跨文化交际复习资料(推荐文档)
跨文化交际复习资料
跨⽂化交际复习资料U1Economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration迁移；移民；移动, and the spread of technology.Global village: all the different parts of the world from one community linked together by electronic communication, especially the internet.Melting pot: a social cultural assimilation同化作⽤of people of different backgrounds and nationalities. Cultural Diversity: refers to the mix cultures and sub-cultures of a group or organization or region. What are the four trends that lead to the development of the global village? (P8-9)The concept of culture:a learned set of shared interpretations解释about beliefs, values and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.What are the three ingredients of culture?Artifacts: the material and spiritual精神的，⼼灵的products people produce.Behavior: what they doConcepts;beliefs,values,world views…what they think⽂化冰⼭（Cultural iceberg）P7Characteristics of cultural:Culture is shared: All communications take place by means of symbols.Cultural is learned: Culture is learned, not inherited. It drives from one?s social communication, not one?s genes. Enculturation(⽂化习得):All the activi ties of learning one?s culture are called enculturation.Culture is dynamic (P6): Culture is subject to change. It?s dynamic动态；动⼒rather than static静态的, constantly不断地；时常地changing and evolving进化；展开under the impact of events and through contract with other cultures.Acculturation(⽂化适应):The process which one adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.Culture is ethnocentric(⽂化中⼼主义):Ethnocentric is the belief that your own cultural background is superior. Communication: meaning to share with or to make commotion, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.Intercultural communication: communication between people whose cultural presumptions假定推定and symbol systems distinct enough to alter the communication event. (P9-10)Components of communication:Source: the source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.Encoding: Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.Message: the term message identifies the encoded thoughts.Channel: the term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted.Noise: the term noise technically refers to anything that distorts曲解the message the source encodes. Receiver: the receiver is the person who attends to the message.Decoding: the receiver is actually involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received. Receiver response: it refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message. Feedback: it refers to that portion of the receiver responds of the resource has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning.Context: Generally context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication.Characters of communication:Communication is dynamic, symbolic, irreversible可逆的, systematic, transactional, and contextual. Unit 2-4 verbal communicationPragmatics⽤学；语⽤论: the study of the effect that language has on human perceptions and behavior. Semantics语义学；语义论: the study of the meaning of words.Denotation符号；表⽰；意义；指⽰: the literal of meaning or definition of a word—theexplicit明确的；清楚的；直率的；详述,particular特别的；详细的；独有的；挑剔的,defined meaning. Connotation暗⽰，隐含意义: the suggestive meaning of a word —all the values, judgments, and beliefs implied by a word, the historical and associative accretion增加物of the unspoken significance意义；重要性；意思behind the literal meaning.Taboo: some objects, words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons.Euphemism委婉语: the act of substituting取代a mild温和的, indirect间接的, or vague模糊的term for one considered harsh严厉的, blunt⽣硬的, or offensive.How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing? (P22-23)Addressing by names Name order:Surname + given name/He Xiangu Given name + surname (AE)/Linda Smith Nowadays, more and more English-speaking people address others by using the first name, even when people meet for the first time.(P23)In Chinese seniority(资历) is paid respect to. Juniors are supposed address seniors in a proper way. The use of given names is limited by husband and wife, very closely friends, juniors by elders or superiors. Addressing by relationshipChinese often extend kinship terms to people not related by blood or marriage. These terms are used after the surname to shoe politeness and respect. (P23)The English equivalents of the above kinship terms are not so used. Even with relatives, American tends to use just the first name and leave out the term of relationship.Addressing by title, office, professionAnother common Chinese form of address is the use of a person’s title, office or profession to indi cate the person’s influential status. In English, only a few occupations or titles could be used. (P24 Americans tend to regard titles as trivial unless they have a clear idea of what kind of work a person does and what his responsibilities are.Unit 5 nonverbal communicationChronemics: The study of how people perceive and use time.Monochromic time: paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.Polychromic time: being involved in many things at once.Proxemics: the perception and use to space.Kinetics: the study of body language.Paralanguage: involving sounds but not words and lying verbal and nonverbal communication.Monochromic & Polychromic (P97)Monochromic time means paying attention to doing only one thing at a time.Monochromic time is structured and often rigid. Everything is scheduled down to the minute and precautions are taken to guard against interruption.Polychromic tim e means being involved in many things at once.People and cultures that run on polychromic time multitask well. These people focus on maintaining personal relationships more than completing tasks.Unit 6 cross-gender communicationHow is gender different from sex? (P120) Gender and sex are not synonymousSex: Biological; permanent; individual propertyGender: socially constructed; varied over time and across cultures; social and relational quality.What has influenced the gender socialization? (P121)There are two primary influences on gender socialization: Family communication, particularly between