英语词汇学--词义的变化
词义的变化
(2)联想意义/关联意义associative meaning 词的关联意义又叫联想意义，是词的附带 意义，包括词的感情色彩，文体意义等，这 种意义不稳定，变化大。 Woman一词，让我们联想到“妈妈”， “养儿育女”，“温柔”，“持家”“脆 弱”。
词的关联意义可分为: 内涵意义 connotative meaning 社会意义 social meaning 情感意义 affective meaning 反映意义 reflected meaning 搭配意义 collocated meaning
小结 1.概念意义 2.内涵意义 3.社会意义 4.情感意义 5.反映意义
6.搭配意义
7.主题意义
逻辑、认知或外延的内容 通过语言所指事物来传递的意义 关于语言运用的社会环境意义 关于言者/作者的感情和态度意义 通过同一个词语的另一意义的联想 来传递的意义。 通过与倾向于出现在另一个词的环境 中出现的词的联想来传递的意义 通过组织信息的方式（语序、强调） 所传递的意义。
词义变化的基础
词义的变化（change of meaning）指的是词 义的改变和新义的产生。由于有的事物之间 在功能、形状、动作等特征方面存在着某些 相似之处，词可从一种事物、现象、行为的 名称转指另一种事物、现象、行为的名称， 如隐喻、借代、提喻等。这是词义的改变和 新义产生的基础。
I.词义的组成 (语法意义和词汇意义)
Hale Waihona Puke (2.2)社会意义social meaning 指关于语言运用的社会环境的意义，主要代表是 “文体/风格”意义stylistic meaning. 一类词的概念意义相同,风格意义不一定相同. 如： a. horse 一般用语, steed 诗歌用语, nag 俚语, geegee 儿语 b. father 中性, male parent 书卷气，专业术语, daddy 口语，儿语
第9章 词义演变的原因和过程-词义演变的原因
(一)、社会原因
社会发展与词义变化 2) 专门术语和普通词汇之间经常交叉使用， 也使词义发生了演变 Salt：食盐；(化)盐，盐类 Appendix：附录；(生理)阑尾
1.
Scene(戏剧)一场，一景；场景，布景；场
面，场所
(一)、社会原因
社会环境与词义变化 社会上发生的事件往往会使词的意义发生 变化： Abdication：退位 可以特指英王爱 德华八世1936年为能与沃利斯· 辛普森夫人 结婚而正式放弃王位 Accession Day：登基日 现在英国特指 1952.2.6伊丽莎白二世登基之日
(一)、社会原因
种族情绪与词义变化 正式场合，又创造了Afro-Americans和 African Americans来称呼黑人 Native Americans是对印第安人(Indians) 的称呼 Mexican American是对墨西哥人 (Mexicans)的称呼
5.
3.
(一)、社会原因
民族情绪与词义变化 民族之间的感情也会影响词义的褒贬 因此，英语中一些坏事前面往往加上其他 民族的名称。如：take French leave不辞 而别 Italian hand干涉、干预、狡诈 Spanish athlete胡说八道，吹牛 Irish bull荒诞可笑的说法
7.
(一)、社会原因
6.
(一)、社会原因
6.
性别差异与词义变化
本来是“像家里一样的、善主家务 的”，所以，在英国英语里，You are the homeliest woman I have ever met.是对 女主人的夸奖。 但在美国英语里，homely 是“相貌平平的” 意思，词义降格了。
英语词汇学--词义的变化
Narcissus 水仙花
Munchausen
说大话的人
He was a German s o l d i e r. A f t e r h i s retirement from his service in the Russian Army against the Turks, he told exaggerated stories of his c a m p a i g n i n g adventures,thus the meaning:a person who boasts;exaggerated .
Sandwich: It now denotes a popular fast food. It originates from John Montague, Fourth earl of Sandwich in 18th -century England. He was so fond of gambling that he often forgot his meals. He often ordered slices of bread with thick pieces of roast beef stuffed between them be brought to him so he could eat while playing. Later, people used his name to refer to all similar food.
