英国文学史维多利亚时期文学背景及特点
英美文学讲义Chapter 4
Chapter 4 The Victorian Period一．学习目的和要求通过本章的学习，对19世纪维多利亚时代英国的政治，经济，历史，文化背景，对维多利亚时代的诗歌，散文，小说在创作思想上的进步和创作技巧上的改革，以及对该时代主要作家的生平，观点，创作旨意，艺术品特点及其代表作的主题，结构，语言，人物刻画等都有一个全面的了解。
并通过作品选读加深体会感受，增强对作品的理解和鉴赏能力。
二．考核要求（一）维多利亚时期概述1．识记:（1）维多利亚时期的界定（2）社会政治，经济，文化背景2．领会:（1）维多利亚时期的文学特点（2）批判现实主义小说对后世文学的影响3．应用：宪章运动，功利主义，批判现实主义，戏剧独自等名词的解释（二）该时期的重要作家1．一般识记：重要作家的生平与创作生涯2．识记: 重要作品及主要内容3．领会：重要作家的创作思想，艺术特色及其代表作品的主题思想，人物塑造，语言风格，社会意义等4．应用:（1）狄更斯和萨克雷作品的批判现实主义思想及各自的创作手法，艺术特色（2）小说《简·爱》，《呼啸山庄》的主题思想与人物塑造（3）"我逝去的公爵夫人”中的戏剧独白（4）乔泊·艾略特和哈代小说中环境，氛围描述与人物内世界的展示The Victorian Period （P233）Chronologically the Victorian period roughly coincides with the reign of Queen Victoria who ruled over England from 1836 to 1901. The period has been generally regarded as one of the most glorious in the English history.Its Political, Economical & Cultural Background（P233）The early years of the Victorian England was a time of rapid economic development as well as serious social problems. After the Reform Bill of 1832 passed the political power from the decaying aristocrats into the hands of the middle-class industrial capitalists, the Industrial Revolution soon geared up. Towards the mid-century, England had reached its highest point of development as a world power. And yet beneath the great prosperity & richness, there existed widespread poverty & wretchedness among the working class. The worsening living & working conditions, the mass unemployment & the new Poor Law of 1834 with its workhouse system finally gave rise to the Chartist Movement宪章运动(1836-1848).During the next twenty years, England settled down to a time of prosperity & relative stability. The middle-class life of the time was characterized by prosperity, respectability & material progress.But the last three decades of the century witnessed the decline of the British Empire & the decay of the Victorian values.Ideologically, the Victorians experienced fundamental changes. The rapid development of science & technology, new inventions & discoveries in geology, astronomy, biology & anthropology drastically shook people's religious convictions. Darwin's The Origin of Species《物种起源》(1859) & The Descent of Man《人类的起源》(1871) shook the theoretical basis of the traditional faith. On the other hand, Utilitarianism功利主义was widely accepted & practiced. Almost everything was put to the test by the criterion of utility, that is, the extent to which it could promote the material happiness. （P235）Features of the Victorian LiteratureVictorian literature, as a product of its age, naturally took on its quality of magnitude & diversity. It was many-sided & complex, & reflected both romantically & realistically the great changes that were going on in people's life & thought. Greatwriters & great works abounded. （P235）Features of Victorian novels（P236）In this period, the novel became the most widely read & the most vital & challenging expression of progressive thought. While sticking to the principle of faithful representation of the 18th-century realist novel, novelists in this period carried their duty forward to the criticism of the society & the defense of the mass. Although writing from different points of view & with different techniques, they shared one thing in common, that is, they were all concerned about the fate of the common people. They were angry at the inhuman social institutions, the decaying social morality as represented by the money-worship & Utilitarianism & the widespread misery, poverty & injustice. Their truthful depiction of people's life & bitter & strong criticism of the society had done much in awakening the public consciousness to the social problems & in the actual improvement of the society.（P236）Victorian literature, in general, truthfully represents the reality & spirit of the age. The high-spirited vitality, the down-to-earth earnestness, the good-natured humor & unbounded imagination are all unprecedented. In almost every genre it paved the way for the coming century, where its spirits, values & experiments are to witness their bumper harvest. （P237）名词解释（Definitions of several terms）The Chartist Movement (1836-1848) (P233)The English workers got themselves organized in big cities & brought forth the People's charter, in which they demanded basic rights & better living & working conditions. They, for three times, made appeals to the government, with hundreds of thousands of people's signatures. The movement swept over most of the cities in the country. Although the