mothers and children and recreational interaction between children.U 7 (P138) High-context culture Low-context culture Unit 9 P186A planetary cultur e: a culture that integrates eastern mysticism with eastern science and relationlism. Intercultural person: represents someone whose cognitive, affective and behavioral characteristics is not limited but open to growth beyond the psychological and parameters of his or her own culture. (P186) What are the Chinese/American cultural values like in terms of Cultural Orientation put forward by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck?As far as the human nature is concerned, Chinese culture holds that it?s good but corruptible without proper education. As to the relationship of man to nature, they think mankind can live harmony with nature. They also have a cyclical time concept and therefore they are past-oriented. They have a being and becoming attitude and activity and think that man should keep an inner peace as nothing is eternal. They are quite collective and therefore they focus more on the benefit of the group.Identify the features of each of four Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and use them to analyze the cases.Individualism vs. Collectivism Power distance Uncertainty avoidance Masculinity vs. Femininity 每单元练习ABCD(Unit 5 E.Discover the meaning of some common gestures in English. )复习例题1.American parents would ask their children?s opinion in family decision-making because__C__.A.American parents like being told by their children what to do.B.American children have much power in the family.C.American parents take their children as an equal.D.American parents are unable to make decisions themselves.2. What is the best expression of the following you can use when you meet an American friend at the airport? B (P26)A.You must tired.B.Did you have a good trip.B.It is raining, isn?t it?C.Thank you for coming.3. What is a proper response of the following to “Thank you .”? D P57A.It is my duty to do so.B.It doesn?t matter at all.C.I quite understand i t.D.Don?t mention it.4. Which of the following is not one of the characteristic of culture? C P5-11A. It is shared.B. It is learned.C. It is static.D. It is ethnocentric.5. When a British friend is sick, you?d better say “___” to your friend to show your concern.BA.Drink plenty of water. B I do hope you?ll be feeling better soon.C Put on more clothes.D Take medicine on time.6. What is the Chinese equivalent of “landscaper engineer”? D P13A.导游B.伐⽊⼯⼈C.⼯程师D.园林⼯⼈7. What does “call your carriage for you” mean? CA. Ask you for a favorB. Ask you to buy a carriageC. Ask you to go awayD. Ask you to join a party8. Which of the following does not have the sa me function that “副” fulfills in Chinese?D P73A. AssociateB. DeputyC. LieutenantD. Underline9. Which of the following is not included in kinesics? C P95A.PostureB. StanceC. Body distanceD. gesture10. Individualism has the following features except______. AA. strong family tiesB. Self-relianceC. FreedomD. Respect for individual rights11. M-time culture has the following features except______. D P97A. Cutting time into bitsB. Taking deadlines seriouslyC. Scheduling one thing at a timeD. More human-centered12. ____ __culture are typical P-time cultures. A P97A. Latin AmericanB. Northern AmericanC. Western EuropeanD. Northern European13. In American culture, silence may be interpreted as______.D P110A. AssertivenessB. ThoughtfulnessC. EnthusiasmD. Apathy14. Which of the following is not a feature of masculine talk?B P123A. Using talk to assert oneself and one?s ideasB. Being tentative so that others feel free to add their ideasC. Using talk to establish one?s status and powerD. Avoiding personal disclosures15. Which is the following is of the invisible part of cultural iceberg? A P7A. religious beliefsB. gesturesC. eating habitsD. Style of dress16. According to the cultural orientations put forward by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, which of the following does not describe the Chinese cultural values? BA.Chinese culture holds that human nature is good but corruptible.B.They have a Linear time concept and are future-oriented.C.They have a being-and-becoming attitude towards activity.D.They are quite collective and focus on the benefits of the group.17. In English-speaking countries, people tend to use all the greetings except______. C P25A.How are you gett ing on?B.How are things?C.Where have you been?D.How?s life?18. What is a proper topic when you are talking with an American? D P26(不确定)A.the price of an itemB. ReligionC. Marital statusD. Hobbies19. Which is the following is of the visible part of the cultural iceberg? B P7A. Religious beliefsB. LiteratureC. ValuesD. Worldviews20. Which of the following is not one of the characteristics of communication? CA. It is symbolicB. It is contextualC. It is staticD. It is systematic21. Which of the following is not one of the social functions of compliments? C P50A. greeting peopleB. starting a conversationC. criticizing peopleD. overcoming embarrassment22. Which of the following is not a feature of sex? B P120A. It is biologicalB.It is dynamicC.It is permanentD.It has an individual property23. What is the Chinese equivalent of sanitation engineer? D P13A. 导游B.伐⽊⼯⼈C.⼯程师D.清洁⼯24. What does the “a lady of the town mean”? C P67(不确定)A. A fashionable girlB. A graceful ladyC. A prostitudeD. An urban girl25. What is the acceptable addressing of “Tom Smith ” in American cuture?D P24A. Teacher SmithB. Mr.TomC. Director TomD.Professor Tom26. The word “dragon” is a word?A P70-71 ( 不确定)A. with different associated meanings in ChineseB. without a counterpart in ChineseC. with the same primary meaning in ChineseD. with many more terms in Chinese27. When making an appointment with an American friend, which of the following expressions is the most appropriate one?D P29A. I?m coming to see you this afternoonB. you must stay at home waiting for me this afternoonC. could you come directly to my house this afternoonD. I was wondering whether I could come round to visit you sometime28. What is the Chinese equivalent of “reckless disregard for the truth”? DA. 