专有名词普通化与特定的历史事件有关： “Watergate”源指美国华盛顿特区综合大 厦。1972年6月17日夜间，共和党争取 总统连任委员会有关人员潜入大厦内 民主党全国委员会总部而被捕，暴露 了共和党政府在总统竞选中的非法活 动，导致美国历史上首次总统辞职， 现泛指“丑闻”。
英语词汇学论文---词义的变化
英语词汇学论文---词义的变化The Causes of Changes in Word Meaning Abstract:Key words: historical; social; psychological; linguistic; semanticDo you know when Juliet tells Romeo, “I am too fond”, she is not claiming she likes Romeo too much? She means “I am too foolish” Do you know when Horatio says to Hamlet, “Season your admiration for a while…”, he is not telling Hamlet “to increase his respect( the current meaning of admiration) for something”?In fact, he means “ to moderate his astonishment.”Don?t be surprised, because, as Quirk asserts, almost every word we use today has slightly different meaning from the one is had a century ago; and a century ago it had a slight different meaning from the one it had a century before that. When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning.As nonnative English learners, learning the causes of changes in word meaning can help us deepen the understanding of the meaning of lexicology, vocabulary, semantic field and culture background. By learning this, we can use vocabulary in a more precise way and avoid mistake or embarrassment when communicating with native speakers.The causes of changes in word meaning can be divided into linguistic cause and extra-linguistic cause. Extra-linguistic cause can also divide into historical cause, social cause and psychology cause.Linguistic causeChange of meaning is frequently brought about by two tendencies in a linguistic system: towards ellipsis and towardsanalogy. Some linguists think foreign influence should subordinate linguistic cause.Ellipsis occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole, so it often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adjective + noun or attributive noun + noun. Private, daily, duplicate are all adjectives, but they are used as nouns. Private means a soldier of the lowest rank, daily means daily newspaper, and duplicate means duplicate copy. Under such circumstances, whatever is left, whether a noun or an adjective, is all used as a noun assuming the original meaning. Naturally, the association became so close that the first element could alone carry the meaning of the whole phrase.Besides, there is a change of grammatical function as well, as when adjectives assumethe roles of nouns. Unlike the above examples, whose sense of one word has been transferred to another simple because the two occur together habitually, in some cases, it is the second or “headword”of the phrase that remains. For example, (stream) engine, (coal) gas and (light) bulb.The analogical tendency means new meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical bas e. Fortuitous formerly denoted …happening by chance?, …accidental?, and later took on the meaning …fortunate?probably by analogy because the two words look similar in shape. Another interesting example is fruition, originally from a Latin word fruitio meaning enjoyment. But now, its meaning is given as “fulfillment of (plans, desired results, aims, etc.),”possibly from connection with the word fruit.Foreign influencesA particularly important cause of change of meaning inwords has been the influence of foreign words. For example, the native word stool originally meant any kind of seat for one person, and could even be used for a king?s seat. It got its humble meaning because the French word chair was adopted to denote a more comfortable piece of furniture. Other example is dream. Dream meant “joy” in OE; it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.Historical causeIt often happens that though a word retains its original form, its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed. This is the historical cause of semantic change.The well-known semanticist Ullmann notes, “It often happens that language is more conservative than civilization, material as well as moral. Objects, institutions, ideas, scientific concepts change in the course of time; yet in many cases the name is retained and thus helps to ensure a sense of tradition and continuity.”