所以必然肯定，反之亦然。
∙例子：没有人能证明鬼不存在，那么鬼肯定存在。
∙解释：总有些事是既不能否定，亦不能肯定的。
除了肯定和否定，我们还可以存疑吧！滑坡谬误（S lipperySlope）∙错谬：不合理使用连串因果关系。
∙例子：迟到的学生要判死刑。
因为迟到是不用功的表现；将来工作也不勤力；不勤力导致公司损失；公司损失就会倒闭；公司倒闭会使人失业；失业造成家庭问题；家庭问题导致自杀率上升，为了防止自杀率上升，我们应判迟到的学生死刑。
∙解释：滑坡谬误中假定了连串“可能性”为“必然性”。
比方说，迟到是否“必然”是不用功的表现？将来工作又是否“必然”不勤力？答案可想而知。
例子虽然夸张，但其实许多时候大家亦会犯相同错误而不自知。
复合问题（Compl ex Quest ion）∙错谬：一条问题内包含两个无关的重点。
∙例子：你还有没有干那非法勾当？（你有干非法勾当吗？是否还有继续？）∙解释：简单的一句提问，其实隐藏了两个问题。
你给予其中一条问题的答案，并不一定和另外一条的一样。
例如你有干非法勾当，但未必等于你还有继续。
诉诸其他支持（Appea ls to Mo tiv es in Place o f Suppor t）诉诸势力（Appealto Force）∙错谬：以势力服人。
逻辑谬误文不对题例子
逻辑谬误文不对题例子一、以偏概全定义：依据不充分的例证得出普遍的结论。
示例：“我的舍友说她的哲学课很难，我的哲学课也很难，因此，所有的哲学课必定都很难！”本例的依据仅为两个人的感受，是不足以得出这样的结论的。
建议：检查所选用的例证：是否只有不多几个人的观点或者经历？如是，则应考虑是否需要增加证据，抑或缩小结论涵盖范围。
（注意：本例结论若改为不那么绝对的“某些哲学课对某些学生来说是很难的”，则不属于“以偏概全”。
）二、推不出定义：给出的论据的确能够支撑某种结论，然而却非欲论证的结论。
示例：“惩罚的严厉程度应当与违法的严重程度相吻合。
现如今，对酒后驾车的惩罚也许不过只是罚款。
然而酒后驾车乃是非常严重的违法，可以导致无辜行人的丧命。
因此，酒后驾车应当适用死刑。
”这里的论据实际上可以支撑若干结论，例如“对酒后驾车应当严惩”等等，但却不能支持适用死刑的正当性。
建议：分清论据与结论。
检查论据，看它们可以客观地给出什么结论。
检查结论，看它需要什么论据作为支撑，然后检查实际是否给出了这样的论据。
“推不出”的逻辑谬误往往发生在结论过于宽泛或者过于绝对之时，因此，如果所提主张较大，则应特别小心仔细。
三、事后归因（亦称“假性因果”）这一谬误的名称来自拉丁语“post hoc, ergo propter hoc”，意为“后此，故因此”。
定义：认为事件甲之后发生了事件乙，因此事件甲导致了事件乙。
有时时间上似乎相互关联的两件事，实质上并不存在因果关系。
换言之，相互关联并不等于存在因果关系。
示例：“琼斯总统提高了税收，之后暴力犯罪上升。
因此，琼斯总统对犯罪上升负有责任。
”税收增加可能是，也可能不是犯罪上升的一个因素，但本例并未揭示二者存在因果关系。
建议：要避免“事后归因”，本例的论证就需要给出一定的解释，阐明税收增加如何最终就会引起犯罪上升。
因此，避免这一谬误的办法就是：如果要说甲导致乙，就还应说明甲如何导致乙，而不能仅仅说是因为甲先发生乙则后发生！四、滑坡谬误定义：声称某事之后将会发生一连串通常是可怕的后果，但却并无充分证据支撑该推论。