Lecture 16 Stylistic Features of EST

Lecture 16 Stylistic Features of EST1. How do you define EST?EST is a general term including all written forms and spoken forms which concerns about science and technology. EST includes in its category many fields of discourse: the English of mathematics, the English of physics, the English of chemistry, the English of biology, etc.Common features and single variety：two sub-varieties:a. the English of specialized science and technology ( ESST)b. the English of common science and technology ( ECST)EST is a variety of English dealing with the theories and applications of scienceCategories of ESTscientific works, academic papers, experimental reportsdescription and explanation of natural phenomenoninformation and literal documents on STST instructions for operative meansthe interpretations on ST movies and videoslanguage used in ST conferences, negotiations1 Grammatical Features1.1 More use of longer and statement-type sentencesThe sample texts show that compared with the varieties we have discussed, EST sentences appear a bit longer. In Sample 1, there are in all 7 sentences; the shortest one consists of 8 words, the longest 35, the average being 23.6 words per sentence. In Sample 2, the longest has 40 words, the shortest 9, the average being 23.8 words. Sample 3 is from a textbook, the longer paragraphs of which have an average of 21, 7 words per sentence. The statistics show that the sentence length in EST are longer than the sentence length in everyday conversation (8 words), or advertising (12.4 words), or some urgent kind of news reporting (20 words). The average words per sentence in EST are about the same as in public speech (which has an average of 24 words); but in EST, the sentence length does not vary as sharply as in public speech in which one sentence can have 74 words, and another may have only 4 words. This is because a mild variation in sentence length reflects the author's unemotional state of mind and his/her objective way of narrating.As is the nature of most technical writing (making statements about things and processes, ere), sentences in the samples are mostly of the statement type.There are often universal kinds of statements in EST texts, such as:Metals expand when heated and contract when cooled.The molecule of water has three atoms.Statements of this kind are believed to be true universally , at all times and in all places. The laws of science (as Action and reaction are equal and opposite. Like charges repel each other. Unlike charges attract.), formulae equations (eg v'=v - v, F=ma), definitions (as The gram is the mass of one cc of water...) etc are among sentences of universal statement.Most of the statements are of the simple S P (O) (C) (A) structure, or A S P (C) (A) structure which presents not very much structural difficulty in understanding.Other types of sentences are possible. In Sample 3, there is one sentence in the form of a command: Let v, represent the downward velocity of this gas relative to the rocket.A working example is customarily introduced by the following formula using command-type sentences:Consider a high pressure chamber.Imagine a charge of gas to be compressed inside that chamber.Let p 1 be the initial pressure.Such sentences are common in experimental descriptions:Take a beaker of water and heat it over a burner. Record its temperature every minute. The temperature rises steadily until it reaches l 00 ℃ , but after that it remains constant. Now mark the side of the beaker to indicate the water level. Leave the beaker to boil for several minutes and again record the level. Notice that some of the water has disappeared. The water is changing into water vapor.Occasionally questions may occur to draw the reader's attention to what is to follow, though we do not have any in the samples. Naturally exclamations or vocatives do not occur in this variety of English, which is supposed to be free from emotional coloring.1.2 Preference for impersonal sentence patternsMost highly distinctive is the frequent use of impersonal sentences, as it is important to stress the fact that experimental results will be the same as long as the experiments are replicated exactly, no matter who performs them. This is shown 1) in the use of sentences introduced by an anticipatory It ; as inIt is obvious that these currents will generate heat in the core.It will be seen that energy cannot be destroyed; it only changes its form.and 2) in the use of passive structure (with predicator in the passive voice or with passive infinitive) in narrating. Passive structures put the 'patient', or 'Goal' of the action in subject position, the Agent appearing in the optional 'by+Agent' phrase, thus allowing the 'personal' aspect of the action to be removed, and the description of the experiment to appear more objective. In Sample 1 there are 7 sentences; 4 of them contain passive structure. Out of the 12 sentences in Sample 2, 8 sentences have passive structure.As is shown in the samples, the personal agent is normally not mentioned, though occurrence of other agents are possible in EST, such as ways of doing things (as in: Electricity can be transmitted by means of wires ), plants or substances (as in: The turbines are driven by steam ), organizations (as in: Large quantities of fuel are used by modern industry ), natural processes or circumstances (as in: The failure of the pipe was caused by corrosion ).1 .3 Wide use of non-finite structure and prepositional phrasesScientists and engineers often