(Ullmann 1997:198)Indeed, it often happens that a word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. Take pen for example, it donated …feather?, which was used in the West as pen in old times. Now, the time when …feather? served as pen is long gone, and people are using hall-point pens and fountain pens, yet the name is still kept. This change has also occurred to computer, which designated a …person who computes? in the past. At present, when we talk about computer, people, people would think of an …electronic machine? rather than a person.There are also many scientific concepts which have retained their original forms, although their meanings have changed as a result of new scientific discoveries and increased knowledge. Forinstance, before Copernicus, the sun was thought to be …the luminous celestial body that in the Plolemaic system is one of the seven planets revolving around the earth? and this meaning is retained in “The sun rises and sets.”The Copernician theory tried to change the historical point of view and now everyone knows that the sun is a …star around which the earth a nd other planets revolve…?Social causeWe are going to discuss social cause of the changes of words?meanings in five aspects.A. Social developmentChange in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common word and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. (Ullmann 1997:199-200) As a result, some technical words have lost their specialized meanings and have come to be used in more general senses, which connect with electricity, physics, chemistry, medicine, mathematics, etc. For instance, feedback means “response” in common use, as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students.”Dimension: as a common word, it means “extent in a particular aspect”, as in “This problem has a new dimension.”B. Social environmentBig events in society will change the meaning of some words. The simple words cold and hot have changed their meanings in the field of politics, as in “cold war” and “hot war”. In England, Abdication can mean King Edward VIII abdicated for marrying a divorced American woman, Ms Simpson. In these cases, nonnative speakers should try to memorize.C. Social classVillain means bad people, but its original meaning is villager.Because the aristocrat looks down upon the low social status villagers, the meaning of villain changed. It is a kind of degeneration of meaning. More examples are clown, boor, knave, and churl. Thus, if a word has something to do with low social status, it will have derogatory sense, vice versa.D National sentimentNational sentiment influences the meaning of word deeply. In English, some bad things will have connection with other nations. For instance, to take French leave means leaving without saying goodbye. Italian hand means interfere. Spanish athlete means a person who says nonsense.The most obvious nation, to which English shows great prejudice, is Netherlands, because these two countries always fought each other in 17century. Dutch act means commit suicide. Dutch comfort means comfort of no help. Dutch widow means prostitute. Dutch uncle means strict critic. Dutch treat means a party that you should pay for yourself. Dutch bargain means a deal made when you are drunk. I amDutched means I am cheated. Double Dutch means words that are rather baffling. I’m a Dutch man if …E. SexismThere are some words with sexism in English, but the number is minor. For example, “Man is a rational animal; men are born equal.”The man in there refers to human being. Recent years, thanks to feminist movement, more and more words are created to refer to women, such as businessperson, draftsperson, poetess, heroine, spokeswoman etc.Psychological causePsychological cause is also constantly at work in bringing about changes in word meaning. Psychological factors play abasic part in meaning change, which leads to the elevation or degradation of word meanings. It takes three forms: euphemism, grandiloquence and cynicism.A.EuphemismPeople change word-meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, irony, contempt, hatred, etc. People tend to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact and taboo subjects.Death and things related to death are one of the most common objects of euphemism. “To pass away,”“to brea the one?s last,”“to cease to think,”“to fall asleep,”“to kick the bucket,”“to be no more,”“to go west,” all refer to death.Toilet is another example. Rest room, lounge, convenience, comfort station and powder room are just some of its euphemism. Pregnant can be said “big,”“big with child,”“expectant,”“heavy with child,”“laden,”“anticipating,”“in the family way,”and “in an interesting condition.”B.GrandiloquenceGrandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effect. The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.In American English, there are so many words of grandiloquence used in unpopular jobs. Garbage collector is sanitation engineer, servant is domestic engineer, mortician is funeral director and gardener is landscape architect.In a sense, grandiloquence is a form of euphemism, too. So some linguists consider grandiloquence subordinate the Euphemism.C.CynicismCynicism is the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic. For instance, the word pious may mean “hypocritically virtuous” in addition to its primary meaning, “having, showing deep devotion to religion.” The present meaning of sanctimonious is “pretending to be very holy or pious”, while it once meant “devout, holy or sacred”. Fanatic, a Latin synonym for enthusiastic, means “unreasonably enthusiastic, almost approaching to madness.”ConclusionChange in word meaning is commonplace and fundamental in a living language, for it is one of the simplest and most convenient ways of meeting peoples? need for new manes to refer to new things, ideas, processes, etc. Broadly speaking, change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addiction of new meaning to established words.The causes of semantic change are historical, social, psychological or purely linguistic. As nonnative English learners, we need to pay more attention to the changes of word meanings, for we are not familiar with their own history, their culture background and psychological situation. Only by learning these causes can we get a better understanding of lexicology, vocabulary, semantic field and context. Only by learning these causes can we know which words should be used and which words should be avoided, so that we can express our meaning more specific in communication with others.Bibliography:Jackson Howard (2000), Words, Meaning and V ocabulary, Trowbridge: The Cromwell PressJavier E Diaz Verd (2004), Lexicography, Semantics and Lexicology in English Historical Linguistics, Netherlands: Rodopi 汪榕培（2000），《英语词汇学研究》，上海：上海外语教育出版社汪榕培& 卢晓娟（2006），《英语词汇学教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社杨艳华& 张树凡（2007），《现代英语词汇学》，：冶金工业出版社张维友（1997），《英语词汇学教程》，武汉：华中师范大学出版社张韵斐（2012），《现代英语词汇学概论》，北京：北京师范大学出版社。
英语词义的变化
目录引言 (3)1、英语词义演进与退化 (3)2、英语词义的缩小与扩大 (5)3、英语词义的弱化与加强 (7)4、英语词义功能的转变 (7)结束语 (8)参考文献 (9)英语词义的变化摘要：语言作为人类交流思想和传递信息的工具，总是随着人类社会的进步而发生着变化。
英语作为一种语言，已经有1500年的历史，其变化巨大也是可想而知的。
英语词义的变化主要表现在词义的演进与退化、词义的缩小与扩大、词义的弱化与加强以及词义功能的转变等方面【1】。
关键词：英语；词义；变化The changes of lexical meanings of English wordsAbstract: The language as tools of human thought and communicate information, is always changing with the progress of humansociety. English as a language, having1500 years of history,the change is palpable. English word meaning changes in wordmeaning evolution and degeneration, narrowing of the meaningand expand, the weakening and strengthening as well as themeaning of the word function transformation, etc.Key word：English；meaning；change引言随着社会的发展，时代的变迁，英语像汉语一样，一些新词出现，旧词消失，一些词义退化演进，词义的功能也在发生转变。
词义的变化从时间上可以分为文艺复兴时期、资产阶级革命时期、殖民地开拓时期【2】。
词汇学 词义变化类型
• 一个原本具有特殊意义的单词的词 义被延伸，范围扩大，可以用来指 代一种更普遍的词义
a general = a general officer an editorial = an editorial article
a private=a private soldier
Some material nouns are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense.
• person names：newton（牛顿），ampere （安培），farad（法拉），joule（焦耳）， pascal（帕斯卡），watt（瓦特），ohm（欧 姆），volt（伏特）
• place names:champagne（香槟酒--法国地 名），gin（杜松子酒，产自日内瓦，是 Geneva一词的缩写）
英语061 符娜娜
• Extension of Meaning • Narrowing of Meaning • Elevation of Meaning • Degradation of Meaning • Transference of Meaning • Euphemism
Extension of Meaning
• cunning---knowing,skillful---sly
• gay---happy---homosexual
词义的变化
词义是一个历史范畴，随着社会生活的变化和人的认识的深化，就会变化化和演化。
（一)词义变化的原因(1）社会生活的发展。
新事物的出现及旧事物的消亡都要影响到词义。
比如“飞”原来只指鸟、虫鼓动翅膀离开地面前进，而现在可以指利用机械比如螺旋桨、喷气等在空中飞行，包拾飞机、飞船等离开地面甚至地球球飞行。
(2)人的思想意识的改变。
比如“云”、古人以为是“山川气也”。
这个词义反映了当时人们对“云”的认识，而现在我们知道，‘‘云”是由水滴、冰晶聚集而形成的悬浮在空中的物体。
现在的认识要比过去更加深刻，更为科学。
(3)语言内部因素的相互作用。
比如语音的变化可以分化词义，在汉语中在一些单音节的名词、形容词中增加一个去声读音，就可以表示相关的动作，从而导致词义变化。
比如：种——种，好——好。
(二)词义变化的类型大致有以下四个方面，分属词义本身的变化和语素义的衍化这两类。
1．深化与精确词义的深化和精确，是指词的理性义所反映的对象没有变化，但人的认识改变了，所以词义也变了。
这大都是些常用的事物和现象o 比如·‘人”，《说文》的解释是：天地之性最贵者。
直到1915年出版的旧《辞源》的解释还是“动物之最灵者”。
而现在的认识是：能够制造并能使用工具进行劳动的高等动物。
显然是大大深化了。
再比如“电”，《说文》的解释是：阴阳激越。
《康熙字典》的解释是；盖阴阳暴格分争，激射；有火生焉，其光为电，其声为雷。
表明“电”本来就是闪电。
而现在知道，电是有电荷存在和电荷变化的现象，是一种重要的能源，广泛运用于生产和生活各个方面。
精确与深化有着密切联系，认识深化了，词义也就精确了。
比如“土”《说文》：地之吐生物者也。
这个解释实际上只指出了”土”的一种功能特征，并不确切。
而现在的认识是：地球表面的一层疏松的物质，由各种颗粒状矿物质、有机物质、水分、空气、微生物组成，能生长植物。
这个解释才指出了“土”的本质，不仅指出了土的功用，更主要的是说明了土的组成。
浅析英语词汇意义变化的方式和原因
浅析英语词汇意义变化的方式和原因英语词汇意义的变化可以通过以下几种方式来进行分析：1. 同义词演化：同一个词在不同的时代或语境下可能具有不同的意义。
例如，英语中的“nice”最初是指“愚蠢”，现在却表示“好的”或“友善的”。
2. 词义扩展：词语的原始意义逐渐扩展到包含更广泛的含义或概念。
这可能是因为词语在使用过程中逐渐被赋予新的解释。
例如，英语中的“mouse”最初只指小鼠，而现在也可用于形容计算机的输入设备。
3. 词义缩小：相反地，一个词的原始意义可以逐渐缩小，只指特定的对象或概念。
例如，英语中的“deer”最初是指各种动物，现在只用来指代鹿科的动物。
4. 词义转移：一个词的原始意义可以转移到不相关的领域或词语上。
这可能是由于人们在表达时使用了类比或隐喻。
例如，英语中的“mobile”最初是指“可移动的”，而如今也可用来形容智能手机。
词汇意义变化的原因可以是以下几个方面：1.文化和社会变化：随着社会的发展和变化，词语的意义也会随之变化。
新兴技术和社会变革会带来新的概念和需求，从而推动词汇意义的变化。
2.变化的语言使用情境：词语意义的变化可能与其在特定语境中的使用相关。
人们在特定语境中使用词语，会赋予其特定的含义。
随着时间的推移，这种语言使用的变化会导致词语意义的变化。
3.形式与意义的互动：词语的形式和意义之间存在相互影响的关系。
随着语言变化，词形的变化可能会导致词语意义的变化，反之亦然。
总结起来，英语词汇意义变化的方式和原因主要包括同义词演化、词义扩展、词义缩小和词义转移。
这些变化可能是由于文化和社会变化、语言使用情境的变化以及形式与意义的互动引起的。
英语词汇学词义的变化
On Word Format ion★Prefac eLearna langua ge; you must learnpronun ciati on, gramma r, vocabu lary. Amongthe threefactor s,vocabu laryhas a very import ant role in your langua ge-studyi ng. A famous schola r Wilkin ssaid”withou t gramma r, very little can be convey ed, withou t vocabu lary, nothin g can be convey ed.”Heemphas izedthat in most cases, the vocabu laryis more import ant than gramma r. Anothe r famous lexico logis tMcCart hy said, when a studen t learnthe second langua ge, no matter how well the studen t learns gramma r, no matter how succes sfull y he master s the second s of a L2， withou t wordsto expres s a wide rangeof