Chapter 4 语言学第四章总结
语言学+chapter+4
AP (Deg程度) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to
PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near thier
X Head
Complement
Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.
X’ Theory
heads
More…
Phrase elements
Specifier Head complement
Specifiers
Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head;
syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
Phrase structure: a representation of the set of constituents that an expression contains.
语言学第四章要点
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
语言学chapter 4 笔记
Chapter 4 SyntaxTeaching AimsTo enable students to master the categories of word and phraseTo make students understand the rules of phrase structure and sentence structureTo enable students to recognize transformations in transformational generative grammar4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words. The term syntax came originally from Greek word meant arrangement. What that means is that sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered to grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Types of sentences:: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause子句←→ matrix clause主句Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)⏹Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works:⏹(1957) Syntactic Structure;⏹(1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;⏹(1981) Lectures on Government and Binding;⏹(1986) Barriers⏹(1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;⏹(1995) The Minimalist Program;⏹(1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……Criteria on good grammar⏹Observational adequacy⏹Descriptive adequacy⏹Explanatory adequacy(The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.)TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation. Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences:⏹Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;⏹Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather thanon elements that actually occur in all languages.⏹There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined⏹Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (UniversalGrammar).4.2 Categories4.2.1 Word-level categoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)the predicate句法范畴词汇范畴Major lexical categories (open categories): N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.The criteria on which categories are determined:⏹Meaning⏹Inflection⏹DistributionNote:The most reliable criterion of determining a word‟s category is its distribution.短语范畴4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).The structure: specifier + head + complement⏹Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed⏹Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads⏹Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads4.3 Phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:⏹NP→ (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.⏹VP→ (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.⏹AP→ (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to⏹PP→ (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.S→ NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP→ (det.限定词) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)… “→”：包括/分为VP→ (qual.修饰词)V (NP) (POP) (S)… “( )”：内部的成分可以省略AP→ (deg.程度词)A (PP) (S)… “…”：可以选择附加其他补语PP→(deg.)P NP…Significantly, the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.4.3.1 XP ruleXPSpecifier X ComplementNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.X‟ Theory⏹XP → (Specifier)X‟⏹X‟ → X(complement)XP(Phrase level)Specifier X’X(head) complement4.3.2 Coordination ruleCoordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:⏹no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;⏹ a category at any level can be coordinated;⏹the categories must be of the same type;⏹the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.4.4 Phrase element4.4.1 Specifiers---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.4.4.2 Complements---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…; a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent.I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.4.4.3 Modifiers---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.4.5 Sentences (The S rule)S→NP VPSNP VPDet N VDet NA boy found the evidenceS→NP infl VPInflP(=S)NP Infl VPMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed …Infl‟) as their heads, which indicates the sentence‟s tense and agreement.Infl realized by a tense labelInflP(=S)NP VPDet N V NPInfl Det NA boy Pst found the evidenceInfl realized by an auxiliaryInflP(=S)NP VPDet N V NPInfl Det NA boy will find the evidence4.6 Transformations4.6.1 Auxiliary movement (inversion)Inversio n→Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion (revised)→Move Infl to C.CPC SNP VDet N InflThe train will arriveCPC SNP VInfl Det N InflWill The train e arrive4.6.2 Do insertionDo insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.CPC SNP Infl VPBirds fly Figure-1CPC SNP Infl VPBirds do fly Figure-2CPC SInfl NP Infl VPDo Birds e fly Figure-34.6.3 Deep structure and surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. Consider one more sentence:Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous. Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head‟s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.(Deep structure---the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.)Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.(Surface structure--- linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication.)D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconThe organization of the syntactic component：The XP rule↓Deep structure←Subcategorization restricts choice of complements↓transformations↓Surface structure4.6.4 Wh movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak ?Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)CPNP C SWho NP Infl VPe Pst V NPwon the game4.6.5 Move α and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.。
语言学概论第四章语法提纲
语言学概论第四章语法提纲第四章语法【内容简介及重点】主要要掌握语法结构的基本规律，包括：语法的结构单位——句子、词组、词、语素；语素和词组合成更大的语法单位的类型；语法结构的层次性与递归性特点；语法的聚合规则；句子的变换、语言结构的类型和普遍特征。
难点是学会运用已学的语法理论分析和阐释常见的语法现象。
第一节语法和语法单位一语言结构是有规则的1.1 语言结构是有规则的1.1.1 语言语法规则的存在客观性用什么样的形式体现符号之间的结构关系，是有规则的。
1.1.2 从母语者和二语习得者的材料看1.2 语法和语法研究1.2.1 语法语法是词的构成和变化的规则（词法）以及组词成句的规则（句法）的总和。
The rules of syntax combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences.（1）语言中现成的词不能任意更换其中的构成成分，同时也不能任意挪动它们的位置。
（2）一句话可以只有一个词，也可以有几个词。
（3）词法和句法是不同的语法规则，但二者有密切的关系。
1.2.2 语法是客观存在的，语法研究则是对这种客观存在进行客观的归纳、总结和描写。
语法研究不能带有研究者的主观性。
1.2.3 几个概念（1）语法中的任何成分都是内容和形式的统一体。
语法成分的内容是语法意义，语法意义的表达者是语法形式。
（2）在词的范围内的语法形式称为形态，如英语表示“复数”的“-s”就是一种形态。
词序表示词与词的关系，超出了词的范围，因此词序不是形态。
（3）把具有共同特点的语法形式概括起来就成为一种语法手段。
如附加语素和词序就是两种语法手段。
（4）语法最重要的特点是它的抽象性。
二语法的组合规则和聚合规则2.1 语法的两个基本规则2.1.1 组合规则语法单位互相连接起来构成更大的语言片断的规则叫做语法的组合规则。
2.1.2 聚合规则指语法单位的归类的规则。
语法上能够出现在相同句法位置上的词形成一个聚合，如果用来替换的不是从这个聚合里选出的词，句子也不能成立。
语言学第四章chapter4
▪ Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
▪ For example, a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can take inflections for possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
精选ppt
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Word Classes
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.4.1 Structural analysis
精选ppt
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
▪ (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.
