克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第15章 长期价格水平和汇率)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调)【圣才出品】

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第19章宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调19.1复习笔记1.支持浮动汇率制的观点(1)货币政策自主性在布雷顿森林体系的固定汇率制度下,除美国以外的其他国家极少有机会运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡。
由于要抵消资本流动的影响,货币政策的作用被弱化了。
但是,如果各国中央银行不再为固定汇率而被迫干预货币市场,各国政府就能够运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡,并且各国不再会因为外部因素导致本国出现通货膨胀或通货紧缩。
浮动汇率制的提倡者认为,如果中央银行不必再承担稳定其币值的义务,那么它们将恢复对货币的控制。
货币贬值会降低本国产品的相对价格,从而使外国对本国产品的需求增加,进而减少本国的失业。
同样,在经济过热的国家中,中央银行可以通过压缩货币供给来抑制过热的经济活动,而不必担心过多的国际储备流入会破坏其稳定币值的努力。
通过加强对货币政策的控制,各国可以排除那些扭曲国际支付的障碍。
浮动汇率制的提倡者还认为,各国如果使用浮动汇率,就能够选择自己愿意接受的长期通货膨胀率,而不再会被动地引进国外的通货膨胀率。
支持浮动汇率最为有力的理论之一就是认为它能够通过汇率的自动调整来隔绝国外持续性通货膨胀带来的影响。
产生这种隔绝的机制是购买力平价。
(2)对称性浮动汇率制的支持者认为:浮动汇率制可以消除类似布雷顿森林体系所造成的不对称。
由于各国不再将本国货币钉住对美元的汇率,也就不必因此而持有美元作储备。
所以,各国都可以自主决定本国的货币状况。
同样,美国在运用货币政策或财政政策改变美元汇率时,不会再遇到特别的阻碍。
最后,在全球范围内,所有国家的汇率都将由市场而不是由政府决定。
(3)汇率自动稳定器功能与固定汇率相比,浮动汇率相对减少了需求冲击对就业的影响,从而有利于经济稳定。
当对本国产品和劳务的需求下降时,浮动汇率下的货币贬值,会使本国产品和劳务的价格下降,部分地减轻了这种需求下降的不利影响。
《克鲁格曼 国际经济学 第8版 笔记和课后习题详解》读书笔记思维导图

《克鲁格曼 国际经 济学 第8版 笔记 和课后习题详解》
思维导图PPT模板
本书关键字分析思维导图
经济学
克鲁格曼
名校
笔记
教材
贸易
经济
பைடு நூலகம்
国际
习题
政策 汇率
国际贸易
第章
第版
模型
货币
参考书目
答案
精华
01 第1章 绪 论
目录
02 第1篇 国际贸易理论
03 第2篇 国际贸易政策
第1章 绪 论
第1篇 国际贸易理论
01
第2章 世 界贸易概览
02
第3章 劳 动生产率和 比较优势: 李嘉图模型
03
第4章 资 源、比较优 势与收入分 配
04
第5章 标 准贸易模型
06
第7章 国 际要素流动
05
第6章 规 模经济、不 完全竞争和 国际贸易
第2篇 国际贸易政策
第8章 贸易的政 策工具
05
第4篇 国际宏观经济 政策
04
第3篇 汇率与开放经 济的宏观经济学
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》(第8版)的考生。 克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》(中国人民大学出版社)被列为“十一五”国家重点图书出版规划项目,是我国 众多高校采用的国际经济学权威教材,也被众多高校指定为“国际经济学”等专业考研(含复试)参考书目。为 了帮助考生复习备考,我们精心编著了它的配套辅导用书(均提供免费下载,免费升级):1.克鲁格曼《国际经 济学》(第8版)笔记和课后习题详解2.克鲁格曼《国际经济学》名校考研真题与典型题详解3.克鲁格曼《国 际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解4.克鲁格曼《国际经济学》配套题库【名校考研真题+课后习题+章节练习+ 模拟试题】本书是克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)教材的配套e书,严格按照克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8 版)教材内容进行编写,共分22章,主要包括以下内容:(1)整理名校笔记,浓缩内容精华。每章的复习笔记 以克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》(第8版)为主,并结合国内其他国际经济学经典教材对各章的重难点进行了整 理,因此,本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。(2)解析课后习题,提供详尽答案。本书参考大量相关 辅导资料对克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》(第8版)的课后习题进行了详细的分析和解答,并对相关重要知识点 进行了延伸和归纳。另外,还提供英文版原题,以便于学员复习备考。(3)最新笔记和课后习题答案,可免费升 级获得。本e书每年都会进行修订完善,补充最新的笔记和课后习题答案。对于最新补充的笔记和课后习题答案, 均可以免费升级获得。
克鲁格曼第八版-国际金融下答案Chap15

Chapter 15Price Levels and the Exchange Ratein the Long RunChapter OrganizationThe Law of One PricePurchasing Power ParityThe Relationship Between PPP and the Law of One PriceAbsolute PPP and Relative PPPA Long-Run Exchange-Rate Model Based on PPPThe Fundamental Equation of the Monetary ApproachOngoing Inflation, Interest Parity, and PPPThe Fisher EffectEmpirical Evidence on PPP and the Law of One PriceBox: Some Meaty Evidence on the Law of One PriceExplaining the Problems with PPPTrade Barriers and NontradablesDepartures from Free CompetitionDifferences in Consumption Patterns and Price Level MeasurementPPP in the Short Run and in the Long RunBox: Sticky Prices and the Law of One Price: Evidence From Scandinavian Duty-free ShopsCase Study: Why Price Levels are Lower in Poorer CountriesBeyond Purchasing Power Parity: A General Model of Long-Run Exchange RatesChapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 71The Real Exchange RateDemand, Supply, and the Long-Run Real Exchange RateNominal and Real Exchange Rates in Long-Run EquilibriumInternational Interest Rate Differences and the Real Exchange RateReal Interest ParitySummaryAppendix: The Fisher Effect, the Interest Rate, and the Exchange Rate under the Flexible-PriceMonetary Approach72 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionChapter OverviewThe time frame of the analysis of exchange rate determination shifts to the long run in this chapter. An analysis of the determination of the long-run exchange rate is required for the completion of the short-run exchange rate model since, as demonstrated in the previous two chapters, the long-run expected exchange rate affects the current spot rate. Issues addressed here include both monetary and real-side determinants of the long-run real exchange rate. The development of the model of the long-run exchange rate touches on a number of issues, including the effect of ongoing inflation on the exchange rate, the Fisher effect, and the role of tradables and nontradables. Empirical issues, such as the breakdown of purchasing power parity in the 1970s and the correlation between price levels and per capita income, are addressed within this framework.The law of one price, which holds that the prices of goods are the same in all countries in the absence of transport costs or trade restrictions, presents an intuitively appealing introduction to long-run exchange rate determination. An extension of this law to sets of goods motivates the proposition of absolute purchasing power parity. Relative purchasing power parity, a less restrictive proposition, relates changes in exchange rates to changes in relative price levels and may be valid even when absolute PPP is not. Purchasing power parity provides a cornerstone of the monetary approach to the exchange rate, which serves as the first model of the long-run exchange rate developed in this chapter. This first model also demonstrates how ongoing inflation affects the long-run exchange rate.The monetary approach to the exchange rate uses PPP to model the exchange rate as the price level inthe home country relative to the price level in the foreign country. The money market equilibrium relationship is used to substitute money supply divided by money demand for the price level. TheFisher relationship allows us to substitute expected inflation for the nominal interest rate. The resulting relationship models the long-run exchange rate as a function of relative money supplies, the inflation differential and relative output in the two countries;E (M/M *) l(p e–p*e, (Y*/Y))The l function represents the ratio of foreign to domestic money demand; thus, both the difference in expected inflation rates and the output ratio enter the function with aChapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 73positive sign. An increase in inflation at home means higher home interest rates (through the Fisher equation) and lower home money demand. An increase in foreign output raises foreign money demand.One result from this model that students may find initially confusing concerns the relationship between the long-run exchange rate and the nominal interest rate. The model in this chapter provides an example of an increase in the interest rate associated with exchange rate depreciation. In contrast, the short-run analysis in the previous chapter provides an example of an increase in the domestic interest rate associated with an appreciation of the currency. These different relationships between the exchange rate and the interest rate reflect different causes for the rise in the interest rate as well as different assumptions concerning price rigidity. In the analysis of the previous chapter, the interest rate rises dueto a contraction in the level of the nominal money supply. With fixed prices, this contraction of nominal balances is matched by a contraction in real balances. Excess money demand is resolved through a rise in interest rates which is associated with an appreciation of the currency to satisfy interest parity. In this chapter, the discussion of the Fisher effect demonstrates that the interest rate will rise in response to an anticipated increase in expected inflation due to an anticipated increase in the rate of growth of the money supply. There is incipient excess money supply with this rise in the interest rate. With perfectly flexible prices, the money market clears through an erosion of real balances due to an increase in the price level.This price level increase implies, through PPP, a depreciation of the exchange rate. Thus, with perfectly flexible prices (and its corollary PPP), an increase in the interest rate due to an increase in expected inflation is associated with a depreciation of the currency.74 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionEmpirical evidence presented in the chapter suggests that both absolute and