英语语言学自编教材第一章

英语语言学主编：朱跃胡一宁副主编：周平方瑞芬鲍曼安徽大学出版社前言语言学家对语言的研究首先从语音开始，并以语音为出发点进一步研究语言的结构、意义，进而形成了语音学、音系学、词素学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系列的分支学科。

语言的研究与社会学、心理学等的有机结合又产生了社会语言学、心理语言学等交叉学科。

而语言理论在实际中的运用促使应用语言学的问世。

通过学习应用语言学的基本概念、研究重心及核心问题，学生可以了解关于语言的知识及语言理论知识，可以掌握英语语言使用的基本原理，并能初步运用这些原理解决英语使用中的问题，从而使学生不仅知其然，而且知其所以然。

在一定意义上，英语语言学课程不仅能够帮助学生获取关于英语语言本身的知识，更开拓了学生语言应用的视野。

正因如此，英语语言学被列为英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。

虽然英语语言学对学生学习使用英语有着理论指导意义和实践意义，但是由于种种原因，很多学生认为语言学课程内容抽象、枯燥，对学习英语语言学的兴趣不大，甚至有抵触情绪。

要改变这种尴尬的局面，教材的改革十分必要。

我们在总结前人英语语言学教材编写经验的基础上，将归纳法引入教材的编写之中，学生通过分析语言事例，去探索、发现、总结语言使用规律，发展理性思维。

教材编写强调基础性、实用性、启发性、自足性和时代性；强调理论性与实践性相结合，学术性与趣味性相结合；同时，注重把启发式、讨论式、发现式和研究式的教学理念运用于教材编写之中。

学生在学习英语语言学教材时应注意宏观与微观相结合、理解与记忆相结合和比较与对比相结合的原则。

首先仔细阅读教材目录。

目录是全书内容的高度浓缩和概括，它不仅包括本学科所涉及的主要内容，而且也涉及内容与内容之间的联系。

在整体把握课本内容的基础上，再从宏观进入到微观学习。

通过细节的学习来加深对课本宏观内容的把握，而对课本宏观的把握又会有助于课本细节的学习，做到“既见森林，又见树木”。

要理解语言学的基本概念，就要注意分析课本中围绕基本概念所提供的各种例子，多思考，细析辨。

只有在理解基础上的记忆才会变得长久。

学习者应能结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来理解和解释有关理论，以达到理论和实践的结合。

比较和对比是该课程学习中不可缺少的两种方法。

通过比较，可以找出不同概念之间的相似性，通过对比可以理解不同概念之间的相异性。

比较和对比的结合有助于弄清概念之间的异同及其内在的联系。

《新概念英语语言学教程》是集体的智慧。

除了主编与副主编外，参加教材编写工作和校对工作的还有段婷婷、李剑、李义成、李奕华、王军、张佳易、周同、朱军等(以姓氏笔画排序)。

在此，我们向他们表示感谢。

由于我们水平有限，教材中错误难免，恳请广大教师与读者多提宝贵意见和建议，以便我们对教材作进一步修订。

朱跃2010年1月于安徽大学目录Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics？.......................................................................1.1 Definition of linguistics…………………………………………..1.2 Main branches of linguistics…………………………………….1.3 Why study language？…………………………………………..2. What is language？……………………………………………………….2.1 Definition of language………………………………………………..2.2 Design features of language……………………………..3. Important distinctions in l inguistics………………………………………3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive…………………………………………………3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic…………………………………………………..3.3 Speech vs. writing…………………………3.4 Langue vs. parole……………………………..3.5 Competence vs. performance…………………………………………. Exercises………………………………………………………………….Further Reading…………………………………………………………………….. Chapter 2 Phonetics1. The phonic medium of language …………………….2. Phonetics ……………………………………………2.1 What is phonetics? …………………………………..2.2 Organs of speech ………………………………..2.2.1 The oral cavity ……………………………2.2.2 The nasal cavity ……. …………………….2.2.3 Pharyngeal cavity………………………………2.3 Classification of English speech sounds …………..2.3.1 Classification of English consonants …………………………..2.3.2 Classification of English vowels ……………………….. Exercises……………………………………..Further Reading………………………………………………..Chapter 3 Phonology1.General introduction to phonology …………………………………2. Basic concepts of phonology……………………………2.1 Phone, phoneme and allophone………………….2.2 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair….2.3 Broad transcription and narrow transcription…………………3. Some phonological rules………………………………………………3.1 Sequential rules………………………………………………………..3.2 Assimilation rules……………………………………………………4. Suprasegmental features: stress, tone and intonation……………………….4.1 Stress……………………………………………………………….4.2 Tone…………………………………………………….4.3 Intonation…………………………………………………………………. Exercises……………………………………………………………………………. Further Reading…………………………………………………………………….. Chapter 4 Morphology………………………………………………………………1.Morphology ………………………………………..2.Morphemes……………………………………………..3.Types of morphemes……………………………………………………3.1 Free morphemes ………………………………………………………………3.2 Bound morphemes…………………………………………………………….3.2.1 Root…………………………………………………………………….3.2.2 Affixes………………………………………………………………….4.Allomorph…………………………………………………………….5.Word formation rules………………………………………………………..5.1 Compounding ………………………………………………………………..5.2 Derivation…………………………………………………………………..5.3 Conversion………………………………………………………………….5.4 Clipping………………………………………………………………………5.5 Initialism……………………………………………………………..5.6 Acronym……………………………………………………….5.7 Blending………………………………………………………..5.8 Back-formation………………………………………………………Exercises …………………………………………………………………….. Further Reading………………………………………………………………………………….Chapter 5 Syntax……………………………………………………………1. Syntactic categories ……………………………………………..2. Combinational rules………………………………………………3. Sentence structure ………………………………………………………..3.1 The structural approach and IC analysis…………………………………3.2 Advantages and problems of IC analysis3.3 Transformational-generative grammar………………………………………..3.3.1 Surface structure and deep structure…………………………………3.3.2 Phrase structure rules……………………………………3.3.3 Transformational rules…………………………………3.3.4 Morphophonemic rules…………………………………4. Universal g rammar…………………………………4.1 The observational basis of UG………………………………………….4.2 General principles of UG…………………………………………..4.2.1 The structure-dependency p rinciple……………………….4.2.2 The subjacency p rinciple………………………………….4.2.3 The adjacency p rinciple…………………………………4.3 General parameters of UG……………………………………….4.3.1 The pro-drop p arameter………………………………….4.3.2 The adjacency parameter……………………………………4.3.3 The directionality parameter…………………………………………Exercises……………………………………………………Further Reading……………………………………………………………..Chapter 6 Semantics1. General introduction ……………………………..2. Approaches to semantics ……………………………………………………..2.1 The naming theory………………………………………………………2.2 The conceptualist theory ………………………………………………2.3 Contextualism…………………………………………………..2.4 Behaviorism …………………………………………………………..3. Lexical meaning ………………………………………………………….3.1 Sense and reference ……………………………………………………3.2. Major semantic relationships between words………………………..3.2.1 Synonymy…………………………………………………………….3.2.2 Polysemy……………………………………………………………..3.2.3 Homonymy……………………………………………………………3.2.4 Hyponymy……………………………………………………………….3.2.5 Antonymy……………………………………………………………..4. Sentence meaning………………………………………………………………5. Analysis of meaning ……………………………………………………………..5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning………….5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning…………..Exercises…………………………………………………………………Further Reading……………………………………………………………………….. Chapter 7 Pragmatics…………………………………………………………1. What is pragmatics? ……………………………………………………….2. Context…………………………………………………………..3. Entailment……………………………………………….4. Presupposition…………………………………………………..5. Speech acts…………………………………………………………………….6. Convers ational implicatures……………………………………………….7. The cooperative principle……………………………………………………..8. Deixis…………………………………………………………………………..9. Politeness principle………………………………………………………………….Exercises …………………………………………………………………….Further Reading……………………………………………………………………….Chapter 8 Language and Society1. Speech community………………………………………………….2. Relationships between language and society………………………………3. Language varieties……………………………………………………………..3.1 Dialects………………………………………………………………………3.1.1 Regional dialects…………………………………………………….3.1.2 Social dialects……………………………………………………………..3.1.2.1 Language variation with social classes: class dialect………3.1.2.2Language variation with sex: genderlect……………………3.1.2.3Language variation with age: Age dialect ………………….3.1.2.4 Language variation with ethnic group: ethnic dialect……….3.1.2.5 Language variation with individuals: idiolect……………3.1.3 Standard dialect……………………………………………………3.2Register……………………………………………………………….3.3Mixture of varieties…………………………………………………………3.3.1 Pidgins………………………………………………………………….3.3.2 Creoles………………………………………………………………3.3.3 Lingua franca……………………………………………………………. Exercises …………………………………………………………………………. Further Readings …………………………………………………………………Chapter 9 Language and Culture1. General introduction………………………………………………………1.1 The relationship between language and culture……………………..1.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis………………………………..2. Cross-cultural communication…………………………..2.1 Meaning as sign………………………………………………..2.2 Cultural clash………………………………………………………2.3 Stereotype …………………………………………………………Exercises………………………………………………………………..Further Reading…………………………………………………………….. Chapter 10 Language and Acquisition1. Behaviorism …………………………………………………………………………2. Innatism: how languages are learned …………………………………..3. Interactionist theory: how languages are learned ……………………….4. Interlanguage: how languages are learned ………………………………..5. Acquisition vs. learning ……………………………………………….6. Competence and performance………………………………………………7. Universal grammar………………………………………………………….8. Language transfer………………………………………………………………..9. Comprehensible input………………………………………………………………10. Critical period hypothesis………………………………………………Exercises …………………………………………………………..Further Reading……………………………………………………….Chapter 11 Language and Methodology1. Approaches to language teaching…………………………………………………2. Contribution of linguistics to language teaching…………………………………..3. Language testing……………………………………………..3.1 Basic considerations of language testing…………………………3.2 Main types of language tests……………………………………………Exercises……………………………………………………………………..Further Reading……………………………………………………………. ReferencesChapter 1 Introduction1. What is Linguistics?1.1 Definition of Linguistics●Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1）What do you think linguistics is about?2）Discuss with your partner how we can study language in ascientific way?3）In your opinion, what’s the goal of a linguist?●Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnLinguistics is the scientific study of l anguage. The word “language” with noarticle implies that linguistics studies languages in general, not any particular language. The word “study” means “investigate” or “examine” instead of “learn”. Linguistics endeavors to answer the questions of what language is and how it is represented in the mind?A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language. Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters. The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language, that is, the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language.The scientific processes of linguistic study are:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.●Definitions to ClarifyLinguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.1.2 Main Branches of Linguistics●Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions toPonder over1) In the previous section, we have learnt that linguistics is thescientific study of language. Learning linguistics means that wewill learn about many aspects of human language. List some of theaspects you know which could be included in the study oflinguistics.2) As language is a social phenomenon, linguistics must have close links with other branches of social studies. Discuss with your partners and try to list some of the social sciences which may be related to the study of language.●Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnLearning linguistics means learning about many aspects of human language, including the physical properties and structure of sounds, words, sentences, and meaning. It can involve looking at how languages change over time; how they vary with different social factors, such as age, sex, class, educational background and our birth place; how people use language in context to effect successful communication; or how people acquire or learn language.●Definitions to ClarifyPhonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds, e.g. of how they are made (articulatory phonetics), transmitted (acoustic phonetics), and received (auditory phonetics). Phonetics has broad applications in a number of areas, including speech recognition, speech synthesis, forensic linguistics, speech therapy and language instruction.Phonology analyses how sounds are organized in a language (phonological structure) and attempts to discover the principles that govern sound systems in languages in general.Morphology examines the structure or form of words, how they are constructed of smaller units (called “m orphemes”) which have meaning (for example, singer is composed of sing + er).Syntax investigates how words (and grammatical elements) are combined to form sentences, what speakers know about the grammatical structure of their language, how sentences are interrelated and what the general grammatical and cognitive principles are which explain these arrangements, relationships, and knowledge.Semantics is the study of the abstract or inherent meaning in isolation, not in context.Pragmatics is concerned with how the meaning of linguistic acts depends on the context in which they are performed. It looks at language from the point of view of the users and the choices they make, and constraints on those choices, in social interaction. (For example, pragmatics studies what ca n make the sentence “Can you open the door?”count as a question in one situation and as a request for action in another.)Sociolinguistics probes the relationship between language and society. This involves variation in language use which correlates with such things as the age, gender, social class, ethnicity, and general social attributes of speakers and hearers. Sociolinguists also deal with attitudes towards language, social aspects of language change, and linguistic aspects of social issues.Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic methods and findings to a number of areas. It is especially associated with language teaching methodology and second-language acquisition, but also involves language and the law, language and classroom education, child development, language and reading, speech therapy, language and public policy, translation, advertising, and the like.Historical linguistics studies how and why languages change.Discourse analysis examines how language is structured beyond the sentence and thus involves topic and comment, narrative structure, cohesiveness, written vs. spoken language, and conversational analysis.Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelationship between language and human cognition (the role of language as it affects memory, perception, and learning) and the effects of psychological constraints on language (on its use, production, and comprehension). The best known area of psycholinguistics is the study of child language acquisition, how children acquire their native language.Anthropological linguistics deals with the relationship between language and culture; also it involves the study of little-known languages in their cultural setting.Computational linguistics or mathematical linguistics is the branch of linguistics which looks at languages essentially as formal systems, and applies computational techniques and concepts to understanding issues such as automatic machine translation and parsing. The goal of research in these areas is to uncover the logical and mathematical structures that underlie linguistic systems.1.3 Why Study Language?Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1)What good is the scientific study of language? Why does anyone do it? Whyshould you care about it? These are the sorts of questions you have a right to ask about any university course. Discuss with your partner thepossible reasons why we should study language.2)Language is a part of everyone’s life, but it is more central to some people than toothers.Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to Learnwork in education, developing curricula and materials, teaching students, training teachers, and designing tests and other methods of assessment, etc.. They may work as a translator or interpreter. They may work with dictionaries as knowledge of phonology, morphology, historical linguistics, dialectology, and sociolinguistics is key to becoming a lexicographer, to name just a few.2. What is Language?2.1 Definition of LanguageRelevant Language Use Observations and Questions toPonder over1) Look at the following definitions of language, do you agree?①The expression of ideas by writing, or any otherinstrumentality.②The forms of speech, or the methods of expressing ideas, peculiar to aparticular nation.③The characteristic mode of arranging words, peculiar to an individual speakeror writer; manner of expression; style④Any means of conveying or communicating ideas; specifically, human speech;the expression of ideas by the voice; sounds, expressive of thought,articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth⑤The inarticulate sounds by which animals inferior to man express theirfeelings or their wants⑥Any set of defined rules that can be used to convey thoughts, ideas, orinstructions⑦ A system of sounds used to link sound using words and sentences to meaning2) What do we use language for in our daily life?3) Different languages use different linguistic forms to refer to the same thing.What relation does it suggest between a linguistic form and its referent? Is there a logical connection between a form and its meaning?4) Of the two media, oral and written, which one is primary in ourdaily communication?5) Can you find some of the rules to form English noun phrases?6) We often say animals have language. Do you think the so-calledanimal languages are the same as the human languages?●Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnFirstly, language is a system, which means the elements of language are combined according to rules. This accounts for why it is possible for us to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences based on a limited number of linguistic forms.Secondly, language is arbitrary for there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. For instance, different languages use different forms to refer to the same thing. Even within the same language, the same form can also be used to mean different things such as /rait/ for right, rite, write, etc..Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well- developed their writing systems are.●Definitions to ClarifyLanguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.2Design Features of Language●Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1）Could it be possible that given the linguistic forms, wecould predict their meanings and given the meanings, wewould be able to predict their forms?2）Look at the following sentence “The little lavender menwho live in my socks drawer told me that Elvis will come back from Mars on the 10th to do a benefit concert for unemployed Pekingese dogs.” Have you ever heard or read this sentence before? Is it rule-based? Do you have problems in understanding its meaning?3）If a child were isolated from the human society since he was born, could he speak? If a dog were isolated from other dogs, would the dog be able to bark?Without learning, can a child speak his mother tongue?4）Communication between animals is restricted to “here and now”. What about human language? Could we use the language to talk about what is far removed from the immediate situations in which communication takes place?Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnTo illustrate the properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, the American linguist Charles Hockett proposed thirteen design features of language, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness, first proposed by Saussure, means there is no intrinsic or logical connection between the form of the signal and the thing being referred to. The relation between a linguistic form and what it refers to is established by convention. For example, there is no reason that in English a table which has a flat or sloping top at which we can sit in order to write or work should be called a desk, not a bureau, or Shuzhuo or Tisch (words for desk respectively in French, Chinese and German). Onomatopoeic words such as quack and bark are often cited as counter-examples, based on the argument that they are pronounced like the sound they refer to. However, the linguistic forms which different languages use to imitate the natural sounds are still different. English ducks quack, but the Chinese linguistic form for the same sound is ga , so even onomatopoeic words are, to some extent, arbitrary.Productivity means that human languages allow speakers to create novel, never-before-heard utterances that others can understand. As the example mentioned above shows, the sentence “The little lavender men …unemployed Pekingese dogs”is a novel and never-before-heard sentence, but any fluent speaker of English would be able to understand it and realize that the speaker was not completely sane, in all probability.Duality of patterning means that the discrete parts of a language can berecombined in a systematic way to create new forms. As a system, language consists of two levels, one of which refers to the structure of sounds that can be grouped and regrouped into a larger number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words. The other level is a higher level, which can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. This idea is similar to Productivity. However, Productivity refers to the ability to generate novel meanings, while Duality of patterning refers to the ability to recombine small units in different orders.Displacement means that the speaker can talk about things which are not present, either spatially or temporally. For example, human language allows speakers to talk about the past and the future, as well as the present. Speakers can also talk about things that are physically distant (such as other countries, the moon, etc.). They can even refer to things and events that do not actually exist (they are not present in reality) such as the Easter Bunny, the Earth having an emperor, or the destruction of Tara in Gone with the Wind.Definitions to ClarifyArbitrariness: There is no direct, intrinsic or logical connection between the form of the signal and the thing being referred to. In other words, there is no dependence of linguistic forms on the nature of the reality to which they refer (unlike the speed of bee “dancing”, which directly reflects the distance of the nectar from the hive).Productivity: Human languages allow speakers to create novel, never-before-heard utterances that others can understand (unlike the limited, fixed set of calls used by animals).Duality of patterning: The sounds of language have no intrinsic meaning, but combine in different ways to form elements (such as words) that do convey meaning (unlike animal calls, which cannot be analyzed into two such levels of structure).Displacement: The speaker can talk about things which are not present, either spatially or temporally. It is possible to talk about events remote in space or time from the situation of the speaker (unlike most animal cries, which reflect immediate environmental stimuli).Cultural transmission: It is also called traditional transmission. Language is transmitted from one generation to the next primarily by a process of teaching and learning (unlike the bee’s ability to communicate the source of nectar, which is passed on genetically).3.Important Distinctions in Linguistics3.1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive●Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions toPonder over1) Have you ever had the experience of being corrected by yourlanguage teacher when you use a sentence which is notgrammatically right, though it is used in our dailycommunication?2) When we learn grammatical rules, very often we can find exceptions togrammatical rules, even exceptions to exceptions. Can you cite an example to show this phenomenon?3) Try to find the differences in the attitudes of the speakers to the sentence “I runsaway.”(1) It is not right to say sentences like “I runs away” in English.(2) People do not say sentences like “I runs away” in English.●Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnLanguage teachers and traditional grammarians are very often prescriptive in the sense that they lay down grammatical rules for the correct use of a certain language. As long as a grammatical rule is laid down, it will be imposed on language users. The uses of language in accordance with the grammatical rules will be evaluated as correct, while those violating the rules will be judged as wrong. The grammatical rules constructed by language teachers are not necessarily based on the language real uses.Linguists are descriptive. They do not believe there is absolute standard of correctness in the use of language. They stand by and observe real language uses. They describe and analyze the language people actually use. In the study of language, linguists can find some language rules. However, they do not force these language rules on language users.Actually, in the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. The grammarians then tried to tell the learner what he should say, or what is supposed to be correct usage.But modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. Linguistic study is supposed to bescientific and objective and the task of linguists is to describe the language people actually use rather than judge these facts subjectively and label them as “correct” or “wrong”. Modern linguists believe that the facts of usage count more than the “correct rules”.●Definitions to ClarifyPrescriptive linguistics: It is concerned with the work of laying down rules governing how a language should be used.Descriptive linguistics: It is concerned with the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is spoken (or how it was spoken in the past) by a group of people in a speech community.3.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic●Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder overIf you open a history book, you may find that the whole bookfollows the time order and each chapter deals with a specificperiod of the nation. For example, in a Chinese history book,there are different well-arranged chapters for differentdynasties. Now, let’s think about this: if we apply such kind ofmethod to the study of languages, which aspects should wefocus on?●Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnLanguage is, to some extent, a very important part of history. So it exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at a specific point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language through the course of its history is a diachronic study. A diachronic study focuses on the historical development of language over a period of time. For example, the word “gossip”originally meant “Godparent”. Then it picked up a new meaning “acquaintance”. In Shakespeare’s time, Shakespeare was the first to use the word as a verb to mean “talk idly, with no academic or business purpose”. This approach to the study of meaning is diachronic because it is a study of the changes which English has undergone. However, a study of the features of the English used only in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic because this study does not involve the study of language changes at that specific point of time.。