b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. ▪ (2) a. Jack looked up the word.
《语言学概要》(叶蜚声)版 第四章 语法(思维导图)
第四章 语法第一节 语法和语法单位一、语言结构是有规则的语法规则是客观存在的，使用者必须共同遵守，违背这种规则，就会使听话者感到别扭甚至产生误会。
二、语法的组合规则和聚合规则语法单位：凡是能在组合的某一位置上被替换下来的片段都是语法单位。
这些语法单位如果其中的构成成分还可以被替换，可以继续切分为更小的语法单位。
语法单位有大有小，最大的是句子，最小的是语素，依次是词组（短语）、词、语素。
语法规则包含组合规则和聚合规则组合关系和聚合关系是语言结构的两种根本关系。
语法的组合规则：语法单位一个接着一个组合起来的规则。
如：“我 看 书”。
语法的聚合规则：语法单位归类的规则。
如：书、电影、小说，这三个词能够出现在相同的句法位置上，这三个词形成一个聚合。
三、语法单位语素：语言中音义结合的最小单位，也是最小的语法单位。
1词：造句的时候能够自由运用的最小单位。
p.862实词：实词有实在的意义，能作句子的主要成分，有许多能够单说，单独回答问题。
虚词：虚词是意义比较虚的词，它能帮助造句，但一般不能单说，不能作句子的主要成分。
词组：词组是词的组合，它是句子里面作用相当于词而本身又是由词组成的大于词的单位。
4自由词组：根据表达需要，按照语法规则把有关的词组织起来的词组。
固定词组：语言中必须完整地记住的词的固定的组合，如成语（四面楚歌）或专有名词（人民代表大会）。
3句子：具有一个句调，能够表达一个相对完整的意思的语言单位。
句子是语言中最大的语法单位，又是交际中基本的表述单位。
5句类：句子按其语气划分的类叫做句类，包括陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句等。
句型：句子按其结构划分的类叫做句型，包括单句和复句。
语法：是句法和词法的汇集。
句法主要研究词组合成句子的规则；词法研究内容包括构词法（语素组合成词的规则）和词形变化规则。
第二节 组合规则一、语素组合成词的规则 p.89构词法：语素组合成词的规则。
词法：构词法和词的变化规则合在一起叫做词法。
语言学导论第四章
XP rule:
XP
specifier the seldom very
(1) categories: ategories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
S Infl VP
Hale Waihona Puke Det Will theN train e
V arrive
Do insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP CP C NP N birds S Infl VP C NP S Infl VP V fly
three criteria for determining a word’s category
meaning inflection distribution
2.phrase categories: The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy] boy] [VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] cold] [PP mainly about] about]
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis
(Bloomfield: 直接成分分析法)
Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
Definition: An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century England, who lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English by following Latin.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar
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Chapter 41.SyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is a brand of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:a.Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of oneaspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontalrelation or chain relationb.Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets ofword substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure. It refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set. Itcalled associative relations, vertical relations, choicerelations.c.Relation of co-occurrence2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called immediate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis.3.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent.Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English andother languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction.(and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguisticform and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.a.Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.It includes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics include word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentencestructure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c.Object include direct object and indirect object6.Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow senseand refers to the defining properties of these general units.a.Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis ofword classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b.Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine,neuter.c.Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify thesyntactic relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived.Agreement (concord)7.Phrase is a single element of structure containing more thanone word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that express a compete thought.8.Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embeddingone relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic.Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution)9.Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfillthe same or similar functions in a particular language such asa sentence, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Word-level categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and minor lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary,conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, complement10.P hrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.NP----(Det) N (PP)…VP---(Qual) V (NP)…AP---(Deg) A (PP)…PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement)The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11.P hrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise themeaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.The XP rules (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。