movement declined to an end in 1848, it did bring some improvement to the welfare of the working class. This was the first mass movement of the English working class & the early sign of the awakening of the poor, oppress-ed people.Utilitarianism (P235)Almost everything was put to the test by the criterion of utility, that is, the extent to which it could promote the material happiness. This theory held a special appeal to the middle-class industrialists, whose greed drove them to exploiting workers to the utmost & brought greater suffering & poverty to the working mass.Critical RealismThe Victorian Age is an age of realism rather than of romanticism-a realism which strives to tell the whole truth showing moral & physical diseases as they are. To be true to life becomes the first requirement for literary writing. As the mirror of truth, literature has come very close to daily life, reflecting its practical problems & interests & is used as a powerful instrument of human progress.Dramatic MonologueBy dramatic monologue, it is meant that a poet chooses a dramatic moment or a crisis, in which his characters are made to talk about their lives, & about their minds & hearts. In “listening” to those one-sided talks, readers can form their own opinions & judgments about the speaker's personality & about what has really happened. Robert Browning brought this poetic form to its maturity & perfection & his "My Last Duchess"《我的已故公爵夫人》is one of the best-known dramatic monologues.Victorian WritersI. Charles Dickens (P238)His Life & Literary CareerCharles Dickens (1812-1870) was born at Portsmouth. His father, a poor clerk in the Navy Pay office, was put into the Marsalsea Prison for debt when young Charles was only 12 years old. The son had to give up schooling to work in an underground cellar at a blacking factory - a position he considered most humiliating. We find the bitter experiences of that suffering child reflected in many of Dickens's novels. In 1827, Charles entered a lawyer's office, & two years later he became a Parliamentaryreporter for newspapers.From 1833 Dickens began to write occasional sketches of London life, which were later collected & published under the title Sketches by Boz《博兹札记》(1836). Soon The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club《匹克威克外传》(1836-1837) appeared in monthly installments. And since then, his life became one of endless hard work. In his later years, he gave himself to public readings of his works, which brought plaudits & comfort but also exhausted him. In 1870, this man of great heart & vitality died of overwork, leaving his last novel unfinished. (P238)His Major WorksUpon his death, Dickens left to the world a rich legacy of 15 novels & a number of short stories. They offer a most complete & realistic picture of English society of his age & remain the highest achievement in the 19th-century English novel. In nearly all his novels, behind the gloomy pictures of oppression & poverty, behind the loud humor & buffoonery, is his gentleness, his genial mirth, his simple faith in mankind.The following is a list of his novels & other collections in three periods:(1) Period of youthful optimistSketches by Boz (1836); The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club (1836-1837); Oliver Twist《雾都孤儿》(1837-1838); Nicholas Nickleby《尼古拉斯·尼克贝》(1838-1839); The Old Curiosity Shop《老古玩店》(1840-1841); 《巴纳比·拉奇》Barnaby Rudge(1841)(2) Period of excitement & irritationAmerican Note s《美国札记》(1842); Martin Chuzzlewit《马丁·翟述伟》(1843-1845); A Christmas Carol《圣诞颂歌》(1843); Dombey & Son《董贝父子》(1846-1848); David Copperfield《大卫·科波菲尔》(1849-1850)(3) Period of steadily intensifying pessimismBleak House《荒凉山庄》(1852-1853); Hard Times《艰难时世》(1854); Little Dorrit 《小杜丽》(1855-1857); A Tale of Two Cities《双城记》(1859); Great Expectations 《远大前程》(1860-1861); Our Mutual Friend《我们共同的朋友》(1864-1865); EdwinDrood《艾德温·德鲁德之谜》(unfinished)(1870)Distinct Features of His Novels(1) Character Sketches & ExaggerationIn his novels are found about 19 hundred figures, some of whom are really such " typical characters under typical circumstances," that they become proverbial or representative of a whole group of similar persons.As a master of characterization, Dickens was skillful in drawing vivid caricatural sketches by exaggerating some peculiarities, & in giving them exactly the actions & words that fit them: that is, right words & right actions for the right person.