躁动不安B.为⾮作⽍C.实事求是D.信⼝雌黄29. Which of the following is not one of the features of gender? C P119-120A. It?s socially-constrictedB. It?s dynamicC. It?s permanentD. It has a relational quality30. Which culture tends to envelop each other in breath when talking? A P101A. Arabian cultureB. American cultureC. British cultureD. Chinese culture31. Which of the following is not included in chronemics? C P95A. punctualityB. time orientationC. silenceD. promptness32. Collectivism emphasizes the following values except BA. strong family tiesB. self-relianceC. harmonyD. group-orientation33. in Japanese culture, silence may be interpreted as evidence of C P110A. passivityB. apathyC. wisdomD. hesitation34. According to the cultural orientations put Forward by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, American culture values have the following features except? CA. American culture holds that human nature evil but perfectibleB. They have a linear time concept and are future-orientedC. They have a being-and-becoming attitude towards activiityD. They are quite individualistic35. In English-speaking countries, people tend to use all the greeting except They have a linear time concept and are future-oriented CA. How are you getting on?B. How are things?C. Where are you going?D. How?s life?Cultural Puzzles （3道）1. Katherine came to Beijing in 1998 and found a job as an English teacher in a foreign language institute. Soon after her classes began, she found that her students showed no interest in her teaching and quite a few of them avoided to ask the Director, Prof. Wang, for help. One day, she came to the Director and told him that she would like to talk to him about her problem. The director looked at his timetable and asked if they could meet at ten o?clock on Thursday morning and she agreed.P87This is a typical cultural clash between the Chinese and Westerners, which was caused by their difference regarding_____C .A.Clollectivism vs. IndividualismB. Past-orientation vs. Future-orientationC.P-time vs. M-time Ｄ．High-context vs. Low-context2. When an American is parking his bicycle and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and his quite angered and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh.The Chinese onlooker?s laugh may convey the following meaning except____C .A. Don?t take it so seriously.B. It?s nothing.C. You are really clumsy.D. Such things can happen to any of us.3. A Canadian colleague and I traveled to Guilin with our admirable guide Heping Liu in very hot weather. Sight-seeing is thirsty business, we did not trust the water, and delighted in the excellent beer which we politely offered Heping. Heping refused, we said nothing and drank our beer, while poor Heping watched.Q: Why did Heping rufuse the beer on the first offer?A：Because he was being modest and polite.Case Introduction（2道）1. Eric’s different situations in opening the shop in China:He had relatively little difficulty in locating his first shop after several weeks of paperwork, and he was open for business sonner than he had thought possible. The local bureaucrats with whom he dealt had seemed favorably impressed.As Eric began applying for the necessary permits with the local government agencies he was met with responses such as “we …ve never encountered this request”, or” this Procedure requires additional information”.2. Eric’s different attitude:Eric was optimistic about the prospect of his business. His business was quite successful in first few months. People were eager to buy his “unique” product.After several rounds of trying to understand the official rules, Eric beacame increasingly frustrated. After all he had been able to acquire the permits to open shop. Moreover, his attempts to secure additional supply channels were as yet unfruitful. It seemed that all suppliers were “already at full capacity”, or “unsure of future resources”.Case Analysis1.“Doing” orientation: seek to change and control what is happeningEg: He had heard much about the red tape involved in doing business in China but felt he could handle it.2.Collectivisim:A.great readiness to cooperation with in-group membersEg: Chinese are unsure of future resources, and local businessman was announcing the opening of several shops around town.B.collectivists tend to give a higher priority to relationshipsEg: The owners of local businessman had worked through the same government agencies.4. Individualism cultures emphasize competition among individual members to increase productivitywhile collectivist culture stress group harmony and cooperation to chieve efficiencyEg: He wanted to get a jump on his new competition.5. Decision making in a collective culture may be a slower process than in an individualist culture, butthe implementation of the dicision may it be a change in policy.Eg: This procedure requires additional information.Q&A：1.How is Eric?s home culture influence his behavior and his business strategy?A.“Doing” orientatio n—seek to change and control what is happeningEg: He was optimistic./ He heard much about the red tape, but he still felt he could handle it.B.Individualism—coopertate with people who are not members of one?s group plus group membersEg: He had indicated his desire to use local workers and even train local managers.C.Individualism cultures emphasize competition among individual members to increaseproductivity while collectivist culture stress group harmony and cooperation to achieve efficiencyEg: He wanted to get a jump on his new competition.2.What should Eric do to meet his business goals?●He should have an in-depth knowledge of China?s red tape and adapt it gradually.●He should increase the chance of cooperation with Chinese businessmen to coexist peace●When in Rome, do as the Romans do. He can use some Chinese etiquette to expand his network in Chinese society.。
跨文化交际复习材料
Needs and Purposes for CommunicationGenerally speaking, purposes relate to needs in that our purpose is what we intend to get done through communication. In other words, we have needs，which communicating can help to satisfy. The followingis a described list of common purposes and needs for communicating.一般来说，目的涉及需要，因为我们的目的是我们打算通过沟通来完成。