want to express what they mean clearly in the least possible words. So they often shorten their sentences by using non-finite structure or prepositional phrases in place of corresponding clauses. For example:When they are heated under pressure, the constituents fuse together.is shortened toWhen heated under pressure the constituents fuse together.or even toHeated under pressure the constituents fuse together.A good many infinitive phrases are often used to express purpose, object or aim; as inTo destroy this organism it is necessary to heat milk to about 60 ℃ for 15 minutes.and function; as inThe pedal serves to operate the clutch.Participle phrases are often used to replace adverbial clauses:Dropping this term, dividing by dt , and rearranging, we obtain m= v －g.or to replace a relative clause:While the evidence supporting an autoimmune pathogenesis. ..The part played by civil engineers in pioneering work ...Sometimes a prepositional phrase is used to replace a relative clause; as in:All passengers (who were) on board the ship had to pass a medical examination.Steels with (=which have) a carbon content of between 0.5 and 1.3% are known as high carbon steels.After finishing the experiments, we wrote down the results.1 .4 Use of expanded pre-modificationNominal groups in EST are characterized by expanded noun pre-modification. In the samples there are some examples: eye muscle membranes, thyroid stimulating hormone fragments, thyroglobulin antithyroglobulin immune complexes, other disease germs, the high-temperature- short-time, or HTST method, thin stainless steel pipes, the impulse-momentum relation, the resultant external force F , etc. This is evidently for direct and economical expression. Take the following for example:advanced gas turbine generator (=an electrical generator of advanced design driven by gas turbines) considerably lower boiling point (=point at which a substance boils which is considerably lower than some other points referred to)1.5 Tendency to nominalizationNominalization (chiefly of predicate transitive verbs) is another way of making sentences compact, impersonal and formal. In EST, there are many examples of this. Thus instead ofThe contents of the tank are discharged by a pump.technical writers sayDischarge of the contents of the tank is effected by a pump.And instead ofIf a potential is applied to gas at low pressure, ionization of the molecules will result.they sayThe application of a potential to gas at low pressure will result in ionization of the molecules. Similarly, we haveAllowance should be made for expansion or contraction of the shaft.Analysis of these methods will be made in a later section of the book.Nominalization even occurs with predicatives. See how the following sentenceIt is necessary to examine whether the new design is efficient.is changed toIt is necessary to examine the efficiency of the new design.and how the sentenceThe progress of the work will depend on how modern the equipment is.is changed toThe progress of the work will depend on the modernization of the equipment.1 .6 Wide use of the simple present tenseWhen scientists make statements which they believe to be true at all times and in all places, they use the simple present tense. All universal statements (see 11.4.1 .1) will use the simple present tense form, even when they are introduced by particular statements about the past or the future; as inNewton found that all masses attract each other.The simple present tense is also used in describing tests or demonstrations:The chick embryos are chopped up and are put into a jar.The present continuous is used 1) to draw attention to a process, while the simple present is still used for description of the process:We are now looking at another process. The heated plastics material is extruded through a die, in the form of threads. The threads are now drawn through a bath, to cool them. Then they are chopped into granules.or 2) to describe an uncompleted action and a process continuing:From the start the turbine is running under control.The past tense is used to describe a test done in the past or a past state of things. In Sample 2, the second paragraph has several sentences with verbs in the past tense form.1 .7 Incidence of subjunctive moodIn EST, scientists and engineers are often engaged in supposition and inference when explaining a problem or phenomenon. Hence the high incidence of the subjunctive mood in this variety 1) to indicate the results of a possible or imagined course of action, or 2) to refer to the possible results of something which did not happen but might have happened:(1) If the nerve were cut, no response would be observed,(2) If further tests had been carried out, the fault would have been discovered.2 Lexical FeaturesMost EST texts are distinctive in their unique vocabulary and use of common words with accurate and dispassioned meaning. In EST, there are a large number of technical and semi-technical wordscommon to all scientific disciplines, and a specialized vocabulary for each given discipline. Contrary to the belief of many school students, specialized terms are not usually invented to make life of others difficult, but to help experts be clear, precise and unambiguous in discussion. What is more, with the fast development of science and technology, many new words are emerging everyday to suit the need to define new phenomena, and to explain new things and processes.2 . 1 Specific use of highly-technical wordsHighly-technical words are specialized vocabulary for a given scientific discipline. They are words with precise, narrow meanings unique to the discipline. Sample 1 is full of such words. Out of the total 166 words, 36 words (up to 22%) are highly specialized (some occur twice or thrice), such as ophthalmopathy, hyperthyroidism, thyroid, autoimmune, pathogenesis, orbital, antibodies, auto-antigens, lymphoid, cell-mediated, immune, hormone, thyroglobulin, antithyroglobulin, immunosuppression, etc. We can see that many of the words are neologisms, words derived from Latin and Greek roots, prefixes and suffixes, or compounded from existing words whose meaning is well-known and is not very much changed in the technical compound word. This is clearly typical of the English of specialized science and technology (ESST), which is meant for professionals. In Samples 2 and 3, both of which are the English of common science and technology (ECST), specialized words are not so densely distributed as in ESST.2 -2 Wide use of semi-technical wordsSemi-technical words are words which are used both in ordinary English and in EST writings. Only, in EST, those words have meanings different from their non-technical use and they may have different specific meanings in their different technical fields. For instance, the word carrier in ordinary English means a person or business that carries goods or passengers from one place to another for payment. But in medicine it refers to a person or thing that carries and passes diseases to others without him-/herself or itself suffering from it; in military it refers to a vehicle or ship which carries soldiers, planes, weapons, etc; in physics it refers to a hole or an electron capable of carrying an electric charge; in telecommunication it refers to an electric wave or alternating current; in mechanics it refers to a container for carrying; in chemistry it refers to a usually inactive accessory substance.Such words form the essential part of technical English. Frequently used are efficiency, energy, flux, force, load, mass, matter, movement, power, Solution, work, etc.2 .3 Unique use of non-technical words and expressionsIn order to avoid the ambiguity or imprecision of more commonly used words with the sameapparent meanings, scientists and engineers tend to use words and expressions with meanings which are seldom used outside EST. For example, in EST, determine is used instead of find out, construct instead of build , convert instead of change, tension instead of tighten , extract instead of draw out, ignite instead of set fire to, consume instead of use up , appreciable instead of a lot of, come under load instead of be charged, etc. All these words and expressions are precise, impersonal, formal and convenient, so they are more frequently used in EST than in everyday English.2 .4 Frequent use of abbreviations, symbols, formulae, and chartsIn an effort to express more economically, many clipped words, acronyms, initials etc are used in EST, such as met for meteorological station, metro for metrology , STOL for Short Takeoff and Landing, radar for radio detecting and ranging, UFO for Unidentified flying Object . Symbols are widely adopted in technical writings too, which is an evident marker of some EST texts; such asA formula can express in a few symbols (letters, signs, numbers, etc) what would take a whole sentence or several sentences to describe -- a general law, rule, fact, etc. For example, the chemical reaction in which hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water can be written:2H 2 +O 2 △ 2H 2 OThis says that 2 hydrogen molecules and 1 oxygen molecule, when heated ( △stands for heat), combine to form e molecules of water; The 2 molecules of water are made up of 4 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms altogether.Charts (diagrams, graphs) are often used in this variety, as a visual aid like FigS-12 of Sample 3, or as clear summary and listing of features. Take the Tree for the Slavonic Languages(in textbook) 3 Semantic FeaturesSemantically, EST is distinctive in its wide use of logical-grammatical connectives and scarcity of rhetorical devices.3 .1 Wide use of connectivesEST aims at close and logical reasoning. Hence its dependence on strong meaning relations in content and clear explicit connectivity. Most noticeable is the frequent use of the formal kind of transitional words/phrases and lexical repetition. Samples I and II present us with an example of thecohesive devices often used in an EST textl) Backward reference with use of pronoun it, the definite article the and the demonstrative this . For instance in Sample 1, it is used in the second sentence to refer back to Grave's ophthalmopathy , and the ophthalmopathy in the third sentence refers hack to it again.2) Noun repetition. In Sample l, the word ophthalmopathy is repeated for six times, hyperthyroidism three times.3) Summarizing nouns or this. In Sample 2, we have sentences:To destroy this organism, it is necessary to heat milk to about 60 ℃for 15 minutes, ... A heat treatment of this kind destroys about 99% of the common bacteria in milk, ...Here, A heat treatment of this kind serves as a summary of what is said before it. The same is the use of this in the following:This became known as the 'holder' process, ...4) Transitional words/phrases. These include words/phrases indicating logical sequence, such as thus, therefore, as a result, consequently ; those indicating contrast, such as however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, but, yet ; those indicating additional statement, such as in addition, moreover, furthermore, in other words ; those indicating similarity such as in the same way, similarly ; those indicating emphasis, such as above all, in fact, particularly obviously; those indicating purpose, such as for this purpose, to this end, in order to ...; those indicating examples, such as for example, for instance ; those indicating order, such as next, first, second, finally ; and those indicating conclusion, such as in short, to sum up, to conclude, etc.3 .2 Scarcity of rhetorical devicesEST writings aim at an impersonal, objective way of exposition. So clarity and accuracy is most important of their quality, and avoidance of ornamental or ambiguous expressions is a must. That is why EST texts lack variety with almost no rhetorical devices such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, irony, etc, not even the manipulation of phonological or syntactical repetition. This is particularly true of most ESST writings.ECST writings, however, do not seem to be dull. This is the result of an effort made by ECST writers to explain a phenomenon or process in a way that is easy for common readers to understand, with concrete examples or by using personal pronouns you to involve the reader deeper in the text, and we to render the text less formal. Most vivid can be the proper analogy employed by ECST writers. Here is a passage about electricity:If you were thirsty, and took a cup to the kitchen sink, you might first turn the tap on just alittle way, so that a thin stream of water came from it. Then you would turn the tap a bit farther. Not only would there be more water, but also it would come out with greater force. If you turned it on as far as it would go, you would get no water in your cup at all, for it would come from the tap in so powerful a jet that it would bounce straight out of the cup again and most likely drench you.In that stream of water, then, are three things--or rather, two things and their result. Firstly, the amount, or quantity, or current, of water. Secondly, the pressure pushing it. And thirdly the power of the jet, which is the result, or product, of the current of water and the force pushing it.Although this is not quite the same as in electricity, it helps in understanding amps, volts and watts....At their highest level both scientific conceptions and poetic conceptions have to be couched in images. When speaking of Niel Bohr, one of the forerunners of modern nuclear physic$, Jacob Bronowski in The Ascent of Man says:Niel Bohr's taste also ran to poetry. He said to Heisonberg, 'When it comes to atoms, language can be used only as in poetry. The poet, too, is not nearly so concerned with describing facts as with creating images.' That is an unexpected thought: when it comes to atoms, language is not describing facts but creating images. But it is so. What lies below the visible world is always imaginary, in the literary sense: a play of images.and scientists are not without their sense of humor:Basically, the theory proposed among other things, that the maximum speed possible in the universe is that of light, that mass appears to increase with speed, that the rate of a clock moving through space will decrease as its speed increases, and that energy and mass are equal and interchangeable. This latter claim based on the formula E=Mc2 (energy equals mass times the square of the speed of light) was later proved by atomic fission, on which the atomic bomb is based. Later in his life, when Einstein was asked to explain his law of relativity to a group of young students, he said: 'When you sit with a nice girl for two hours, you think it's only a minute. But when you sit on a hot stove for a minute, you think it's two hours. That is relativity.'5 Features of Spoken ESTSpoken EST refers to a conversation, a lecture, a radio or television program, or a film, concerning a scientific or technical subject. What is most striking about spoken EST is its similarity with its corresponding written form: both are formal, though the spoken form can be less formal and is often endowed with features common to spoken varieties of all fields: hesitations, pauses, incomplete utterances, close monitoring of the audience's reaction. This is because much of the communicationbetween scientists or engineers has always been carried on in writing, and when they speak as specialists, they naturally adopt the written forms of EST. Of course, when they are explaining a technical subject to a non-specialist, they will want to keep what they are saying as simple as possible. And we can sometimes hear scientists and engineers speaking personally and informally when they are being sociable, and impersonally and more formally when they are being scientific. Study Questions1) How many types of EST are there in the English language (in terms of the three situational factors of language)?2) What is generally required of EST? Why?3) Tell how and why EST prefers impersonal sentence patterns?4) How do you account for the use of expanded pre-modification and the tendency to nominalization in EST writing?5) In advertising and news reporting, there are many neologisms occurring to attract the attention of the reader. Do you think in EST, there are also many instances of the occurrence of neologisms? If yes, can you find any difference in tendency between the neologisms occurring in EST and those occurring in the former two?6) Comment on the wide use of logical grammatical connectives and scarcity of rhetorical devices in EST.。