meanin gs, commun icati on in that langua ge cannot happen in any manful way.From thesetwo exampl es and of course includ e many othercasesthat are not mentio ned here now, we can conclu dethatifyoudon‟tcarevocabu laryat all, it is imposs ibleto learna langua ge in some way. What‟smore, you cannot expres s your real feelin g no matter you are happy, sad, fortun e, or you are unluck y, becaus eyoudon‟tknowwhatwordsyou can say or you can write.Today, I will tell you what I had learne d in this class. What I will teachyouis“wordformat ion”,whydoIchoose this topicto talk? Becaus e in my opinio n, if you know the word format ion very well, you can rememb er and use the new wordseasily. Absolu tely,it‟sveryhelpfu l for your langua ge studyi ng.Don‟tyouthinkso?★Summar yEnglis h vocabu laryhas severa l of Word-format ion method s. But the threegreate st word format ion powers are affixa tion, compou nding, and conver sion. The othersix kindsof word-format ion method s includ e blendi ng, clippi ng, acrony my, back-format ion, soundredupl icati on, and commun izati on of proper names.★Keywor dsMorphe mes, classi fying, word-format ion★Contex tBefore talkin g aboutword format ion, maybewe should know the morpho logic al struct ure of Englis h wordsfirst. So what we will discus s next is morpho logic al struct ure of Englis h words. It includ esmorphe mes, morphs and allomo rphs,classi fying morphe mes, identi fying morphe mes, morphe mes and word-format ion.☆ morphe mesTradit ional ly, wordsare usuall y treate d as the basicand minima l unitsof a langua ge to make senten ce, whichare combin ation s of wordsaccord ing to syntac tic rules. Struct urall y, howeve r, a word is not thesmalle st unit becaus e many wordscan be separa ted into even smalle r meanin gfulunits. Theseminima l meanin gfulunitsare knownas morphe mes. In view of word-format ion, the morphe meisseenas…thesmalle st functi oning unit in the compos ition of words‟. Syntac tical ly, howeve r, a morphe me is the minima l form of gramma tical analys is.Morphe mes are abstra ct units, whichare realiz ed in speech by discre te unitsknownas morphs. They are actual spoken, minima l carrie rs of meanin g.Morphe mes vary in functi on. Accord ingly, we can classi fy morphe mes into severa l genera l catego ries:① Free versus BoundMorphe mes ---- morphe mes whichare indepe ndent of othermorphe mes are free. Thesemorphe mes have comple te meanin gs in themse lvesand can be used as free gramma tical unitsin senten ces. Morphe mes whichcannot occuras separa te wordsare bound. They are so namedbecaus e they are boundto othermorphe mes to form wordsor to perfor m a partic ulargramma tical functi on.② Deriva tiona l versus Inflec tiona l Morphe mes ---- morphe mes whichare used to derive new wordsare knownas deriva tiona l morphe mes becaus e when thesemorphe mes are conjoi ned, new wordsare derive d.③ Conten t versus Gramma tical Morphe mes ---- On a semant ic and syntac tic basis, morphe mes can fall into conten t and gramma tical morphe mes. Conten t morphe mes are lexica l morphe mes whichare used as we see aboveto derive new words, so also knownas deriva tiona l morphe mes.