换句话说，我们有需要，沟通可以帮助满足我们的需要。
以下是通信的常见目的和需要的描述列表。
Survivalcommunicate survive. For example, we would communicate in Order to rent a flat (shelter). If we felt ourselves in physical danger, we would also communicate with others to try to get help.沟通生存。
例如，我们将通信订购租住一个公寓（住所）。
如果我们感到自己处于身体危险之中，我们还会与他人沟通，试图获得帮助。
Co-operationWe communicate in order to work with others. It is obvious that our need to form social group actually comes from our need to co-operate with each other in order to survive. Organized groups of people in any society work together to provide basic needs and also less basic needs.我们沟通，以便与他人合作。
跨文化交际复习资料
第一章跨文化交际交际：往来应酬跨文化交际：具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程第二章文化的定义与特性1.文化的定义：1)人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质和精神财富的总和2)考古学用语，指同一历史时期的不依分布地点为转移的遗迹、遗物的综合体。
3)所谓文化和文明乃是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及包括社会成员的个人而获得的其他任何能力、习惯在内的一种综合体。
4)历史上创造的所有的生活样式，包括显型的和隐型的，包括合理的、不合理的以及谈不上是合理的或是不合理的一切，他们在某一时期作为人们的潜在指南而存在。
2.文化的特性1)文化是人类所独有的，是区分人类和动物的主要标志。
文化是社会遗产，而不是生理的遗传。
2)文化不是先天所有，而是通过后天习得的。
3)文化中的大部分是不自觉的。
4)文化是人们行动的指南。
5)文化是动态的，文化的形态与一定的历史时期相联系。
第五章语言交际1.语言与文化的关系语言与文化有着密切的关系。
由于语言的产生和发展，人类文化才得以产生和传承。
文化影响语言，使语言为了适应文化发展变化的需要而变得更加精确而缜密。
语言既是文化的载体，又是文化的写照。
2.词义与文化1)语言要素：语音、语法、词汇语音与文化关系最不密切，语法次之，而关系最密切关系最直接的是词汇。
2)有的学者将词汇分为一般词汇和文化词汇（判断区分两种词汇）3.语用规则与文化1)语用规则语用规则就是讲话规则，指根据一定的交际对象、交际场合、交际目的等，对言语形式进行正确选择的规则，是语言的外部规则。
2)语用原则［1］会话合作原则量的准则质的准则相关准则方式准则［2］会话礼貌原则得体准则慷慨准则赞誉准则谦逊准则一致准则同情准则第六章非语言交际1.非语言交际，包括在交际的环境中人为的和环境产生的对于传播者和受传者含有潜在信息的所有的刺激。
2.体态语，是非语言交际的重要组成成分。
3.非语言交际还包括副语言、对时间与空间的利用、味道、颜色等。
跨文化交际复习资料
Key intercultural concepts and theoriesreviewI. Value FrameworkKluckhohn’s Five Basic Questions克拉克洪五个基本问题（文化维度）1. What is the character of innate human nature（人的本性）?= Human nature orientation2. What is the relation of humans to nature（人与自然的关系）?=Man-nature orientation3. What is the temporal (time) focus（时间焦点）of human life?=Time orientation4. What is the mode of human activity（人的活动方式）?=Activity orientation5. What is the mode of human relationships（人与人之间的关系模式）? =Social orientationHofstede’s Cultural 5 Dimensions Model霍夫斯泰德的文化五维度模型⚫Power Distance (PD)How inequalities are viewed and handled in the culture(strong hierarchical relationships versus egalitarian relationships)⚫Individualism/Collectivism (I-C)How individuals view themselvesAre they an individual striving for individual goals or a part of a collective group, where group harmony is important?⚫Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)How accepting of uncertainty is the culture?Masculinity/Femininity (M-F) Hard and SoftHow the culture values competitiveness/assertiveness (i.e., masculine traits) and cooperation/nurturing (i.e., feminine traits).⚫Long Term Orientation (Confucian Dynamism)This dimension accounts for people’s preference time frame.Do the people focus on long term goals or the more immediate, short term goals?⚫Indulgence/RestraintIndulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.II. Communication stylesPing-Pong style vs Bowling styleDirect vs indirectHigh involvement vs high consideratenessPerson-Oriented style vs Status-Oriented styleLow context vs high contextEdward Hall’s Theory on High and Low Context CulturesIII. Nonverbal communicationOverview of Nonverbal Communication1. Body Language•General appearance and dress •Gestures•Eye contact•Facial expression•Posture•Touching 2. Paralanguage•Silence•Pitch•Volume3. Environment Language•Space•TimeIV. Intercultural ConflictIntercultural conflict is the implicit or explicit emotional struggle or frustration between persons of different cultures over perceived incompatible values, norms, face orientations, goals, scarce resources, processes, and/or outcomes in a communication situation.Individualistic conflict lensOutcome-focused Content goal-oriented Doing-centered Self-face concernLow-context conflict styleCompetitive/dominating behaviors Conflict effectivenessCollectivistic conflict lensProcess-focusedRelational goal-oriented Being-centered Other-face concernHigh-context conflict styles Avoiding/obliging behaviors Conflict appropriatenessSapir-Whorf Hypothesis P146 沃尔夫假说“沃尔夫假说(Sapir –Whorf hypothesis)”，又称为“语言相对论(linguistic relativity)”是关于语言、文化和思维三者关系的重要理论，即在不同文化下，不同语言所具有的结构、意义和使用等方面的差异，在很大程度上影响了使用者的思维方式。
（完整word版）跨文化交际复习提纲
（完整word版）跨文化交际复习提纲Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural Communication Defined1. IC is actually an academic and applied discipline that has developed internationally since the 1950s. Sometimes called “cross-cultural communications” or “comparative culture,” or “transculture”.2. On one level, IC is represented by culture studies, where we examine the political, economic and lifestyle systems of other countries.3. On another level, it is applied linguistics, where we seek to understand the relationship between language and culture.4. IC is a broad and well-developed field of study.5. IC is an interdisciplinary application of fields like cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology (and social psychology), communication studies, applied linguistics and educational pedagogy.6. IC is a comprehensive attempt to understand all aspects of human cultures and how they interact with each other.Forms of Intercultural Communicationa. International Communicationb. Interethnic Communicationc. Interracial Communicationd. Intracultural CommunicationDefinition Final5) Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.2.Cultural Metaphors1. The Cultural Iceberg2. The Cultural Onion3.The Cultural Software4.The Cultural Fish5. The Cultural Story6. Culture by Chinese7. Culture by Americans3. Characteristics of Culture1) Culture is sharedThe members of a culture share a set of ‘ideals, values, and standards of behaviors’, and this set of ideals is what gives meaning to their lives, and what bond them together as a culture.2) Culture is learnedActually, culture is not innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning about their own culture at home with their immediate family and how they interact each other, how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are