语言学第四章chapter4
语言学第四章要点
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
语言学第四章 ppt课件
性关系
语言学第四章
• EX:
• The _______ smiles.
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man
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boy
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girl
语言学第四章
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
• 替代关系 • The Relation of Substitutability
• , and Paradigmatic Relations （聚合关系） by Hjemslev(丹麦语言学家,哥本哈根学派的 创始人和主要理论家 ).To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations（垂直关系） or Choice Relations.
语言学第四章
On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.
The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
语言学第四章
Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.(词的单位）
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章
Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。
实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。
直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Advantages：Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。
Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。
语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版
语⾔学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版Chapter 44.1 syntactic（句法的）relations4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系）For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential（有序的）arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relationsWord order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性）Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure.Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的）relations or in Hjemslev’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现）Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical constructionAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分）Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: SNP VPDe t V NPDe tThe girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句⼦结构分析中，成分⽤来指任何语⾔单位，⽽该单位⼜是更⼤语⾔单位的⼀部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本⾝的（A）the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是⼀个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更⼤的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成⼀个更⾼的成分AWord-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构）Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.1 Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre”or “Head”inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.2.4 Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination（从属）refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:4.3. Syntactic（句法）FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject”and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in4.4Category （范畴）The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 NumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.4.4.2Gende(性）Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.4.4.3Case（格）The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.4.4.4Agreement.Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence4.5.1phrasePrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.4.5.3SentenceBasic sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SV A Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table.SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6Recursiveness(递归性）Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within anotherconstituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.4.6.1ConjoiningConjoining: coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系⼀个⼩句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句⼦即并列4.6.2Embedding（嵌⼊）Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:。
新编简明英语语言学教程04Chapter-4-gram
The criteria on which categories are determined
确定词的范畴的标准
Meaning (意义) Inflection (屈折变化) Distribution(分布)
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Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. e.g.
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Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.
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‘s; -ed, -ing; -er, -est… Although inflection is very helpful in determining a
word’s category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. Moisture, fog, sheep; Frequent, intelligent Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.
因此, 一个词的分布情况与其意义和屈折变化 能力的信息一起对于确定它的句法范畴有帮助.
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Phrase categories and their structures
语言学第四章chapter4
▪ Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
▪ For example, a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can take inflections for possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
精选ppt
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Word Classes
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.4.1 Structural analysis
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英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
▪ (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.
b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. ▪ (2) a. Jack looked up the word.
Chapter 4 语言学第四章总结
Chapter 41.SyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is a brand of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:a.Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of oneaspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontalrelation or chain relationb.Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets ofword substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure. It refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set. Itcalled associative relations, vertical relations, choicerelations.c.Relation of co-occurrence2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called immediate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis.3.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent.Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English andother languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction.(and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguisticform and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.a.Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.It includes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics include word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentencestructure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c.Object include direct object and indirect object6.Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow senseand refers to the defining properties of these general units.a.Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis ofword classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b.Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine,neuter.c.Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify thesyntactic relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived.Agreement (concord)7.Phrase is a single element of structure containing more thanone word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that express a compete thought.8.Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embeddingone relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic.Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution)9.Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfillthe same or similar functions in a particular language such asa sentence, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Word-level categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and minor lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary,conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, complement10.P hrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.NP----(Det) N (PP)…VP---(Qual) V (NP)…AP---(Deg) A (PP)…PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement)The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11.P hrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise themeaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.The XP rules (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。
语言学导论第四章
XP rule:
XP
specifier the seldom very
(1) categories: ategories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
S Infl VP
Hale Waihona Puke Det Will theN train e
V arrive
Do insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP CP C NP N birds S Infl VP C NP S Infl VP V fly
three criteria for determining a word’s category
meaning inflection distribution
2.phrase categories: The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy] boy] [VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] cold] [PP mainly about] about]
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course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
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英语语言学：第4章 Phrase structure rules
▪ Representation(通过词性表征句法): The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art + N + V + Art + N+Prep+Art + N
▪ Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.源自精品课件英语语言学：第4章
▪ Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to. beautiful, red
▪ Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
英语语言学：第4章
4.2 Word Classes
▪ Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas as if they were all things. cats, dogs, war, wedding, courage, beauty, rain, love, hatred
▪ Articles, Exclamations, Numerals
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英语语言学：第4章
▪ The definitions above are useful for identifying most forms, but they are never completely accurate. A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes.
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英语语言学：第4章
4.1 Introduction
▪ Syntax: study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words. Difference between morphology and syntax
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英语语言学：第4章
▪ Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now
b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter.
▪ (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up.
▪ (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.
▪ Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or noun phrases.
▪ Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things.
▪ For example, a noun can be defined as a
form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can take inflections for
possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of
▪ Morphology: the internal structure of words Syntax: the combination of words
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英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
▪ (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
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英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar