第二语言习得入门PPT-Unit 2
外汉概论 之四 第四讲 第二语言习得理论概述PPT教学课件
第二
语言习得理论概述
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第一节 对比分析
第二节 偏误分析
第三节 中介语及其变异
第四节 二语习得的自然发展途径
第五节 输入与互动
第六节 学习者个体差异
第七节 学习者的策略
第八节 语言普遍性假说
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第一节 对比分析
1. 行为主义学习理论
2. 对比分析的内容
3. 对比分析遭遇的批评
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对比分析与语言学
对比分析的语言学基础是结构主义语 言学。
它强调对一种语言进行细致描述。 描述的基础是组成句式的不同范畴。 范畴由形式项定义，由归纳法建立。 在对比分析中，语言差异受到强调。
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多数对比研究基于语言表层的结构特征。对比 程序如下：
假说有两派：强硬派和温和派。
强硬派宣称：第二语言中所有偏误都可以通过 认定目的语和学生第一语言的区别来预测。
温和派认为，并非所有偏误都源于干扰。对比 分析需要跟偏误分析共同进行。首先，真实的 偏误必须通过分析学习者的语言来认定。其次， 对比分析可以用于证实哪些偏误是由一语和二 语的区别引发的。
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习惯如何形成的，有多种解释：
Watson的古典行为主义认为，刺激诱发 （elicit）反应。刺激的发生达到足量的频率， 反应就形成惯例并转化为无意识行为。
Skinner的中期行为主义理论认为，反应比刺 激重要。反应发生后，若有一个特定行为强化 它，就可能促进习惯的形成。学习一种习惯， 可以通过模仿(imitation)或强化(reinforcement) （根据学习者反应的适当与否给以奖励或惩罚， 直到只发生适当反应为止）。
二语习得入门英语课件
Performance consists of the use of this grammar in the comprehension and production of language.
Communicative competence includes knowledge the speakerhearer has of what is effective as well as correct language behavior and also of what constitutes effective language behavior in relation to particular communicative goals. It includes both linguistic and pragmatic knowledge.
Communicative performance
Consists of the actual use of these two types of knowledge in understanding and producing discourse
The main goal of SLA research is to characterize learners’ underlying knowledge of the L2, to describe and explain their competence. However, learner’s mental knowledge is not open to direct inspection. It can only be inferred by examining samples of their performance.
二语习得SecondLanguageAcquisitionPPT课件
1. What is Second Language Acquisition and Research? 2. Theories of L2 learning
Linguistic Perspectives Psychological Perspectives (behaviorism, cognitive psychology, connectionism, multidimensional model) Interactionist Perspective Sociocultural Perspectives
is a difference between the way language is acquired and
processed and the way other kinds of information are
acquired and processed.
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Second Language Acquisition
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Second Language Acquisition
1. The Grammar-Translation Method (structuralism) 2. The Audio-Lingual Method (听说法) (structuralism, behaviorism s-r) 3. Communicative Language Teaching （交际法语言教学） (cognitive science, linguistic competent, communicative competent) 4. Content-based, Task-based Approaches （学科性方法）
二语习得(L2)
Theories of habit formation were theories of learning in general. They could be and were applied to language learning.(L1 acquisition →imitating utterances, SLA could process in a similar way). Imitation and reinforcement were the means by which the learner identified the stimulus-response associations that constituted the habits of the L2. Habit-formation theory dominated discussion of both first and second language acquisition up to the 1960’s for it provides a theoretical account of how the learner’s L1 intruded into the process of SLA.
Introduction
Some popular believes Second language acquisition (SLA) is strongly influenced by the learner’s first language(L1). The role of L1 in SLA is a negative one. That is, the L1 gets in the way or interferes with the learning of the L2, such that features of the L1 are transferred into the L2.