growing in the community, their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in cultural activities and rituals in the community, forming their own relationships and taking their place in the culture.3) Culture is based on symbols.In order for the culture to be transmitted from one person to the next, and from one generation to the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion and money.4) Culture is integratedFor the sake of keeping the culture, functioning all aspects ofthe culture must be integrated. For example, the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one person to another. Without the integration of language into the fabric of the culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail.5) Culture is subjective to change (Dynamic)It is necessary to recognize that cultures are dynamic rather than static. They are constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures.6) Culture is ethnocentricEthnocentrism is the belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, ineffective, or quaint.7) Culture is adaptiveHistory offers so many examples of how cultures have changed as a result of laws, shifts in values, natural disasters, wars, or calamities. More and more women work as CEOs in major companies and as officials in government instead of remaining at home looking after children. Both women and men have made adaptation to this cultural change.Western Perspective of communicationIn western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one’s personal goal Eastern perspective of communicationDefinitions of communication from many Asian countriesstress harmony, which is most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. Eastern cultures’understanding would define communication as a process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.2. Components of communicationSender/Source（信息源）A sender/source is the person who transmits a messageMessage （信息）A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.Encoding （编码）Encoding refers to the activity during which the sendermust choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.Channel /Medium（渠道）. Channel/Medium is the method used to deliver amessage.Receiver （信息接收者）A receiver is any person who notices and givessome meaning to a message.Decoding （解码）Decoding is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.Feedback （反馈）The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.Noise （干扰）Noise is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise ，physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.1)External NoiseSounds that distract communicators:voices in the next room; annoying ring of someone’s cell phone in a meeting; etc.Other types of external noise that don’t involve sound:an overcrowded room or a smelly cigar(2) Physiological Noiseillnesses and disabilities(3) Psychological Noiseforces with the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding: egotism; hostility; preoccupation; fear; etc.(4) Semantic Noisecaused by using different languages; the use of jargon; different understanding of the message delivered; etc.3.Characteristics of Communicationa. Communication is dynamicb. Communication is systematicc. Communication is symbolicd. Communication is irreversiblee. Communication is transactionalf. Communication is self-reflectiveg. Communication is contextual.High ContextA high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, which very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.Communication occurs in ways other than through language. People share context.HC communication is fast and efficient, but takes long timeto learn.Low ContextA low-context (LC) is just the opposite, the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. Communication occurs mostly through language.low-context sources: newspapers, textbooks, lectures, roadmaps, announcements, instruction sheets etc.More impersonal, but effective in transmitting information among people who do not share the same experience.Hofstede’s cultural dimensions1. Individualism versus collectivism2. Uncertainty avoidance3. Power distance4. Masculinity versus femininityUncertainty AvoidanceThis dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguityCultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown.According to Hofstede (霍夫斯太德), uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure.\1. Culture Shock◆refers to the traumatic [tr?:'m?tik] experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture.◆expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.4. Stages of culture shockThe honeymoon stage ?The hostility stage ?The recovery stage ?The adjustment stage ?The biculturality stage1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinist interpretation---Language structure controls thoughts and cultural norms.linguistic relativity interpretation---Culture is controlled by and controls language.According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language is a guide to " social reality". It implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience.Eg. Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like “人是铁，饭是钢”and “铁饭碗”.Verbal Communication StylesCulture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style isconcerned with the use of language1.Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction StylesIn the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions.Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request.In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intentions.Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way.（P180)2. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal StylesThe self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes theim portance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities.Eg. In the classified ads, American ad might begin with, “A handsome, at hletic male with a good sense of humor seeks a fun-loving partner…”The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand,emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and modest talk.Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read, “AlthoughI am not very good-looking, I’m willing to try my best.”3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct StylesAn elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-Americancultures.An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by Americans.A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements,and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some NativeAmerican cultures4. Personal and Contextual StyleThe personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker. Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you.The con textual style highlights one’s role identity and status.Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the pronoun you (你/您; du/Sie; tu/vous).5. Instrumental and Affective StyleAn instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. Theburden of understanding often rests with the speaker.An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but withthe process. The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and the listener.2. Categories of Nonverbal CommunicationKinesics(身势语）oculesics(目光语)olfactics(嗅觉)haptics(触觉行为)chromatics(色彩学)attire (服饰)paralanguagesilencetimespacecontext1)KinesicsKinesics is the non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body, or the body as a whole. In short all communicative body movements are generally classified as kinesics.1.Human Perception(1) Sensation(2) Perception(3) Selection(4) Organization(5) InterpretationThe definition of acculturationAcculturation（文化适应）refe rs to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture2. Modes of acculturationa. Assimilationis a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process.b. Integrationis a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture.c. Separation and segregationSeparation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregationd. Marginalization (边缘化)Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture.StereotypingStereotypes, found in nearly every intercultural situation, are a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection of people. The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and/or exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises and create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting.Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for "truth." For years, women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group. The stereotype of women as "homemakers" often keeps women from advancing in the workplace.EthnocentrismEthnocentrism refers to the belief that one' s culture is primary to all explanations of reality. We learn ethnocentrism very early in life, and primarily on the unconscious level. So it might be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett (Samovar, et al, 1998):Competent communicationCompetent communication is interactionthat is perceived as effective in fulfillingcertain rewarding objectives and is alsoappropriate to the context in which theinteraction occurs.Communication CompetenceCommunication competence is a social judgment that people make about others.Intercultural Competence“The ability to become effective and appropriate in interacting across cultures”Intercultural communication competenceIntercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures.c. AttitudesMany attitudes contribute to intercultural communication competence, including tolerance for ambiguity, empathy, and nonjudgmentalnessd. Behaviors and skillstwo levels of behavioral competence. The macro level includes many culture-general behaviors, then there is the micro level, at which these general behaviors are implemented in culture-specific ways.Contextual Components of Intercultural CompetenceContext refers to all the information in the actual communication setting, so some intercultural communication scholars would use another term “situational features” to refer to the context.-- Another aspect of context is the communicator's position within a speech community.-- In addition, an individual’s competence may be constrained by the political, economic, and historical contexts.Things We Can Do1.Knowing ourselves2.Respecting differences and appreciate similarities3.Empathy4.Knowing ourselves5.First, we have to identify our attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that we allcarry and that bias the way the world appears to us.6.If we hold a certain attitude toward gay men, and when aman who is a gaytalks to us, our pre-communication attitude will color our response to what he says.7.Knowing our likes, dislikes, and degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables us toplace them out in the open so that we detect the ways in which these attitudesinfluence communication.Appreciate Similarities and Respect DifferencesEmpathyTo improve empathy, first, we have to remind ourselves to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of others and the situation where the interaction takes place. Then, as empathy is a reciprocal act, both parties have to be expressive so as to achieve understanding. Third, empathy can be enhanced through awareness of specific behaviors that members of a particular culture or co-culture might find impertinent or insulting. Finally, we have to remember that empathy can be increased if you resist the tendency to interpret the other's verbal and nonverbal actions from your culture' s orientation.。
跨文化交际 复习资料
1、文化：cultureIt is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.The Characteristics of Culture:Learned、transmitted、Subject to change、unconscious、integrated、symbolic、adaptive.2、跨文化交际：intercultural communicationIntercultural communication means the communication between people from different cultural backgrounds. It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.3、高语境文化：High-Context Cultures①Infer information from message context, rather than from content.②Prefer indirectness, politeness and ambiguity.③Convey little information explicitly.④Rely heavily on nonverbal signs.4、价值观：ValuesA standard by which members of culture define what is desirable or undesirable、good or bad、beautiful or ugly、acceptable or unacceptable. V alues are standards set by the members of a society.V alues are often highly contexted. V alues can change significantly over time. V alues can differ within one society and around the world.5、言语交际：verbal communication:It refers to any form of communication that is directly dependent on the use of language.非言语交际：Nonverbal communicationIt will be defined as the process by which nonverbal behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in the exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or context.6、本地化：LocalizationThe process of adapting a product or service to a particular language, culture, and desired local “look-and-feel.”Aspects to be considered in localization: Language、Time zones、Money、National holidays、Local color sensitivities、Product or service names、Gender roles、Geographic examples 、Advertisements7、刻板印象：StereotypesA fixed general image, characteristic, etc. that a lot of people believe to represent a particular type of person or thing.Stereotypes are a form of generalization about some group of people, or a means of organizing images into fixed and simple categories that are used to stand for the entire collection of people. It is found in nearly every intercultural situation. The reason forthe pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.8、文化休克：Cultural shockIt is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse.9、符号：SymbolA person，an object, an event, etc. that represents a more general quality or situation.1、猫头鹰的故事：①This is because Chinese and English native speakers assign different associative meanings to the same bird—owl.②Owl in China is the sign of bad luck. The mere sight of an owl or the sound of the creature’s hooting is enough to cause people to draw back in fear.But in English it is associated with wisdom. In children’s books and cartoons, whenever there is a dispute among birds or beasts, it is the owl that acts as judge.③The term dog elicits different feelings in these two cultures. In China gou(dog) often has derogative meanings, such as 狼心狗肺. But in West is considered the best friend of man, which is well established in their cultures. So the feel disgusted at eating dog meat.④Long(龙) is a symbol of the emperor in ancient China. It has been almighty to us Chinese. Today long is often identified with China or Chinese. But to the English—speaking people, the Chinese long has been rendered in English as “dragon”. Dragon is a fire—spitting monster, cruel and fierce that destroys and therefore must be destroyed.⑤In Chinese ,松、柏、鹤、桃stand for longevity. In English, they are just plants.2、气泡空间：①This is because each person has a “bubble” of space (territory). Studies show that people from South America, Arab countries, and many Asian countries have a smaller personal territory than do North Americans, British and Germans. In Mexican and Arab cultures, physical distance between people when engaged in conversation is very close. In order to feel comfortable while talking, what the Mexican does is to move closer, while what the North American does is to step back a little.②In Western counties, personal territory is highly valued. Each one has his/her own space at home or in office which should not be invaded. In public places, they have “temporary territory”, not be intruded upon either.③As is in the case of human behavior, the use of space is directly linked to the value system of different cultures. The Americans whose culture stresses individualism generally demand more space than do people from collectivistic cultures and tend to take an active, aggressive stance when their space is violated.3、家庭第一：①One of the reason that Annie could not understand Rosa is this:：in American culture, the nuclear family is much more important to the individual than the extended family. Most Americans feel little responsibility toward their second cousins, and may never even have met them. Therefore, Annie was confused because Rosa put so much effort into helping “just” a second cousin.②But in Rosa’s culture there is not such a big difference between nuclear and extended family responsibilities. In some countries, the extended family is the main financial and emotional support for people in times of crisis. However, this is not so far most Americans, who rely more on friends, institutions, and professionals.③Another reason is their possession of different cultural values. Rosa felt that “family comes first”, which means that her own needs come second. Annie had a hard time understanding that point of view because in her culture the individual usually comes first. In the United States the person who can “make it on his own”without help from family is respected, although of course many people do get help from their families.④Because of these differences, it is sometimes difficult for people to understand and accept the way family members in other cultures seem to treat each other. It is important, however, to remember that families show their love in different ways. These differences sometimes make it hard to see the reality of family love in every culture in the world.4、男女之间的约会：①Blanca thought that Kevin was going to pay for her because he had invited her to go out, this was the American custom. But things are changing. One reason is that many more American women work today. Therefore, many men and women think it is unfair for men to always pay for everything when they go out.②Another reason is that some women say that if a man pays for them, they feel like they own him something. And some American women prefer to pay because they like to feel like an equal partner on a date. They don’t feel equal if they are taken places and paid for.③Blanca’s understanding that Kevin was going to pay for her is an example of a cultural assumption. Our cultural assumptions are so much a part of us that many times we cannot believe that the whole world does not see things as we do. Trying to understand cultural assumptions that other people make can help to explain their way of thinking and acting.④Most Hispanic parents assume the worst will happen if they let their daughters go out alone with a man. And the Hispanic assumption about women is that they will not be able to stop a man.。
