语言输出理论

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Conclusion
• Swain(1995)在对加拿大的法语沉浸式教学进行调查时发 现, 课堂上教师讲多听少,学生听多讲少,大部分时间都用 于做笔记。 • Swain 认为出现这种现象的重要原因之一，在亍学习者缺 少语言输出机 会，从事语言实践活动太少。 • 基亍这些观察，Swain 得出如下结论：尽管“可理解性输 入”对语言习得来说很重要，但不足以充分开发学习者的 二语精炼能力。要想提高中介语的流利程度和准确性，学 习者不仅需要“可理解性输入”，也需要“可理解性输 出”。 BACK
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Future directions that research about the Output Hypothesis
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Several directions could be taken. • Experimental studies within an information processing framework would seem particularly fruitful. Investigation of the levels and types of processing that output, under different conditions, engenders seems to me to be a particularly interesting route to pursue. • Within a sociocultural theory of mind framework, ethnographic and case study approaches would seem to be more valuable at this point in time, although there is certainly a place for experimental work. Particularly useful to understand processes and strategies of second language learning will be studies of the collaborative dialogue and private speech of learners as they work to solve language-related problems they face in their language production. • By studying the collaborative dialogue and private speech of learners, according to a Vygotskian sociocultural theory of mind, we are observing learning in progress. Of considerable sociocultural interest are other broader questions about verbalizing, or as I am now calling it, “languaging”. Languaging is the use of language to work through cognitively complex thoughts.
First, output has a noticing / triggering function.
• The claim here is that while attempting to produce the target language (vocally or silently (sub-vocally)), learners may notice that they do not know how to say (or write) precisely the meaning they wish to convey. In other words, under some circumstances, the activity of producing the target language may prompt second language learners to notice or recognize consciously some of their linguistic problems: it may bring their attention to something they need to discover about their second language (possibly directing their attention to relevant input). This awareness triggers cognitive processes that have been implicated in second language learning—ones in which learners generate linguistic knowledge which is new for them, or which consolidate their current existing knowledge (Swain & Lapkin 1995). There have been a number of carefully designed, experimental studies which have examined the effect of output on noticing and acquisition of particular target forms, including Swain’s research and his students research (e.g., Izumi 2002).
Second, the output has a hypothesis testing function
• The claim here is that output may sometimes be, from the learner s perspective, a “trial run” reflecting their hypothesis of how to say (or write) their intent. Mackey’s (2002) study has an excellent example of hypothesis testing from a learner’s perspective. The learner is reacting to an interaction episode in which she, another learner and a teacher are involved. During this episode, among other things, the learner is trying to figure out both the meaning of “suite” and how to say it. If learners were not testing hypotheses, then changes in their output would not be expected following feedback.

Different interpretation of the word “output”.
• In the 1980s, the word “output” was used to indicate the outcome, or product, of the language acquisition device. Output was synonymous with “what the learner has learned”. There has been a shift in meaning from the 80 s to now from output being understood as a noun, a thing, a product to output being understood as a verb, an action, a process.
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Merrill Swain
• Introduction: Merrill Swain is a Professor in the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. • Contribution: (1) She developed the output hypothesis; (2) She is also known for her work with Michael Canale on communicative competence.
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语言输出假说(The Output Hypothesis)
• 针对Krashen提出的语言输入假设中的不足,二语习得研究 者Swain在1985年提出了语言输出假设(the Output Hypothesis),她反对大量可理解性输入对语言习得所起的 决定性作用。Swain 认为,尽管理解输入语对二语学习很 重要,但并不能保证学习者在语法准确性方面达到近似本 族语者的水平。学习者只有通过使用所学语言才能达到这 一点。 • Swain(1995)在对加拿大的法语沉浸式教学进行调查时发 现, 课堂上教师讲多听少,学生听多讲少,大部分时间都用 于做笔记。 BACK
Immersion programs in Canada
加拿大沉浸计划 The initiation of French immersion programs in Canada in the late1960s infused parents and teachers with renewed energy and excitement about the teaching and learning of French as a second language (FSL). In these programs, English speaking children were taught some or all of their curriculum in French beginning with the start of school (early immersion), around grade 4 or 5 (mid immersion), or around grade 6 or 7 (late immersion). Evaluation after evaluation was conducted of these programs