relative PPP perform poorly for the period since 1971. Even the law of one price fails to hold across disaggregated commodity groups. The rejection of these theories is related to trade impediments (which help give rise to nontraded goods and services), to shifts in relative output prices and to imperfectly competitive markets. Since PPPserves as a cornerstone for the monetary approach, its rejection suggests that a convincing explanationof the long-run behavior of exchange rates must go beyond the doctrine of purchasing power parity. The Fisher effect is discussed in more detail and accompanied by a diagrammatic exposition in an appendix to the chapter.A more general model of the long-run behavior of exchange rates in which real-side effects are assigned a role concludes the chapter. The material in this section drops the assumption of a constant real exchange rate, an assumption that you may want to demonstrate to students is necessarily associated with the assumption of PPP. Motivating this more general approach is easily done by presenting students with a time series graph of the recent behavior of the real exchange rate of the dollar which will demonstrate large swings in its value. The real exchange rate, q, is the ratio of the foreign price index, expressed in domestic currency, to the domestic price index, or, equivalently, E q (P/P *). The chapter includes an informal discussion of the manner in which the long-run real exchange rate, q, is affected by permanent changes in the supply or demand for a country’s products.Answers to Textbook Problems1. Relative PPP predicts that inflation differentials are matched by changes in theexchange rate.Under relative PPP, the franc/ruble exchange rate would fall by 95 percent withinflation rates of 100% in Russia and 5% in Switzerland.Chapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 752. A real currency appreciation may result from an increase in the demand fornontraded goodsrelative to tradables which would cause an appreciation of the exchange rate since the increase inthe demand for nontradables raises their price, raising the domestic price level and causing the currency to appreciate. In this case exporters are indeed hurt, as one can see by adapting the analysis in Chapter 3. Real currency appreciation may occur for different reasons, however, with different implications for exporters’ incomes. A shift in foreign demand in favor of domestic exports will both appreciate thedomestic currency in real terms and benefit exporters. Similarly, productivity growth in exports is likely to benefit exporters while causing a real currency appreciation. If we consider a ceterus paribus increase in the real exchange rate, this is typically bad for exporters as their exports are now more expensive to foreigners which mayreduce foreign export demand. In general, though, we need to know why the real exchange rate changed to interpret the impact of the change.3. a. A tilt of spending towards nontraded products causes the real exchange rate toappreciate as the price of nontraded goods relative to traded goods rises (thereal exchange rate can be expressed as the price of tradables to the price ofnontradables).b. A shift in foreign demand towards domestic exports causes an excess demandfor the domestic country’s goods which causes the relative price of these goods to rise; that is, it causes the real exchange rate of the domestic country toappreciate.4. Relative PPP implies that the pound/dollar exchange rate should be adjusted tooffset the inflation difference between the United States and Britain during the war.Thus, a central banker might compare the consumer price indices in the UnitedStates and the U.K. before and after the war. If America’s price level had risen by 10%, while that in Britain had risen by 20%, relative PPP would call for apound/dollar exchange rate 10% higher than before the war—a 10% depreciation of the pound against the dollar.76 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionA comparison based only on PPP would fall short of the task at hand, however, if itignoredpossible changes in productivity, productive capacity, or in relative demands for goods producedin different countries in wake of the war. In general, one would expect largestructural upheavalsas a consequence of the war. For example, Britain’s productivity might have fallen dramatically asa result of converting factories to wartime uses (and as a result of bombing). Thiswould call for a real depreciation of the pound, that is, a postwar pound/dollarexchange rate more than 10% higher than the prewar rate.5. The real effective exchange rate series for Britain shows an appreciation of thepound from 1977 to 1981, followed by a period of depreciation. Note that theappreciation is sharpest after the increasein oil prices starts in early 1979; the subsequent depreciation is steepest after oil prices soften in 1982. An increase in oil prices increases the incomes received by British oil exporters, raising their demand for goods. The supply response of labor moving into the oil sector is comparable to an increase in productivity which also causes the real exchange rate to appreciate. Of course, a fall in the price of oil has opposite effects. (Oil is not the only factor behind the behavior of the pound’s real exchange rate. Instructors may wish to mention the influence of Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher’s stringent monetary policies.)6. A permanent shift in the real money demand function will alter the long-runequilibrium nominal exchange rate, but not the long-run equilibrium real exchange rate. Since the real exchange ratedoes not change, we can use the monetary approach equation, E (M/M *) {L(R*, Y*)/L(R, Y)}.A permanent increase in money demand at any nominal interest rate leads to aproportional appreciation of the long-run nominal exchange rate. Intuitively, the level of prices for any level of nominal balances must be lower in the long run for money market equilibrium. The reverse holdsfor a permanent decrease in money demand. The real exchange rate, however,depends upon relative prices and productivity terms which are not affected bygeneral price-level changes.Chapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 777. The mechanism would work through expenditure effects with a permanent transferfrom Polandto the Czech Republic appreciating the koruna (Czech currency) in real terms against the zloty(Polish currency) if (as is reasonable to assume) the Czechs spent a higher proportion of theirincome on Czech goods relative to Polish goods than did the Poles.8. As discussed in the answer to Question 7, the koruna appreciates against the zloty inreal terms with the transfer from Poland to the Czech Republic if the Czechs spend a higher proportion of their income on Czech goods relative to Polish goods than did the Poles. The real appreciation would lead to a nominal appreciation as well.9. Since the tariff shifts demand away from foreign exports and toward domestic goods,there is a long-run real appreciation of the home currency. Absent changes inmonetary conditions, there is along-run nominal appreciation as well.10. The balanced expansion in domestic spending will increase the amount of importsconsumed in the country that has a tariff in place, but imports cannot rise in thecountry that has a quota in place. Thus, in the country with the quota, there would be an excess demand for imports if the real exchange rate appreciated by the same amount as in the country with tariffs. Therefore, the real exchange rate in the country with a quota must appreciate by less than in the country with the tariff.11. A permanent increase in the expected rate of real depreciation of the dollar againstthe euro leads to a permanent increase in the expected rate of depreciation of the nominal dollar/euro exchange rate, given the differential in expected inflation rates across the U.S. and Europe. This increase in the expected depreciation of the dollar causes the spot rate today to depreciate.78 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition12. Suppose there is a temporary fall in the real exchange rate in an economy, that is,the exchangerate appreciates today and then will depreciate back to its original level in the future.The expected depreciation of the real exchange rate, by real interest