☆ Morphe mes and Word-format ionWe know that wordscan be analyz ed into morphe mes, whichare the minima l meanin gfulunitsin the compos ition of words. In word-format ion format ion, howeve r, morphe mes are conven tiona lly labele d root, stem, base and affix.Affixe s are formsthat are attach ed to wordsor elemen ts to modify meanin g or functi on. Affixe s are boundmorphe mes becaus e none of them can standas wordsin theirown right. Accord ing to the functi ons of affixe s, we can divide them into inflec tiona l affixe s and deriva tiona l affixe s. Deriva tiona l and inflec tiona l affixe s are identi cal with deriva tiona l and inflec tiona l morphe mes. In view of theirdistri butio n in the format ion of word, affixe s can fall into prefix and suffix.Before we beginour actual discus sionof word-buildi ng proces ses, thereare some basicconcep ts that need clarif ying:1. Root: a root is the basicform of a word whichcannot be furthe r analyz ed withou t totalloss of identi ty.2. Stem: a stem may consis t of a single root morphe me or of two root morphe mes. It can be a root morphe me plus one or more affixa tiona l morphe mes.3. Base: a base is referr ed to a form to whichaffixe s of any kind can be added. It can be a root or a stem.☆ Word Format ionThe expans ion of vocabu laryin modern Englis h depend s chiefl y on word format ion. Thereis a variet y of meansbeingat work now. The most produc tiveare affixa tion, compou nding and conver sion.⑴ Affixa tionAffixa tionis genera lly define d as the format ion of wordsby adding word-formin gor deriva tiona l affixe s to base. This proces s is also knownas deriva tion, by whichnew wordsare derive d from old or base forms. The wordscreate d in this way are called deriva tives. Accord ing to the positi ons affixe s occupy in words, affixa tionfallsinto two subcat egori es: prefix ation and suffix ation.Prefix ation includ es:Negati ve Prefix es (a-, dis- ,in-, non-, un-…)Revers ative or Privat ive Prefix es (de-, dis-,un,…)Pejora tivePrefix es (mal-, mis-, pseudo- …)Prefix es of Degree or Size (arch-, co-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-,over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under-…)Prefix es of Orient ation and Attitu de (anti-, contra-, counte r-, pro-…)Locati ve Prefix es ( fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-…)Prefix es of Time and Order( ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re- …)Number Prefix es ( bi-, multi-, semi-,tri-,uni- …)Conver sionPrefix es ( a-, be-, en- …)Miscel laneo us Prefix es ( auto- , neo-, pan-, proto-, vice- …)Suffix ation includ es:Noun suffix es (denomi nal nouns, deverb al nouns, de-adject ive nouns, non andadject ive suffix es) Adject ive suffix es (denomi nal suffix es, deverb al suffix es )Adverb suffix es (Omit exampl e)Verb suffix es (Omit exampl e)⑵ Compou ndingCompou nding is the format ion of new wordsby joinin g two or more bases. Wordsw orthformed in this way are called compou nds. Compou nds can be writte n solid, hyphen atedand open.1. Charac teris ticsof compou ndsCompou nds have notice ablecharac teris ticswhichmay in most casesdiffer entia te themse lvesfrom noun phrase s in the follow ing four aspect s:Phonol ogica l featur es, semant ic featur es, gramma tical, orthog raphi cal featur es.2. Format ion of compou ndsCompou nding can take placewithin any of the word class, but the produc tiveones are nounsand adject ivesfollow ed by verbsto a much lesser extent. Noun compou nds, adject ive compou nds, verb compou nds.⑶ Conver sionConver sionis the format ion of new wordsby conver tingwordsof one classto anothe r class. Conver sionis genera lly consid eredto be a deriva tiona l proces swhereb y an item is adapte d or conver ted to a new word classwithou t the additi on of an affix. Hencethe name zero-deriva tion. Wordsproduc ed by conver sionare primar ily nouns, adject ives, and verbs.Conver sionto nouns(deverb al, de-adject ival, miscel laneo us conver sion) Conver sionto verbs(denomi nal, de-adject ival, miscel laneo us conver sion) conver sionto adject ives(voicel ess to voiced conson ant, initia l to end stress) the othersix meansof word-format ion includ es:Blendi ng, Clippi ng, Acrony my, Back-format ion, Soundredupl icati on, Commun izati on of proper names.Becaus e the wordslimit, the six word-format ion method s is not detail ed introd ucedhere. If you areintere stedin them, please referto the lexico logy.Annota tion:《英语词汇学教程》张伟友著，《词汇学学习指南》Thankyou for your review s !A happyNew Year, good health杨春慧著。
词义变化
一）词义的扩大凡是词义从特定的意义扩大为普遍的意义，或者从指"种"的概念扩大为指"类"的概念，结果新义大于旧义，这种演变叫做词义的扩大（the enlarging, widening, extension或expansion of meaning），也叫做词义的一般化（the generalization of meaning）。
以lady一词为例，它以前仅仅指"女主人"。
这个词的词义渐渐扩大了，适用的妇女越来越多，先是指贵族太太，后来指有教养的妇女，例如：The lords and ladies are all gathered in the palace。
现在，lady可以用于指任何"女人"，是一种礼貌的用法，尤其是那个女人就在跟前的时候，例如：There is a Japanese lady here, looking for someone who looks like you.在提到老妇人的时候，几乎总是说old lady或elderly lady。
在对一群女士说话的时候也总是说ladies，而不用women，例如：Ladies, could I have your attention, please？Good evening, ladies and dy已经几乎成为woman（女人）的同义词，例如：saleslady（女售货员），cleaning lady（清扫女工），ladies' room（公共女厕所）等等；甚至可以用作定语：a lady novelist（女小说家），lady traffic wardens（女交警），lady guests（女客人）。
词义的扩大不仅限于名词，动词、形容词的词义也都可以扩大。
例如：carry（拿）的原义是"用车运"（transport by cart），跟cart的关系只要看词形就能看出来，现在把by cart这一语义选择限制去掉了，这个词的词义范围也就扩大了。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
the use of a proper noun to convey a general idea
a
12
Sandwich: It now denotes a popular fast food. It
originates from John Montague, Fourth earl of
Sandwich in 18th -century England. He was so
第五章 词义的变化 Change of Meaning
外语学院 徐红新
a
1
❖ When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning.
used his name to refer to all similar food.
a
13
Tantalize 挑逗 Tantalus
Greek Myth: a king punished for his
misdeeds by having to stand in water
that recedes when he tries to drink it
_________ Quirk 1963:123-124
a
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
2
❖ Causes of changes in word meaning
❖ 1. the world is changing
❖ 社会是语言的外部因素（索绪尔，1980：43），但是社会 又不是一般的外部因素，而是客体世界中最重要的外部因 素， 因为语言是特殊的社会现象，语言跟社会诸因素有千 丝万缕的关系。
❖ 2.1 认识水平在提高 heart,brain
❖ 2.2 思想观念的更新 天堂、老板、演员、士兵
❖ 2.3心理感情因素
❖ 求新： 净面、洗脸、飚客、粉丝, 闪族
❖ 求美：春风、教室
❖ 求省：机票、机场、机群、客机、班机
❖
gold metal
❖ 求雅：euphemism 下岗、老、战略性撤退、穷
❖
红白赤
a
5
词义的变化
a.Extension of meaning b.Restriction of meaning
c.Degeneration of meaning
d.Elevation of meaning
e.Transformation of meaning
a
6
Extension of Meaning
fond of gambling that he often forgot his meals.
He often ordered slices of bread with thick pieces
of roast beef stuffed between them be brought to
him so he could eat while playing. Later, people
circumlocution lie\steal\lazy
❖ 感情因素（移情）：冤家
a
4
❖ 3.The language is changing ❖ 3.1 semantic reason ❖ harvest\autumn motor 左右 ❖ 3.2 grammatical reason ❖ 廉颇老矣，尚能饭否？ ❖ 3.3 pragmatic reason ❖斗闻
It is also called widening of meaning or generalization. It’s a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning
has now become generalized.
a
8
A. From specific to general 从特指到泛指 Example
Picture: originally: a painting or drawing
a
9
The present meaning
a photograph
a cinematic picture
an x-ray picture
a
7
Four kinds of extension A. From specific to general
B. From proper nouns to common nouns C.From concrete to abstract D.From technical terms to general words
❖ “… Change of meaning is a commonplace, and indeed it would appear to be fundamental in living language, …… almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago: and a century ago it had a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century before that.”
a TV picture
a radio-telescope picture
any pictaure
10
More Examples rubbish
Originally: rubble (碎石）
a
Now: anything worthless
11
B. From proper nouns to common nouns Antonomasia 换称
❖ 1.1 旧词添新义 car\ship
❖ 1.2 科技发展 光环
❖ 1.3 普通义位与科技义位间的转变 menu, window
❖ 1.4 社会集团社会地位的变化 governor, lord
❖ 1.5 经济的发展 狗、马
❖ 1.6 民族或种族矛盾的原因 Dutch
a
3
❖ 2. Human being is changing