第二语言习得PPT
I. IntroductionII. Individual differences in SLAIII. Input and inter-languageIV. Contrastive analysis and error analysisV. Foreign language teaching approachesI. IntroductionThe term Applied Linguistics (AL) is an Anglo-American coinage.AL in the past based itself mainly on the findings of theoretical linguistics especially in language teaching.1.1 Definition of Applied LinguisticsCorder 1974---Crystal 1985---Richards 1985---Steven 1992Corder 1974:AL is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical task in which language is a central component.Crystal 1985: AL is a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.Richards et al. 1985: AL covers two main points:1.The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.2.The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.Steven 1992:AL is a multidisciplinary approach to the solution of language-related problems.The problems it attempts to solve include speech pathology, machine translation, national language planning policy, various facets of communication research and many others.HU Zhuang Lin 2004:Applied Linguistics (AL) serves as a mediating area which interprets the results of linguistic theories and makes them user friendly to the language teacher and learner.1.2 EFL and ESL(EFL) ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE : Learning English in a community that doesn’t speak English.(ESL) ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE: Leaning English in a place where it is the spoken language.According to UNESCO, second language is a language acquired/learned by a person in addition to his mother tongue.1.3 Learning and AcquisitionLearning is a deliberate, conscious attempt to master a language, while acquisition is a less deliberate, subconscious process of mastering language.As a L2 learner, you can hardly speak in the same way as a native speaker. Phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semanticallyand pragmatically, there bound to be some differences.1.4 First and Second Language AcquisitionThink about a baby acquiring his first language.Think about a person acquiring a second language.What similarities and differences are there in the two processes? Second language learning :painstaking unsuccessfulFirst language acquisition: unconscious successfulFeature 1: Commandchildren normally achieve perfect L1 masteryadult L2 learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 mastery Feature 2: Successsuccess guaranteed complete success rareFeature 3: Intuitionschildren develop clear intuitions about correctnessL2 learners are often unable to form clear grammaticality judgments (The house is easy to catch fire.)Feature 4: Negative evidencecorrection not found and not necessarycorrection generally helpful or necessaryFeature 5: GoalsTarget language competenceL2 learners are more concerned with fluency than accuracy, as targetlanguage competence is too difficult to achieve.II. Individual differences in SLAIndividual differences: Age, Personality traits, Cognitive style, Learning strategies, Motivation, Language aptitude2.1 Age and Second Language AcquisitionIs it better to learn a second language when one is young or when one is older? Why?Lenneberg (1967) stated that L2 is best learned between age 2 and puberty.Case studyDo we actually find such a critical period for L2 acquisition?What would a critical period for L2 acquisition look like?Do late learners ever attain nativelikeness?Critical period for L2 acquisitionGeometric features”Heightened sensitivity at beginningClear point where offset (decline) beginsFlat period when critical period is overTemporal features”Heightened sensitivity through early childhoodSensitivity bottoms out when full neurocognitive maturity is reached Continued low sensitivity throughout adulthoodTentative conclusionsIs there a sharp cutoff point where sensitivity begins to decline? NO Does sensitivity flatten out in adulthood? NOIs there a significant change in sensitivity when maturation is reached? NOAdvantages to being a younger learnerMore likely to develop a native-like accentLess to learn to be considered proficientMore likely to receive comprehensible inputAdvantages to being an older learnerCan consciously use strategies to aid learningHas knowledge from L1 to draw fromHas greater control over inputGrammatical CompetenceMastery of language code: Lexicon (vocabulary), Word formation rules, Sentence formation rules, Pronunciation rules, Spelling rules Sociolinguistic CompetenceMastery of appropriate language use in different contextsHow to speak to a friendHow to speak to someone in authorityHow to speak socially vs. ProfessionallyDiscourse CompetenceMastery of how to combine meanings and forms to create a text in different modesExamples: Telephone inquiry ,Narrative text, Oral reportStrategic CompetenceMastery of verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communicationExamples: How to ask for help How to rephrase a statement2.2 MotivationThere isn’t much theory that “provides an all-round explanation of what we do and why.”(Dörnyei 2003:1)“Motivation is a multifaceted construct, and the exact nature of the constituent components activated in a particular situation depends greatly on contextual factors.”(Dörnyei 2003:1) Instrumental motivation--- Immediate achievement Go abroad Social responsibility Individual development----Instrumental motivationCultural motivation---Intrinsic interest Go abroad Social responsibility Information medium---Integrative motivation Interest motivationSituational motivation---Learning situation---Situational motivation Metacognitive strategiesA. Centering your learningB. Arranging and planning your learningC. Evaluating your learningAffective strategiesA. Lowering your anxietyB. Encouraging yourselfC. Taking your emotional temperatureSocial strategiesA. Asking questionsB. Cooperating with othersC. Empathizing with othersResearch has demonstrated(1) Learners are actively involved in their learning.(2) Learners use different kinds of strategies(3) Learners have different beliefs about strategy use and learning approaches(3) Several factors have powerful influence on strategy choice/use: motivation, proficiency, years of study,sex, major, if requirementThe good language learner:(1) is guesser, but an accurate guesser!(2) has a strong drive to communicate.(3) is not often inhibited (a risk-taker).(4) focuses on communication, but also attends to form.(5) practices—and creates opportunities to do so.(6) knows what is appropriate.(7) monitors his own and the speech of others.(8) attends to meaning.(9) Actively participates (aloud and silently).III. Input and Inter-language3.1 Input theory by Krashen Interaction theory by Long Output theory by Swain3.2 InterlanguageDefinition of inputQuestion：Could you explain “input”in second language acquisition？Learners' most direct source of information about the target language is the target language itself. When they come into direct contact with the target language, this is referred to as "input." (/wiki)Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books andarticles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.3.1 Krashen’s Input HypothesisKrashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:1) the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,2) the Monitor hypothesis,3) the Natural Order hypothesis,4) the Input hypothesis,5) the Affective Filter hypothesis.Input Hypothesis"The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language.This hypothesis claims that “humans acquire language in only one way-by understanding messages or by receiving ‘comprehensibleinput’”（Krashen, 1985:2)Comprehensible input: i+1; output plays little role.Comment on Input theoryInfluential: application in SLT, Types of input, Ways of input, Variety of input, Sufficiency of input, Efficiency of input Controversial:How to quantify and qualify the “i”and “1”in “i+1”Ignorance of outputViews diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners.Authentic input, Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input, Interactively modified inputInput-based teachingDirect method, Natural approach, Total physical response, Communicative approach, Community language learning (CLL) , Suggestopedia, Silent wayLong’s Interaction HypothesisLong's interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of the target language in interaction. In particular, the negotiation of meaning has been shown to contribute greatly to the acquisition of vocabulary (Long, 1990).Study: NSs-NNSs, negotiation for meaning---comprehensible inputThe Interaction Hypothesis highlights the role of social interaction in increasing the amount of comprehensible input that students receive. This interaction includes students asking for help when they do not understand input. Perhaps, the collaborative setting in groups and the trust that can grow among groupmates make it more likely that students will have opportunities to repair comprehension breakdowns.Swain’s Output HypothesisMerrill Swain(Ph.D., University of California)She is Professor in the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. website: http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/mlc/swain.htmThe output hypothesis claims that the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes, under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language learning.It states that while comprehensible input is necessary for L2 learning, learners also need to speak and to write, i. e., produce output, in their L2.Three functions of output in second language learning:1) the noticing/triggering function 发现所想与所能之间的差别2) the hypothesis-testing function 测试语言假设3) the metalinguistic (reflective) function.增加元语言知识没有输出需要的输入不易转化为程序性知识没有输入帮助的输出不利于语言体系的拓展输出-输入结合的教学活动更具有交际的真实性（文秋芳,2008）3.2 InterlanguageThe type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.E.g. data from SWECCLInterlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.Can be done in two ways:investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked:Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language?In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher levelinterlanguage?How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?IV. Contrastive Analysis and Error AnalysisWe assume that the student who comes into contact with a foreign language will find some features of it quite easy and others extremely difficult. Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult. Lado, 1957, 24.1 Contrastive Analysis (1940s ---1960s)Paul Nation is Professor in Applied Linguistics at the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies (LALS) at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.“Research shows that the first language has a small but important role to play in communicating meaning and content.”(Paul Nation, in his article, The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language)4.1.1 Definition of Contrastive Analysis (CA)A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not in a second language learning situation. (Gass & Selinker, 2001:72) An approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 todetermine similarities and differences”(Saville-Troike, 2006: 34) 4.1.2 Objectives of CAProviding insights into similarities and differences between languages;Explaining and predicting problems in L2 leaningDeveloping course materials for language teaching4.1.3 Contrastive Analysis HypothesisMain assumptions1) L2 learning involves overcoming difficulties in the linguistic systems of the target language;2) The main difficulties in learning a L2 are caused by interference from the L1;3) Contrastive analysis can predict, or at least account for, difficulties in L2 learning, so teaching materials based on contrastive analysis can reduce the effects of interference and difficulties, and facilitate L2 learning.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis"Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result." (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991: 53)3 versions of the CA hypothesisThe Strong Version: Fries & LadoIt (a priori) claimed that prediction of difficulties in learning L2 could be made based upon a comparison of two languages. This starts with a crosslinguistic analysis and then attempts to predict trouble spots.The Weak Version: Wardhaugh (1970)It (a posteriori) claimed that cross-linguistic comparison could help to explain learner errors. This starts with learner errors and attempts to account for them with cross-grammatical comparisons.The Moderate Version: Oller & ZiahosseinyIt differs from the above two in that it emphasizes the significance of minimal distinctions, which may actually cause the greatest interferences and difficulties.4.1.4 Procedures of CA2 principles of CA as proposed by Halliday:Describe before comparingComparing patterns, not whole languagesSteps:The separate description of the relevant features of each language; The establishment of comparability;The comparison and contrast.4.1.5 Evaluation of CAHA. Application, Prediction & Diagnosis of errorsTesting, Course design, Selection, Grading,Contrastive teaching B. Problems with contrastive analysisProblem #1The predictions made by proponents of the CAH were often inaccurate, or even false.There was underprediction (i.e. the CAH failed to predict some errors).There was overprediction (i.e. the CAH predicted errors that did not materialize).French object pronouns precede the verb: Je les vois "I them see." English L1 learners of French will say:*"Le chien a mange les" instead of "Le chien les a mange*"Il veute les encore" instead of "Il les veut encore"" (Ervin-Tripp, 1974)But, French L1 learners of English do not say"I them see." (Je les vois) instead of "I see them"Why does it work one way but not the other?Problem #2It is not true that similarity always equals ease of learning and difference always equals difficulty; (sometimes it’s the other way round)Problem #3L1 transfer is effected by other factors, e.g. the amount and type of TL exposure learners receive.Problem #4Many studies have shown SLLs from very different L1 backgrounds make similar errors.This suggests that many of the most common learner errors are not due to interference of native language.See Ortega, 2009. Section 3.1 p. 310nly about 30% of errors have been attributed to L1. This ranges from 3% for child Spanish learners of English (Dulay & Burt, 1973) to 50% for adult Chinese ESL (Tran Chi Chau 1975)ConclusionWhile interference plays a role in SLA, so do many other factors and thus the role of the first language is less than what was thought by proponents of CA.4.2 Error AnalysisEA refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners.Purposes of EA:1) identify strategies which learners use in language learning;2) identify the causes of learner errors;3) obtain information on common difficulties in language learning,as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.4.2.1 Error and mistakeError: Systematic deviation by learners who have not yet mastered the rules. More difficult to correct. Indication of learner’s attempt to figure out the L2 systemMistake: Random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc. Readily self-corrected.4.2.2 Types of errorsStructural errors (breaking of a rule)e.g. (1) The fast economic growth causes people’s living condition has improved.