跨文化交际复习资料.docx
1 .monochronic time (M Time) : It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time isperceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future.2.polychronic time (P Time) : schedules several activities at the same time. In theseculture people emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them.3.intercultural communication : is a face-to-face communication between people fromdifferent cultural backgrounds4.host culture is the mainstream culture of anyone particular country.5.minority culture is the cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relation tothe host culture.6.subculture is a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.7.multiculturalism is the official recognition of a country^ cultural and ethnic diversity.8.cross-cultural communication is a face-to-face communication between reprentativesof business,government and professional groups from different cultures.9・ high-context culture : a culture in which meaning is not necessarily contained in words. Information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence. 10.low-context culture : a culture in which the majority of the information is vested in theexplicit code.11.perception: in its simplest sense,perception is ,as Marshall singer tells us/^the processby which an individual selects, evaluates,and organizes stimuli from the externalworld” In other words, perception is an internal process whereby we convert thephysical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiences.Non-verbal communicationIt refers to communication through a whole variety of different types f signal come into play, including the way we more, the gestures we employ, the posture we adopt, the facial expression we wear, the direction of our gaze, to the extent to which we touch and the distance we stand from each othe匚• IndividualismIndividualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, right, and duties originate in individuals. It emphasizes individual initiative, independence, individual expression, and even privacy.13> ParalanguageThe set of nonphonemic properties of speech, such as speaking tempo, vocal pitch, and intonational contours, that can be used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning.12.人际交际interpersonal communication: a small number of individuals who are interactingexclusively with one another and who therefore have the ability to adapt their messagesspecifically for those others and to obtain immediate interpretaions from (hem•指少数人之间的交往他们既能根据对方调整自己的信息，又能立即从对方那里获得解释。
跨文化交际复习资料
第一章跨文化交际概述第一节文化、交际和语言1.“文化”的定义这个概念的内涵、外延差异很大，所以文化有广义和狭义之分。
①广义文化的内部结构包括物态文化、制度文化、行为文化、心态文化四个层次。
物态文化层是人类的物质生产活动方式和产品的总和，是可触知的具有物质实体的文化事物。
饮食、服饰、建筑、交通、生产工具以及乡村、城市等。
制度文化层是人类在社会实践中组建的各种社会行为规范构成，行为文化层是人际交往中约定俗成的以礼俗、民俗、风俗等形态表现出来的行为模式。
以民风民俗形态出现，见之于日常起居动作之中，具有鲜明的民族、地域特色。
心态文化是人类在社会意识活动中孕育出来的价值观念、审美情趣、思维方式等主观因素，②狭义文化指意识形态所创造的精神财富，包括宗教、信仰、风俗习惯、道德情操、学术思想、文学艺术、科学技术、各种制度等。
专注于精神创造活动，所以又被称作“小文化”。
2.定势（文化定势）的定义、分类及成因（1）定义：定势指不同社会群体“在人们头脑中的形象。
定势概念应用到跨文化交际上后，称为文化定势。
文化定势指人们在跨文化交际研究或跨文化实际交往中对不同文化背景的民族和国家成员的笼统的，简单的看法，或指一个群体对另一群体成员按某种先入为主的标准或尺度的概括的、形象化的认知。
这些标准或尺度带有较大的主观性，是一种思维方式，一种无视群体内部存在差异、无视普遍性还存在特殊性的思维方式。
（2）分类文化定势可分为“自定势”和“他定势”两类。
前者是指某一个社会和文化群体对本群体共同认可的价值和行为特征普遍性、概括性的表述，这些价值在跨文化交际研究中也常常被称为“自我图像”。
本群体成员往往会不加反思地对这些价值观和行为特征做出简单的认同。
后者是指某一社会和文化群体对另一社会和文化群体的价值观和行为特征的共同认定，也常常被称作“他者图像”。
（3）成因社会和个体。
从孩子出生开始便不断经历着各种各样的教育。
家庭教育,孩子关于世界的认知里就自然而然地打上了父母文化定势的烙印。
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跨文化交际复习资料
第一章跨文化交际概述
1 在文化学研究领域，通常把文化分为主流文化和亚文化。
2 文化的特征：交际的符号性、民族的选择性。
观念的整合性和动态的可变性。
3.交际的本质属性：有意识行为和无意识行为、编码过程和解码过程以及语法规则和语用规则。
4.除语言之外，人类在长期的社会实践中还创造了许多交际工具，主要有以下三大类：文字、盲文和手语、旗语、灯语和号语。
5.跨文化交际的概念和要点：
跨文化交际是指在特定的交际环境中，具有不同的文化背景的交际者使用同一种语言（母语或目的语）进行的口语交际。
主要包括四个要点：
A.双方必须来自不同的文化背景
B.双方必须使用同一种语言交际
C.交际双方进行的是实时的口语交际
D.交际双方进行的是直接的语言交际
第二章文化背景与跨文化交际
6.从跨文化交际的现实情况来看，影响交际的制约因素主要集中在三个方面：价值观念（文化特质的深层结构）、民族性格（文化特质的外化表现）、自然环境（文化特质的历史缘由）态度
7.态度由认知、情感和意动三个范畴构成。
8.态度具有四个功能：功力实现功能、自我防御功能、价值表现功能和课题认知功能
9.直觉的整体性是整体思维的第一个特点，东方人以直觉的整体性和和谐的辩证性著称于世。
10.民族中心主义：某个民族把自己当做世界的中心，把本民族的文化当做对待其他民族的参照系，它以自己的文化标准来衡量其他民族的行为，并把自己的文化与其他文化对立起来。
第三章社会环境与跨文化交际
11.有效的环境不仅依赖于对文化背景的认识，也依赖于对社会环境的认识，而社会环境对交际来说实际上是广义的“交际背景”
12.交际背景主要包括三个要素：
交际者：社会地位是决定交际的重要情景因素
交际目的：可分为文化型、职业型专业型普通型
交际场景：最重要的是物理场景（分时间场景和空间场景）
13.社会角色就是某一特定社会群体对某一特定社会身份的行为的期望，人们社会交往从方式到内容都在不同程度上取决于人们的角色关系。
14.人际关系的四种类型：血缘关系、地缘关系、业缘关系、政治关系
15.制约人际关系的四个因素：文化因素、社会因素、心理因素、地理因素
16.中国社会的人际关系偏向于“情感型”关系和“混合型”关系，西方社会偏向于“工具型”
第四章规范系统与文化过滤
17.规则体现在交际的不同层面上：一个是语言本题层面，被称为“编码规则”。
另一个是社会语用层面，被称为“制约规则”
18.规范更多的表现为意识形态，而规范更多的表现为外显行为
19.言语交际规范涉及如下范畴：
①语言系统规则，如音位及其组合规则、构词法、词法和句法、语义选择等等
②言语行为规则，如称谓、问候、恭维、道歉、同意
③言语交际规则，如解释原则、合作原则、礼貌原则
④话语组织规则，如说话人顺序，话轮转换，语篇结构、话题结构
⑤非言语行为规则，如音量，语速、表情
20.道德规范指特定文化中具有伦理内涵的社会价值取向，是人们对社会上的事物和行为的对与错、是与非、善与恶、好与坏的评判标准。
21.意义的获得是交际最主要的环节和最终目的
22.代码系统主要包括三个方面：一是交际情景层面，二是社会环境层面，三十文化背景层面，包括文化代码、环境代码、心里代码和审美代码等。
23.明指意义和暗涵意义属于词汇层面，句法意义和认知意义意义属于句法层面。
24.时间顺序观念是人类认知结构中最重要、最根本的观念之一。
第五章跨文化交际语用对比分析
25.在跨文化交际时人们常常理所当然地以本国文化的准则和社会规范作为解释和评价别人的标准，这就是被学者们称为“语用迁移”的现象。
26.格赖斯提出的会话合作原则量的原则质的原则关联原则方式原则
27.利奇礼貌原则：得体，宽宏，赞誉，谦虚，一致，同情准则
28.奥斯汀进一步依据“言有所为”建立了言语行为的“三分法”模式。
29.影响人们使用间接言语行为的因素很多，可大致归纳如下：权力关系，社会距离，要求大小，权利与义务。
30.不同文化中对道歉言语行为的实施。
道歉的时机不同，对道歉的理解不同。
形式化的道歉用语。
第六章跨文化语篇对比分析
31. 对语篇差异的研究，一般认为起始于美国学者卡普兰（kaplan）所开创的“对比修辞学”
32.斯考仑（scollon）认为,汉语属“归纳式”的话语模式，英语则属于“演绎式”
33.决定语篇构建方式的深层动因是文化，是基本的、传统的价值取向。
34.中国人（包括一些东方国家）的思维方式在语篇结构上的投射、表现为直觉、具体、圆形的特征。
而西方人的思维方式在语篇结构上的投射，表现为分析、抽象、线型的特征。
35.在中国文化中，一部《论语》记载了孔子和其弟子之间的对话，基本上采用演绎式语篇结构。
36.语篇的结构特征指句子本身的结构（如主位程序），即“主位推进程序”六个类型：平行型延续性集中型交叉性幷列型派生型
第七章非言语行为差异与跨文化交7
37.体距行为是交际者利用空间距离传递信息的行为，即人们在唉言语交际中处理相互之间空间距离的方式。
38.从所有的非言语行为来看，空间行为，即人际空间距离最为敏感，也最能反映社会关系的“权势性”
第八章性别差异、性别歧视与跨文化交际
39.性别文化是指社会为不同的性别所规定的信仰、价值和行为体系、是社会为不同性别的人们所分别限定的所思所为所言所觉的范围。
40.影响性别文化所形成的的因素是多方面的，主要有社会与文化方面，生理因素
41.丹麦语言学家叶斯帕森最先从语言学角度研究性别语言。
42.男女性别文化之存在，根本上由心理定势乃至价值观等方面所造成的差异
43.在一个大文化圈内部，跨性别交际属于亚文化（性别文化）之间的交际。
44.语言性别歧视现象的社会、文化根源（权势结构方面，社会文化方面，社会心理方面，学校教育方面）
a文化定势“男尊女卑”模式的直接反映
b 权势话语“双重标准”评价的必然产物（文化歧视通过语言的折射演变成观念定势，这种观念定势通过社会语用机制，成为社会化，制度化过程中的一个主要内容，重新进入我们的价值系统，最终形成了语言性别歧视现象“社会化”“制度化”“化石化”）
C社团内部“性别角色”认定的具体表现对男性的评判有典型的工具性评判特征，而对女性则带有明显的情感型特征。
在具体的社会活动中，男女社会成员都被赋予了彼此有别的社会性别特征。