parity, causes the real interest rate to rise. If there is no change in the expected inflation rate, then the nominal interest rate rises with the rise in the real exchange rate. This event may also cause the nominal exchange rate to appreciate if the effect of a currentappreciation of the real exchange rate dominates the effect of the expecteddepreciation of the real exchange rate.13. International differences in expected real interest rates reflect expected changes inreal exchange rates. If the expected real interest rate in the United States is 9% and the expected real interest rate in Europe is 3%, then there is an expectation that the real dollar/euro exchange rate will depreciate by 6% (assuming that interest parity holds).14. The initial effect of a reduction in the money supply in a model with sticky prices isan increasein the nominal interest rate and an appreciation of the nominal exchange rate. The real interest rate, which equals the nominal interest rate minus expected inflation, rises by more than the nominal interest rate since the reduction in the money supply causes the nominal interest rate to rise, and deflation occurs during the transition to the new equilibrium. The real exchange rate depreciates during the transition to the new equilibrium (where its value is the same as in the original state).This satisfies the real interest parity relationship which states that the differencebetween the domestic and the foreign real interest rate equals the expecteddepreciation of the domestic real exchange rate—in this case, the initial effect is an increase in the real interest rate in the domestic economy coupled with an expected depreciation of the domestic real exchange rate. In any event,the real interest parity relationship must be satisfied since it is simply a restatement of the Fisher equation, which defines the real interest rate, combined with theinterest parity relationship, whichis a cornerstone of the sticky-price model of the determination of the exchange rate.Chapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 7915. One answer to this question involves the comparison of a sticky-price with a flexible-price model.In a model with sticky prices, a reduction in the money supply causes the nominal interest rate torise and, by the interest parity relationship, the nominal exchange rate to appreciate.The real interest rate, which equals the nominal interest rate minus expectedinflation, increases both because of the increase in the nominal interest rate andbecause there is expected deflation. In a model with perfectly flexible prices, anincrease in expected inflation causes the nominal interest rate to increase (while the real interest rate remains unchanged) and the currency to depreciate since excess money supply is resolved through an increase in the price level and thus, by PPP, a depreciation of the currency.An alternative approach is to consider a model with perfectly flexible prices. Asdiscussed in the preceding paragraph, an increase in expected inflation causes the nominal interest rate to increase and the currency to depreciate, leaving theexpected real interest rate unchanged. If there is an increase in the expected real interest rate, however, this implies an expected depreciation of the real exchange rate. If this expected depreciation is due to a current, temporary appreciation, then the nominal exchange rate may appreciate if the effect of the current appreciation (which rotates the exchange rate schedule downward) dominates the effect due to the expected depreciation (which rotates the exchange rate schedule upward).16. If long term rates are higher than short term rates, it suggests that investors expectinterest rates to be higher in the future, that is why they demand a higher rate of return on a longer bond. If they expect interest rates to be higher in the future, they are either predicting higher inflation in the future or a higher real interest rate. We cannot tell which by simply looking at short and long rates.80 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition17. If we assume that the real exchange rate is constant, then the expected percentagechange in the exchange rate is simply the inflation differential. As the question notes, this relationship holds better over the long run. Starting from interest parity, we see that R R * %∆e E. The change in the exchange rate is π–π* when PPP holds, so if PPP holds over a horizon, we can say that R R *π–π*. This means r r*. So, real interest rate differentials at long maturities should be smaller.On the other hand, if the real exchange rate changes or is expected to change, we would say that %∆e E %∆e qπ–π*. In that case, there can be a significant wedge between r and r*. Thus, ifPPP does hold over the long run and people predict this (and consequently are not expecting large changes in the real exchange rate), we would expect to see smaller real interest rate differentials at long maturities.18. If markets are fairly segmented, then temporary moves in exchange rates may leadto wide deviations from PPP even for tradable goods. In the short run, firms may not be able to respondby opening up new trading relationships or distribution channels. On the other hand, if there are persistent deviations from PPP of tradable goods, we would expect firms to try to increase their presence in the high-price market. If they do this, it should reduce prices there and bring pricesback towards PPP.19. PPP for non-tradables would arise if technologies were similar across countries, andthus similar prices for goods in the long run would be consistent with competitive markets and similar labor costs. If the labor costs are similar, then (again assuming similar technologies) the costs of non-tradables should be similar also. Of course, as the chapter notes, differences in productivity thatvary across sector could result in Balassa Samuelson style effects where despitetradables PPP holding, non-tradables are still priced differently across countries.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch05

Chapter 5The Standard Trade ModelChapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS CurveGrowth and the Production Possibility FrontierRelative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations? International Transfers of Income: Shifting the RD CurveThe Transfer ProblemEffects of a Transfer on the Terms of TradePresumptions about the Terms of Trade Effects of TransfersCase Study: The Transfer Problem and the Asian CrisisTariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?SummaryAppendix: Representing International Equilibrium with Offer CurvesDeriving a Country’s Offer CurveInternational EquilibriumChapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 17Chapter OverviewPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage which give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a general model which admits previous models as special cases. This “standard trade model” is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and tariffs and subsidies on traded goods are considered in this chapter. The standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference curves describe the tastes of an economy, and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one which takes as given the terms of trade), where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively.You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic economy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to move from a small country analysis to a two country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson Theorems from the previous chapter to address a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of countries like Japan and Korea has helped or hurt the United States as a whole, and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by the particular growth biases of these countries. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion of the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world or the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. export goods.