(2) The job is fit me very well.(3) 报有希望carry the hope; entertain the hope(4) 找借口look for an excuse; make an excuse(5) rather proud, good, young, fresh, practicalquite annoyed, nervous, wrong, serious, limited, difficult, common Non-structural errors,deviations from some kind of norm ('breaches of code') quantitative differences (overuse, underuse)E.g. No smoking, please.Overuse of “make”, “happy”, “glad”.Underuse synonyms of “happy”such as cheerful, light-hearted,delighted etc.Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence. based on cross-linguistic comparisonsIntralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization) based on language being learned4.2.3 Procedure of error analysis1. Collection of samples of learner language2. Identification of errors3. Description of errors4. Explanation of errors (Ellis 1994)4.2.4 Problems with Error Analysis1) Focus on errors mean that researchers ignored what the learner did right.2) Empirically it was difficult to identify the source of many errors.3) It doesn't account for all the problems that learners have, e.g. Avoidance. Learner avoids a certain word or structure.V. Foreign Language Teaching MethodologyDiscussion:What teaching method do you know in ELT?On which theory is it founded?A Retrospective of Foreign Language Teaching Methodology Traditional gramma: Classical language teaching (before 1880)Grammar- Translation MethodStructuralism: Beginning of Modern Language Teaching (from 1880 to the 1st world war): Direct methodMentalism: Development of Modern Language Teaching (from the 1st World War to ’70) : Cognative MethodFunctionalism: Intensification of Modern Language Teaching (after ’70): Communicative MethodConstructivism: Improvement of Modern Language Teaching( after 1980’s) : Constructivist MethodPost-modernism : Perfection of Modern Language Teaching(after1990’s): Post-method1) Traditional grammar---Grammar-Translation Method Correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, the priority of the written languageTextbook takes prominent writers as language models.Teaching involves the presentation of numerous definition, rules and explanations.2) Structuralist linguistics---Direct methodThe spoken language in people’s communication.The focus on the grammatical structures of a language.A pattern drill technique aiming at the learner’s automatisms for language forms.3)Mentalism/Transformational-GenerativeLinguistics---Audio-lingual Method把语言看成一个内在的规则系统( a system of innate rule)，认为语言学习者有一种普遍的语言知识(linguistic competence)。
二语习得ppt课件
教师语言：对外汉语教学课堂 例：请大家打开书。 书Book，打开Open
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第二语言习得发展的重要影响
1、母语者与第二语言学习者交流使用的话语具有的“外国 人话语”“教师语言”特点，这种特定的语域风格的话语 为第二语言学习者提供了一个可理解输入环境。
2、母语者与第二语言学习者的交流除了话语形式的调整， 还有话语结构和功能的调整。这种互动环境对第二语言学 习者的语言习得过程也会产生重要的影响。
Hatch and Wagner-Gough,1976 Hatch ,1978a Peck,1978
早期关注是学习者的语言产出 语言输入与互动
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研究材料来自母语者与学习者交流的转写材料，这些 材料使研究者不仅能观察到学习者的语言产出过程， 即学习者是怎么说的，同时也可以观察到母语者为学 习者提供语言输入的过程，即母语者对学习者是怎样 说的。
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一、语言输入与互动的含义
• 两种不同的语言输入环境 语言输入：为学习者提供的单向的语言信息。 例：听广播、看电视等。 学习者没有交流和沟通的机会。
互动：双向的语言沟通和交流。 例：母语者或教师与学习者之间的交流和沟通， 学习者之间的交流和沟通。 构成了语言习得发生的互动环境。
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• 显示出一种特定的语域风格 保姆语言（儿语、母亲语言）：母亲对学说话的儿童 外国人话语：母语者与第二语言学习者
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二、 三种不同的语言 输入观
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狼孩
“狼孩”刚被发现时，生活习性与狼一样； 不会讲话，每到午夜后像狼似地引颈长嚎。
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卡玛拉经过7年的教育，才掌握4、5个词,勉强地学 几句话，开始朝人的生活习性迈进。她死时估计已 有16岁左右，但其智力只相当3、4岁的孩子
第二语言习得理论PPT课件
语言能力是关于语言的知识； 语言表达是关于语言运用的知识。
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第二节 第二语言习得研究的学科性质
一 第二语言习得研究与语言学 1 研究对象不同 2 目的不同 3 方法不同
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第二节 第二语言习得研究的学科性质
二、第二语言习得研究与心理学 1 研究目的不同 2 研究范0
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二 第一语言和第二语言
第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的 语言。
第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言 之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
第二语言强调语言习得的先后顺序，与语 言习得的环境无关。
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三 习得与学习
习得（acquisition）指非正式的语言获得 （informal learning），儿童大多是通过这 种方式来获得母语的。（下意识，隐性知 识）
有指导的第二语言习得是以教学指导的方 式获得第二语言，语言习得通常是在课堂 教学环境中发生的。
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六 语言能力与语言表达
语言能力（competence）是由交际双方内在语 法规则的心理表征构成的。语言能力是一种反应 交际双方语言知识的心理语法。
（隐性语言知识-对句子合法性的直觉判断）
语言表达（performance）是交际双方在语言的 理解与生成过程过程中对其内在语法的运用。
外语习得指学习者所学的语言在本国不是作为整 个社团的交际工具，而学习者所学的语言主要是 在课堂学习的。
第二语言习得与外语习得是指两种不同的语言环 境而言的。
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五 自然地第二语言习得与有指导的 第二语言习得
自然的第二语言习得是指以交际的方式获 得第二语言，而且语言习得通常是在自然 的社会环境下发生的。
二语习得理论ppt课件
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在整堂课的教学中，刘教师总是让学 生带着 问题来 学习， 而问题 的设置 具有一 定的梯 度，由 浅入深 ，所提 出的问 题也很 明确
Negative Transfer
Lado proclaimed that most of the difficulties originated from the differences between L1 and L2. He believed that the more different the two languages are, the more difficult learning would be, and by knowing this, we could predict what errors would appear.
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在整堂课的教学中，刘教师总是让学提 出的问 题也很 明确
Contrastive Analysis (CA)
Contrastive Analysis was rooted in the practical need to teach a L2 in the most effective way possible. It’s psychological base is behaviorism and linguistic base is structuralism.
Many of the errors which learners make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.
1. Some errors are similar across learners from a variety of L1 backgrounds.
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2.3
Nature of Learning
Learning contains a number of characteristic features (Brown, 1994):
Unit 2 Reviewing Bases of Second Language Acquisition
Unit Preview
Unit topic focus: definition of language different views about language nature of learning misconceptions of learning mystery of first language acquisition
Learning contains a number of characteristic features (Brown, 1994):
1) Learning is acquisition or "getting". 2) Learning is retention of knowledge, information or skill. 3) Retention implies storage systems, memory, and cognitive organization. 4) Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the
Pre-learning Tasks
1. Search the internet to get the definitions of language and learning and explain them with examples to your classmates. 2. Reflect on your own experience of learning the mother tongue. 3. How do you understand the act of learning? Is language learning similar to other types of learning? Why ?
2.2
Different Views about Language
Views at the-turn-of-the-century
1) language is a system: each element of the language has a value only in terms of the rules under which it operates and in relation to all other elements.
2.2
Different Views about Language
The functionalists’view represented by M. A. K. Halliday 5) The interpersonal function allows a speaker to express feelings, emotions and personality. 6) The interpersonal function allows a speaker to express feelings, emotions and personality. 7) The imaginative function serves to create imaginary systems or ideas.
In short, language is a unique system of communication, and it is the cornerstone of society.
2.2
Different Views about Language
The primitive view
1) language is an organism: growth and change are of more interest than the static formal rules.
2) language is writing: the written record of the language is the “purest” form. Speech is secondary and to be distrusted since it is ephemeral and degenerate. 3) language is conventional: language is conventional and it is not only invented, but in its progressive advancement, it varies for the purposes of practical convenience.
2.1
What is Language?
"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication." (Wardhaugh 1977).
2.1
What is Language?
• By "system" we mean the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. All elements in the system of language are arranged in accordance with certain rules; they can not be combined at will. • By “arbitrary vocal symbols” it is meant that anything that represents something else is a symbol, for example, the dove is the symbol of peace. Language consists of another type of symbols, s. These symbols are not chosen for any particular reasons but at random.
2) The regulatory function is the control of events.
3) The representational function is the use of language to “represent” reality as one sees it. 4) The interactional function serves to ensure social maintenance.
2.2
Different Views about Language
The mentalists’ view represented by N. Chomsky 1) language is a system which relates meaning to substance: it emphasizes meaning in linguistic description. 2) language is a mental phenomenon and innate: the innateness of language suggests a genetically imparted ability for language learning. 3) language is universal: all normal children acquire a mother tongue. At a highly abstract level, all languages must share some universal characteristics.
2.2
Different Views about Language
The functionalists’view represented by M. A. K. Halliday 1) The instrumental function serves to manipulate the environment.
2) language is a structural system: language is a system of forms, elements or items of which are combined in certain ways to create sentences. 3) language is an arbitrary system: there is absolutely no relationship between the words and the objects they represent.
2.3
Nature of Learning
Learning is "acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction" ----Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice. ----Kimble & Garmezy, 1963