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in Japan or Korea hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth, and the possibility of immiserizing growth is discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. The new terms of trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle which emerges is that a country which experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade, while a country which experiences import-biased growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study points out that growth in the rest of the world has made other countries more like the United States. This import-biased growth has worsened the terms of trade for the United States. The second issue addressed in the context of the standard trade model is the effect of international transfers. The salient point here is the direction, if any, in which the relative demand curve shifts in response to the redistribution of income from a transfer. A transfer worsens the donor’s ter ms of trade if it has a higher marginal propensity to consume its export good than the recipient. The presence of non-traded goods tends to reinforce the deterioration of terms of trade for the donor country. The case study attendant to this issue involves the deterioration of many Asian countries’ terms of trade due to the large capital withdrawals at the end of the 1990s.18 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThe third area to which the standard trade model is applied are the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on imports improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there may be an optimum, non-zero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Intranationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors while subsidies have the opposite effect. An appendix presents offer curve diagrams and explains this mode of analysis.Answers to Textbook Problems1.Note how welfare in both countries increases as the two countries move from productionpatterns governed by domestic prices (dashed line) to production patterns governed by worldprices (straight line).2.3. An increase in the terms of trade increases welfare when the PPF is right-angled. The production pointis the corner of the PPF. The consumption point is the tangency of the relative price line and the highest indifference curve. An improvement in the terms of trade rotates the relative price line about its intercept with the PPF rectangle (since there is no substitution of immobile factors, the production point stays fixed). The economy can then reach a higher indifference curve. Intuitively, although there is no supply response, the economy receives more for the exports it supplies and pays less for the imports it purchases.Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 19 4. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right angles rather thansmooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path for this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of tradeimprovement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.5. The terms of trade of Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R) importer, is the worldrelative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (p M/p R). The terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, such that changes affect the world relative price.a. Oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials, which increasesthe world relative supply. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of t rade.b. Korea’s increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which increasesthe world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price ofmanufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of tr ade.c. U.S. development of a substitute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials. Thisincreases world RD, and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japan’s terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan since world demand for raw materials falls.d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world RS.The world relative supply curve shifts o ut. Also, Russia’s demand for manufactures decreases,which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shifts in. These forcesdecrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japan’s terms of trade.e. A reduction in Japan’s tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of manufactures.This price change will increase Japan’s RS and decrease Japan’s RD, which increases the worldRS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The worldrelative price of manufactures declines and Japan’s terms of trade deteriorate.6. The declining price of services relative to manufactured goods shifts the isovalue line clockwise sothat relatively fewer services and more manufactured goods are produced in the United States, thus reducing U.S. welfare.20 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition7. These results acknowledge the biased growth which occurs when there is an increase in one factor ofproduction. An increase in the capital stock of either country favors production of Good X, while an increase in the labor supply favors production of Good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good which uses intensively the factor which that economy has in relative abundance. Country A exports Good X to Country B and imports Good Y from Country B.The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of a terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country.a. A’s terms of trade worsen, A’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and B’s welfareincreases.b. A’s terms of trade improve, A’s welfare increases and B’s welfare decreases.c. B’s terms of trade improve, B’s welfare increases and A’s welfare decreases.d. B’s terms of trade worsen, B’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and A’s welfareincreases.8. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in an economy’sterms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth, and the economy must be a large enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.9. India opening should be good for the U.S. if it reduces the relative price of goods that China sends tothe U.S. and hence increases the relative price of goods that the U.S. exports. Obviously, any sector in the U.S. hurt by trade with China would be hurt again by India, but on net, the U.S. wins. Note that here we are making different assumptions about what India produces and what is tradable than we are in Question #6. Here we are assuming India exports products the U.S. currently imports and China currently exports. China will lose by having the relative price of its export good driven down by the increased production in India.10. Aid which must be spent on exports increases the demand for those export goods and raises their pricerelative to other goods. There will be a terms of trade deterioration for the recipient country. This can be viewed as a polar case of the effect of a transfer on the terms of trade. Here, the marginal propensity to consume the export good by the recipient country is 1. The donor benefits from a terms of trade improvement. As with immiserizing growth, it is theoretically possible that a transfer actuallyworsens the welfare of the recipient.11. When a country subsidizes its exports, the world relative supply and relative demand schedules shiftsuch that the terms of trade for the country worsen. A countervailing import tariff in a second country exacerbates this effect, moving the terms of trade even further against the first country. The firstcountry is worse off both because of the deterioration of the terms of trade and the distortionsintroduced by the new internal relative prices. The second country definitely gains from the firstcountry’s export su bsidy, and may gain further from its own tariff. If the second country retaliated with an export subsidy, then this would offset the initial improvement in the terms of trade; the“retaliatory” export subsidy definitely helps the first country and hurts th e second.。
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版

国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室:[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1.为什么说在决定生产和消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要?答案提示:当生产处于生产边界线上,资源则得到了充分利用,这时,要想增加某一产品的生产,必须降低另一产品的生产,也就是说,增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本(或社会成本)的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现,但究竟选择哪一点,则还要看两个商品的相对价格,即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时,生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以,在决定生产和消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2.仿效图1—6和图1—7,试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示:3.在只有两种商品的情况下,当一个商品达到均衡时,另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡?试解释原因。
答案提示:4.如果生产可能性边界是一条直线,试确定过剩供给(或需求)曲线。
答案提示:5.如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线(B国)和过剩需求曲线(A国)来确定国际均衡价格,那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致?6.答案提示:国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
7.说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示:一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品,有利于此国贸易利益的获得,不过,出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加,有损于出口国的贸易利益;与此类似,出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加,但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲,贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
8.如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间,那么贸易后,国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平?答案提示:贸易后,国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案

Chapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter OrganizationA Model of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies Relative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeFactor Price EqualizationTrade and Income Distribution in the Short RunCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThe Gains from Trade, RevisitedOptimal Trade PolicyIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsBox: Income Distribution and the Beginnings of Trade Theory Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTesting the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelImplications of the TestsSummaryAppendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input Choices Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesChapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade which will arise when countries have different endowments of factors of production, such as labor, capital, and land. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources, and tends to lead to equalization across countries of prices of the factors of production. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods which are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (The appendix develops the model when the production functions have variable coefficients.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good which uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. This is demonstrated by showing that, using the relative supply and relative demand analysis, the country relatively abundantly endowed with a certain factor will produce that factor more cheaply than the other country. International trade leads to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the results from the Stolper-Samuelson effect demonstrate that owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but ownersof a country’s scarce factors lose. The extension of this result is the important Factor Price Equalization Theorem, which states that trade in (and thus price equalization of) goods leads to an equalization in the rewards to factors across countries. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.The chapter also introduces some political economy considerations. First, it briefly notes that many of the results regarding trade and income distribution assume full and swift adjustment in the economy. In the short run, though, labor and capital that are currently in a particular industry may have sector-specific skills or knowledge and are being forced to move to another sector, and this involves costs. Thus, even if a shift in relative prices were to improve the lot of labor, for those laborers who must change jobs, there is a short run cost.The core of the political economy discussion focuses on the fact that when opening to trade, some may benefit and some may lose, but the expansion of economic opportunity should allow society to redistribute some of the gains towards those who lose, making sure everyone benefits on net. In practice, though, those who lose are often more concentrated and hence have more incentive to try to affect policy. Thus, trade policy is not always welfare maximizing, but may simply reflect the preferences of the loudest and best organized in society.Empirical results concerning the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, beginning with the Leontief paradox and extending to current research, do not support its predictions concerning resource endowments explaining overall patterns of trade, though some patterns do match the broad outlines of its theory (e.g., theUnited States imports more low-skill products from Bangladesh and more high-skill products from Germany). This observation has motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be exploredin later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the lengthof the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two cornersrepresenting the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the questionconcerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 anda LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the same reasoning,a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We cansolve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but the slopes of the raysfrom the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (complete specialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, orthere would be unemployment.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 3. What matters is not the absolute abundanceof factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. Thisresult does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on theowners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses fromtrade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from theHeckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certainunskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model will dominate.5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goodsoverall. In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector specific skills who will facetransition costs. There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the U.S., making the entire country better off on average.Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade which is making the nation as a whole better off. In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the U.S. blocked the programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ e xports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be moresuccessful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled workercould earn twice what lower-skilled workers do, and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.。
克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版答案

克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版答案【篇一:克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案英语版】labor productivity and comparative advantage: the ricardian modelanswers to textbook problems1. a. the production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400(1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2).b. the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. it takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. if one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. these 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.c. labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas.2. a. the production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1).b. the world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. the lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. the relative supply curve is flat at this price. the maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by home while, at this price, foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. this relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. at the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. the relative supply curve is again flat at 5. thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relativesupply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 risingfrom 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity.3. a. the relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2).b. the equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. this is the point (1/2, 2), where the relativedemand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. thus the equilibrium relative price is 2.c. home produces only apples, foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country.d. in the absence of trade, home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. each country is better off with trade.4.the increase in the number of workers at home shifts outthe relative supply schedulesuch that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). in this case, foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for home is the same whether or not there is trade, so home neither gains nor loses from trade.5.this answer is identical to that in 3. the amount of effective labor has not changedsince the doubling of the labor force is accompanied by a halving of the productivity of labor.6.this statement is just an example of the pauper labor argument discussed in the chapter.the point is that relative wage rates do not come out of thin air; they are determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. the box in the chapter providesdata which shows the strong connection between wages and productivity. koreas low wage presumably reflects the fact that korea is less productive than the united states in mostindustries. as the test example illustrated, a highly productive country that trades with a less productive, low-wage country will raise, not lower, its standard of living.7.the problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed fordetermining comparative advantage in production: this calculation involves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for the service sector). it is not enough to compare only services unit labor requirements. if als als*, home labor is more efficient than foreign labor in services. while this demonstrates that the united states has an absolute advantage in services, this is neithera necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage. for this determination, the industry ratios are also required. the competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.8.while japanese workers may earn the equivalent wages of u.s. workers, the purchasingpower of their income is one-third less. this implies that although w=w* (more or less), pp* (since 3p=p*). since the united states is considerably more productive in services, service prices are relatively low. this benefits and enhances u.s. purchasing power. however, many of these services cannot be transported and hence, are not traded. this implies that the japanese may not benefit from the lower u.s. services costs, and do not face an international price which is lower than their domestic price. likewise, the price of services in united states does not increase with the opening of trade since these services are non-traded. consequently, u.s. purchasing power is higher than that of japan due to its lower prices on non-traded goods.9.gains from trade still exist in the presence of nontraded goods. the gains from tradedecline as the share of nontraded goods increases. in other words, the higher the portion of goods which do not enter international marketplace, the lower the potential gains from trade. if transport costs were high enough so that no goodswere traded then, obviously, there would be no gains from trade.10.the world relative supply curve in this case consists of a step function, with as manysteps (horizontal portions) as there are countries with different unit labor requirement ratios. any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. if the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.chapter 3specific factors and income distributionanswers to textbook problems1.texas and louisiana are states with large oil-producing sectors. the real wage of oil-producing factors of production in terms of other goods falls when the price of oil falls relative to the price of other goods. this was the source of economic decline in these states in 1986.2.to analyze the economys production possibility frontier, consider how the output mixchanges as labor is shifted between the two sectors.a. the production functions for goods 1 and 2 are standard plots with quantities on the vertical axis, labor on the horizontal axis, and q1= q1(k1,l1) with slope equal to the mpl1, and on another graph, q2= q2(k2,l2) with slope equal to thempl2.figure 3-1b. to graph the production possibilities frontier, combine the production function diagrams with the economys allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. the economys ppf is in the upper right hand corner, as is illustrated in the four quadrant diagram above. the ppf is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good.3. a. to solve this problem, one can graph the demand curve for labor in sector 1,represented by (w=mpl1=demand for l1) and the demand curve for labor in sector 2, represented by (w=mpl2=demand for l2) . since the total supply of labor is given by the horizontalaxis, the labor allocation between the sectors is approximately l1=27 and l2=73. the wage rate is approximately $0.98.wl127l2figure 3-2 100lb. use the same type of graph as in problem 2b to show that sectoral output is q1=44 and q2=90. (this involves combining the production function diagrams with the economys allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. the economys ppf is in the upper right hand corner, as illustrated in the text.)e a graph of labor demands, as in part a, to show that the intersection of the demand curves for labor occurs at a wage rate approximately equal to $0.74. the relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (l1=62, l2=38). this also leads【篇二:克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-ch18】monetary system, 1870–1973? chapter organizationmacroeconomic policy goals in an open economyinternal balance: full employment and price-level stabilityexternal balance: the optimal level of the current accountinternational macroeconomic policy under the gold standard, 1870–1914origins of the gold standardexternal balance under the gold standardthe price-specie-flow mechanismthe gold standard “rules of the game”: myth and realitybox: hume v. the mercantilistsinternal balance under the gold standardcase study: the political economy of exchange rate regimes: conflict over america’s monetary standard during the 1890sthe interwar years, 1918–1939the fleeting return to goldinternational economic disintegrationcase study: the international gold standard and the great depressionthe bretton woods system and the international monetary fundgoals and structure of the imfconvertibility and the expansion of private capital flowsspeculative capital flows and crisesanalyzing policy options under the bretton woods systemmaintaining internal balancemaintaining external balanceexpenditure-changing and expenditure-switching policiesthe external-balance problem of the united statescase study: the decline and fall of the bretton woods systemworldwide inflation and the transition to floating ratessummarychapter 18 the international monetary system, 1870–1973 95 ? chapter overviewthis is the first of five international monetary policy chapters. these chapters complement the preceding theory chapters in several ways. they provide the historical and institutional background students require to place their theoretical knowledge in a useful context. the chapters also allow students, through study of historical and current events, to sharpen their grasp of the theoretical models and to develop the intuition those models can provide. (application of the theory to events of current interest will hopefully motivate students to return to earlier chapters and master points that may have been missed on the first pass.) chapter 18 chronicles the evolution of the international monetary system from the gold standard of 1870–1914, through the interwar years, andup to and including the post-world war ii bretton woods regime that ended in march 1973. the central focus of the chapter is the manner in which each system addressed, or failed to address, the requirements of internal and external balance for its participants. a country is in internal balance when its resources are fully employed and there is price level stability. external balance implies an optimal time path of the current account subject to its being balanced over the long run. other factors have been important in the definition of external balance at various times, and these are discussed in the text. the basic definition of external balance as an appropriate current-account level, however, seems to capture a goal that most policy-makers share regardless of the particular circumstances. the price-specie-flow mechanism described bydavid hume shows how the gold standard could ensure convergence to external balance. you may want to present the following model of the price-specie-flow mechanism. this model is based upon three equations:1.2.3. the balance sheet of the central bank. at the most simple level, this is just gold holdings equals the money supply: g ? m. the quantity theory. with velocity and output assumed constant and both normalized to 1, this yields the simple equation m ? p.a balance of payments equation where the current account is a function of the real exchange rate andthere are no private capital flows: ca ? f(e ? p*/p)these equations can be combined in a figure like the one below. the 45? line represents the quantity theory, and the vertical line is the price level where the real exchange rate results in a balanced current account. the economy moves along the 45? line back towards the equilibrium point 0 whenever it is out of equilibrium. for example, the loss of four-fifths of a country’s gold would put that country at point a with lower prices and a lower money supply. the resulting real exchange rate depreciation causes a current account surplus which restores money balances as the country proceeds upthe 45? line from ato 0.figure 18.1the automatic adjustment process described by the price-specie-flow mechanism is expedited by following “rules of the game” under which governments contract the domestic source components oftheir monetary bases when gold reserves are falling (corresponding to a current-account deficit) and expand when gold reserves are rising (the surplus case).in practice, there was little incentive for countries with expanding gold reserves to follow the “rules of the game.” this increased the contractionary burden shouldered by countries with persistent current account deficits. the gold standard also subjugated internal balance to the demands of external balance. research suggests price-level stability and highemployment were attained less consistently under the gold standard than in the post-1945 period.the interwar years were marked by severe economic instability. the monetization of war debt and of reparation payments led to episodes of hyperinflation in europe. an ill-fated attempt to return to the pre-war gold parity for the pound led to stagnation in britain. competitive devaluations and protectionism were pursued in a futile effort to stimulate domestic economic growth during the great depression. these beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation and led to the disintegration of the world economy. as one of the case studies shows, strict adherence to the gold standard appears to have hurt many countries during the great depression.determined to avoid repeating the mistakes of the interwar years, allied economic policy-makers met at bretton woods in 1944 to forge a new international monetary system for the postwar world. the exchange-rate regime that emerged from this conference had at its center the u.s. dollar. all other currencies had fixed exchange rates against the dollar, which itself had a fixed value in terms of gold. an international monetary fund was set up to oversee the system and facilitate its functioning by lending to countries with temporary balance of payments problems.a formal discussion of internal and external balance introduces the concepts of expenditure-switching and expenditure-changing policies. the bretton woods system, with its emphasis on infrequent adjustment of fixed parities, restricted the use of expenditure-switching policies. increases in u.s. monetary growth to finance fiscal expenditures after the mid-1960s led to a loss of confidence in the dollar and the termination of the dollar’s convertibil ity into gold. the analysis presented in the text demonstrateshow the bretton woods system forced countries to “import” inflation from the united states and shows that the breakdown of the system occurred when countries were no longer willing to accept this burden. ? answers to textbook problems1. a. since it takes considerable investment to develop uranium mines, you would want a larger currentaccount deficit to allow your country to finance some of the investment with foreign savings.b. a permanent increase in the world price of copper would cause a short-term current accountdeficit if the price rise leads you to invest more in copper mining. if there are no investmenteffects, you would not change your external balance target because it would be optimal simply to spend your additional income.c. a temporary increase in the world price of copper would cause a current account surplus. youwould want to smooth out your country’s consumption by saving some of its temporarily higher income.d. a temporary rise in the world price of oil would cause a current account deficit if you were animporter of oil, but a surplus if you were an exporter of oil. chapter 18 the international monetary system, 1870–1973 972. because the marginal propensity to consume out of income is less than 1, a transfer of income from bto a increases savings in a and decreases savings in b. therefore, a has a current account surplus and b has a corresponding deficit. this corresponds to a balance of payments disequilibrium inhume’s world, which must be financed by gold flows from b to a. these gold flows increase a’s money supply and decrease b’s money supply, pushing up prices in a and depressing prices in b.these price changes cease once balance of payments equilibrium has been restored.3. changes in parities reflected both initial misalignments and balance of payments crises. attempts toreturn to the parities of the prewar period after the war ignored the changes in underlying economic fundamentals that the war caused. this made some exchange rates less than fully credible andencouraged balance of payments crises. central bank commitments to the gold parities were also less than credible after the wartime suspension of the gold standard, and as a result of the increasingconcern of governments with internal economic conditions.4. a monetary contraction, under the gold standard, will lead to an increase in the gold holdings of thecontracting country’s central bank if other countries do not pursue a similar policy. all countriescannot succeed in doing this simultaneously since the total stock of gold reserves is fixed in the short run. under a reserve currency system, however, a monetary contraction causes an incipient rise in the domestic interest rate, which attracts foreign capital. the central bank must accommodate the inflow of foreign capital to preserve the exchange rate parity. there is thus an increase in the central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves equal to the fall in its holdings of domestic assets. there is no obstacle to a simultaneous increase in reserves by all central banks because central banks acquire more claims on the reserve currency country while their citizens end up with correspondingly greater liabilities.5. the increase in domestic prices makes home exports less attractive and causes a current accountdeficit. this diminishes the money supply and causes contractionary pressures in the economywhich serve to mitigate and ultimately reverse wage demands and price increases.6. a “demand determined” increase in dollar reserve holdings would not affect the world supply ofmoney as central banks merely attempt to trade their holdings of domestic assets for dollar reserves.a “supply determined” increase in reserve holdings, however, would result from expansionarymonetary policy in the united states (the reserve center). at least at the end of the bretton woods era the increase in world dollar reserves arose in part because of an expansionary monetary policy in the united states rather than a desire by other central banks to increase their holdings of dollar assets. only the “supply determined” increase in dollar reserves is relevant for analyzing therelationship between world holdings of dollar reserves by central banks and inflation.7. an increase in the world interest rate leads to a fall in a central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves asdomestic residents trade in their cash for foreign bonds. this leads to a decline in the home country’s money supply. the central bank of a “small” country cannot offset these effects sinceit cannot alter the world interest rate. an attempt to sterilize the reserve loss through open market purchases would fail unless bonds are imperfect substitutes.8. capital account restrictions insulate the domestic interest rate from the world interest rate. monetarypolicy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. because there are nooffsetting capital flows, monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internalbalance. the costs of capital controls include the inefficiency which is introduced when the domestic interest rate differs from the world rate and the high costs of enforcing the controls.9. yes, it does seem that the external balance problem of a deficit country is more severe. while themacroeconomic imbalance may be equally problematic in the long run regardless of whether it is a deficit or surplus, large external deficits involve the risk that the market will fix the problem quickly by ceasing to fund the external deficit. in this case, there may have to be rapid adjustment that could be disruptive. surplus countries are rarely forced into rapid adjustments, making the problems less risky.10. an inflow attack is different from capital flight, but many parallels exist. in an “outflow” attack,speculators sell the home currency and drain the central bank of its foreign assets. the central bank could always defend if it so chooses (they can raise interest rates to improbably high levels), but if it is unwilling to cripple the economy with tight monetar y policy, it must relent. an “inflow” attack issimilar in that the central bank can always maintain the peg, it is just that the consequences of doing so may be more unpalatable than breaking the peg. if money flows in, the central bank must buy foreign assets to keep the currency from appreciating. if the central bank cannot sterilize all the inflows (eventually they may run out of domestic assets to sell to sterilize the transactions where they are buying foreignassets), it will have to either let the currency appreciate or letthe money supply rise. if it is unwilling to allow and increase in inflation due to a rising money supply, breaking the peg maybe preferable.11. a. we know that china has a very large current account surplus, placing them high above the xxline. they also have moderate inflationary pressures (described as “gathering” in the question, implying they arenot yet very strong). this suggests that china is above the ii line, but not too farabove it. it would be placed in zone 1 (see below).b. china needs to appreciate the exchange rate to move down on the graph towards balance.(shown on the graph with the dashed line down)c. china would need to expand government spending to moveto the right and hit the overall balancepoint. such a policy would help cushion the negativeaggregate demand pressurethat the appreciation might generate.【篇三:克鲁格曼《国际经济学》计算题及答案】0名劳动力,如果生产棉花的话,a国的人均产量是2吨,b国也是2吨;要是生产大米的话,a国的人均产量是10吨,b国则是16吨。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解 第12章~第14章【圣才出品】

第3篇汇率与开放经济的宏观经济学第12章国民收入核算与国际收支平衡12.1复习笔记1.国民收入账户(1)GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是一国的国民生产总值(GNP),它是一国的生产要素在一定时期内所生产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究一国产出时所用的基本度量手段,由花费在最终产品上的支出的市场价值量加总而得到。
GNP的支出与劳动、资本以及其他生产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能用途,GNP可以分解为以下四个部分:消费(国内居民私人消费的数额)、投资(私人企业为进行再生产而留下的用于购买厂房设备的数额)、政府购买(政府使用的数额)和经常项目余额(对外净出口的商品和服务的数额)。
(2)国民收入国民收入等于GNP减去折旧,加上净单边转移支付,再减去间接商业税。
即:国民收入=GNP-折旧+净单边转移支付-间接商业税在实际经济中,要使GNP和国民收入的恒等关系完全成立,必须对GNP的定义作一定调整:①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使用过程中由于磨损而引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧,折旧减少了资本所有者的收入。
为了计算一定时期的国民收入,必须从GNP 中减去这一时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民生产净值(NNP)。
②一国的收入可能会包括外国居民的赠与,这种赠与称为单边转移支付。
单边转移支付的例子包括向居住在国外的退休公民支付养老金、赔偿支付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移支付是一国收入的一部分,但不是一国产出的一部分,因此,净单边转移支付,必须加到NNP中以计算国民收入。
③国民收入取决于生产者获得的产品价格,GNP则取决于购买者所支付的价格。
但是,这两组价格并不是完全一致的,例如,销售税会使得购买者的支付大于销售者的收入,导致GNP被高估,超过了国民收入。
这部分税收被称为间接商业税。
在计算国民收入时,这部分间接商业税必须从GNP中减去。
(3)GDP大多数国家采用国内生产总值(GDP)作为国民经济活动的主要指标,来度量一国境内的生产量。
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第15章 长期价格水平和汇率
一、概念题
1.费雪效应(Fisher effect )
答:费雪效应是指通货膨胀率和利率在长期中同比例变化的关系。
美国经济学家费雪在其《利息理论》一书中阐述了这一关系。
这一关系假定,在长期中通货膨胀率等于预期通货膨胀率。
在其他条件不变的情况下,如果一国的预期通货膨胀率上升,最终会导致该国货币存款利率的同比例上升;反之,如果预期通货膨胀率下降,最终会导致货币存款利率的同比例下降。
从国际资本流动来看,费雪效应体现了通货膨胀率、利率和汇率变化的关系。
当其他条件不变时,若一国的预期通货膨胀率上升,在外汇市场上将导致该种货币的贬值;根据利率平价理论,这最终将导致该国货币存款利率的上升。
这一关系还可以用相对购买力平价理论和利率平价理论的结合来说明。
相对购买力平价表明,在一定时期内两国货币汇率变动的百分比等于两国通货膨胀率之差。
利率平价表明,两国货币汇率预期变动的百分比等于两国货币存款的预期收益率之差,即两国货币存款未来的利率之差。
在长期中,两国货币的汇率变动即为两国货币汇率的预期变动。
这样,两国货币存款未来利率之差就等于两国通货膨胀率之差,用公式表示:
G F G F R R ππ-=-
G R 和F R 分别代表两国货币存款的利率,G π和F π分别代表两国的通货膨胀率。
该公式
表明,在其他条件不变时,一国通货膨胀率的上升最终将导致该国货币存款利率同比例上升。
2.购买力平价(purchasing power parity ,PPP )
答:购买力平价是指不同国家商品和服务的价格水平的比率。
一国的价格水平以一个基准的商品和服务“篮子”的价格来表示,它反映该国货币的国内购买力。
对购买同一个基准的商品和服务“篮子”来说,在本国以本国货币支付的价格与其在外国以外国货币支付的价格之比,便是购买力平价。
具体计算方法为:在两国(或多国)选择同质的“一篮子”商品和服务,收集价格、数量和支出额资料,分别核算各组、各类商品和服务价格的比率,最终获得一个综合的价格比率。
3.一价定律(law of one price )
答:一价定律是指在不存在运输费用和不存在贸易保护的自由市场上,同种商品在任何国家出售,按同一货币计量的价格应该相等。
从理论上讲,如果国家与国家之间不存在任何形式的贸易壁垒,且商品在不同国家之间的运输费用为零,那么任何一种商品在不同国家、按同种货币计量的价格应该是完全一样的。
由于这里的“一价”指的是用同种货币计量的价格,因而就涉及到不同国家货币之间的换算即汇率问题。
因此,该定律实际上揭示了不同国家的国内价格同相应汇率之间的一种基本联系。
当然,由于运输费用不可能为零,且国家之间也不可能完全不存在贸易壁垒,因而一价定律在现实中很难成立。
但是它为理论的分析或现实的解释提供了一个简明的基准,因而是一个非常有用的理论假设。
如果i G P 表示的是货物i 的本国价格,i F P 表示的是相应的国外价格,/G F E 表示汇率,那
么一价定律预言:货物i 无论在何地出售都应采用同样的用本国货币计价的价格,即:
/i i G F G F P P E =⨯或//i i G F G F E P P =
4.实际升值(real appreciation )
答:实际升值是指在名义汇率不变的情况下,由实际汇率下降所引起的一国货币币值的上升。
当名义汇率不变时,若本国价格水平上升,则实际汇率下降,表明本国货币的币值上升了。
当两国价格水平不变,而名义汇率变化时,名义汇率的下降也将引起实际汇率的习。
这样,一国由于名义汇率上升而使本币名义升值,也意味着本币的实际升值。
对国内产品的世界相对需求的增加会促使本币的长期实际升值,外国产品供给的相对扩大则会使本币对外币长期实际升值。
5.汇率的货币分析法(monetary approach to the exchange rate)
答:货币分析法是一种长期而非短期理论,该理论基本不考虑价格刚性。
货币分析法认为,价格水平总是立即调整的,从而使得经济始终保持在充分就业状态并满足购买力平价条件。
货币分析法的基本方程为:
根据购买力平价理论,汇率等于本国产出价格与外国产出价格之比,而这两种价格水平又是由它们各自国内的货币供求关系决定的。
汇率的货币分析法预示:两种货币的汇率,即两种货币的相对价格,从长期来看完全取决于两种货币的相对供给量与相对实际需求量。
利率和国内产出的变化只有在影响了货币需求的情形下才会使汇率发生变动。
6.实际贬值(real depreciation)
答:实际贬值是指在名义汇率不变的情况下,由实际汇率上升所引起的一国货币币值的下降。
两国货币之间的实际汇率的计算公式为:
当名义汇率不变时,若本国价格水平下降,则实际汇率上升,表明本国货币的币值下降了。
当两国价格水平不变,而名义汇率变化时,名义汇率的上升也将引起实际汇率的上升。
这样,一国由于名义汇率上升而使本币名义贬值,也意味着本币的实际贬值。
7.名义汇率(nominal exchange rate)
答:名义汇率是指一国货币价值与另一国货币价值的比率,即两国货币的相对价格。
8.实际汇率(real exchange rate)
答:名义汇率乘以外国价格水平与本国价格水平之比,即为实际汇率,因而实际汇率是扣除了两国价格变动因素的汇率。
当两国价格水平不变时,实际汇率与名义汇率同方向、同比例变化。
当名义汇率不变时,实际汇率与外国价格水平同方向变化,而与本国价格水平反方向变化。
9.名义利率(nominal interest rate)
答:名义利率又称“货币利率”,是“实际利率”的对称,是指银行挂牌执行的存款、贷款的利率。
它是以货币为标准计算出来的利率。
在经济发展过程中,特别是在通货膨胀情况下,名义利率与实际利率往往是不一致的。
为了避免通货膨胀给本金带来损失,只有把存款、贷款利率提高到一定水平,才能保证收回的本金和利息之和与物价变动以前相当。
因此,名义利率是包含了对通货膨胀风险补偿的利率。
10.实际利率(real interest rate)
答:实际利率是“名义利率”的对称,是指名义利率扣除物价变动因素后的利率。
实际利率为正值时,有利于吸收储蓄,降低通货膨胀率;实际利率为负值时,则会减少储蓄、刺激金融投机、恶化通货膨胀。
实际利率的计算公式为:
当通货膨胀率很低时,可近似记为:
实际利率≈名义利率-通货膨胀率
11.对市场定价(pricing to market )
答:对市场定价一般是指具有一定垄断势力的企业在不同的市场上对相同的商品按照不同的价格进行销售的行为。
对市场定价其实是一种价格歧视行为。
在国际贸易中,对市场定价可以反映不同国家不同的市场需求状况,具有垄断势力的企业可以实施价格歧视,在需求缺乏弹性的国家收取较高的产品价格来弥补其生产成本。
12.相对购买力平价(relative PPP )
答:相对购买力平价是指在一定时期内两国货币汇率的变动等于两国价格水平变动的比率,用公式表示为:
公式中,t E 表示新汇率,0E 表示表示基期汇率,0/Gt G P P 表示本国价格水平的变动,
0/Ft F P P 表示外国价格水平的变动。
相对购买力平价还可表述为:在一定时期内两国货币汇率变动的百分比,等于两国价格水平变动的百分比之差,即等于两国通货膨胀率之差。
用公式表示为:
其中,G π、F π分别表示国内、外的通货膨胀率。
二、习题 1.假设俄罗斯的年通货膨胀率为100%,而瑞士仅为5%。
根据相对购买力平价,瑞士法郎对俄罗斯卢布的汇率将如何变化?
Suppose Russia ’s inflation rate is 100 percent over one year but the inflation rate in Switzerland is only 5 percent. According to relative PPP , what should happen over the year to the Swiss franc ’s exchange rate against the Russian ruble? 答:根据相对购买力平价理论,可得:
因此,根据相对购买力平价,当俄罗斯的年通货膨胀率为100%,瑞士的年通货膨胀率为5%时,瑞士法郎/卢布汇率将下降95%。
2.讨论一下为什么人们经常说当本国货币相对于外币出现实际升值时,出口状况恶化;而当本国货币实际贬值时,出口部门则兴旺发达。
Discuss why it is often asserted that exporters suffer when their home currencies appreciate in real terms against foreign currencies and prosper when their home currencies depreciate in real terms.
答:实际汇率变化的原因不同可能导致进出口状况的变化也不尽相同。
(1)如果实际汇率上升是由非贸易品相对于贸易品的需求增加所导致的,对非贸易品需求的增加会使得非贸易品价格上升,导致该国总价格水平上涨,实际汇率上升。
在这种情。