(2) Broad Humor & Penetrating SatireDickens is well known as a humorist as well as a satirist. He sometimes employs humor to enliven a scene or lighten a character by making it (him or her) eccentric, whimsical, or laughable. Sometimes he uses satire to ridicule human follies or vices, with the purpose of laughing them out of existence or bring about reform.(3) Complicated & Fascinating PlotDickens seems to love complicated novel constructions with minor plots beside the major one, or two parallel major plots within one novel. He is also skillful at creating suspense & mystery to make the story fascinating.(4) The Power of ExposureAs the greatest representative of English critical realism, Dickens made his novel the instrument of morality & justice. Each of his novels reveals a specific social problem.His Literary Creation & Literary AchievementsCharles Dickens is one of the greatest critical realistic writers of the Victorian Age. It is his serious intention to expose & criticize in his works all the poverty, injustice, hypocrisy & corruptness he saw all around him. In his works, Dickens sets a full map & a large-scale criticism of the 19th-century England, particularly London. A combination of optimism about people & realism about society is obvious in these works. His representative works in the early period include Oliver Twist,DavidCopperfield & so on. (P239)His later works show a highly conscious modern artist. The settings are more complicated; the stories are better structured. Most novels of this period present a sharper criticism of social evils & morals of the Victorian England, for example, Bleak House, Hard Times, Great Expectations & so on. The early optimism could no more be found.Charles Dickens is a master story-teller. His language could, in a way, be compared with Shakespeare's. His humor & wit seem inexhaustible. Character-portrayal is the most outstanding feature of his works. His characterizations of child (Oliver Twist, etc.), some grotesque people (Fagin, etc.) & some comical people (Mr. Micawber, etc.) are superb. Dickens also employs exaggeration in his works. Dickens's works are also characterized by a mixture of humor & pathos. (P241)Selected ReadingAn Excerpt from Chapter III of Oliver Twist(P238)The novel is famous for its vivid descriptions of the workhouse & life of the underworld in the 19th-century London. The author's intimate knowledge of people of the lowest order & of the city itself apparently comes from his journalistic years. Here the novel also presents Oliver Twist as Dickens's first child hero & Fagin the first grotesque figure. (P243)This section, Chapter III of the novel, is a detailed account of how he is punished for that " impious & profane offence of asking for more" & how he is to be sold. At three pound ten, to Mr. Gamfield, the notorious chimneysweeper. Though we can afford a smile now & then, we feel more the pitiable state of the orphan boy & the cruelty & hypocrisy of the workhouse board.It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, itwas the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way.A Tale of Two Cities这是最好的时代，也是最坏的时代；这是智慧的年代，也是愚蠢的年代；这是信仰的时期，也是怀疑的时期；这是光明的季节，也是黑暗的季节；这是希望的春天，也是失望的冬天；大伙儿面前应有尽有，大伙儿面前一无所有；大伙儿正在直登天堂；大伙儿正在直落地狱。
维多利亚时期讲解
维多利亚时期从时间上讲,维多利亚文学时期恰好与维多利亚女王1836年至1901年执政期相吻合,这一时段是英国历史上最光辉灿烂的时段。
维多利亚执行初期,英国面临着飞速的经济发展及严重的社会问题。
1832年改革法案通过后,国家政权从腐朽没落的贵族手中移向新兴的中产阶级工业资本家,不久,大工业革命高潮迭起,各种科技发明与技术创新为国家经济带来新生力量,如火车、蒸汽船、纺织机器、印刷机器等。
英国一度成为"世界工厂",通过向海外发展市场与剥削殖民地的各种资源积累了大量财富。
19世纪中期英国成为全世界的经济第一强国。
但在这繁荣与财富下掩盖的是工人阶级的贫困与不幸,为了谋生连妇女和儿童都要受雇到艰险肮脏的工厂矿山去卖苦力。
日趋尖锐的阶级矛盾终于引发了1836至1848年著名的英国宪章运动。
工人阶级团结一致推出《人民宪章》,要求政府保障人权,改善生活与工作环境。
运动席卷了几乎所有城市。
这次运动尽管在1848年衰落下去,但却取得了一定成就,同时也标志着工人阶级的觉醒。
接下来的20年,英国相对繁荣稳定。
中产阶级的生活显示出有前途、受尊敬、很富有的特点。
人民整体也追求一种热情、自尊、谦逊、爱国的民族精神,而维多利亚女王也正是这些品格的榜样。
这时道德与常理这些被浪漫主义时代遗弃多年的主题,又回到了文学主流中来。
但19世纪最后三十年中,大英帝国与维多利亚价值观都逐渐走向衰落。
在海外英国虽然还是最大的殖民者,有着不可敌胜的经济、军事实力,但它的领袖地位已经开始面临正在崛起的德国的挑战,与美国的竞争也伤害了英国的经贸垄断地位。
国内的爱尔兰民族问题悬而未决,日益壮大的无产阶级打破了辉格党与托利党之间的政治制衡。
维多利亚价值观在世纪末失去了光彩,原先谦和、体面的生活方式也被放纵与挥霍所取代。
这种世纪末伤感在唯美主义者奥斯卡·王尔德(1854-1900)与沃尔特·培特(1839-1894)的作品中有很好的体现。
英国文学史维多利亚时期文学背景及特点 ppt课件
PPT课件
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• Secondly, during their long reigns England developed rapidly both politically and economically. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, capitalism first took its shape, and the small island country defeated the strong naval power Spain in 1588. During the long reign of Queen Victoria, England grew the workshop of the world as well as its financial and political center.
PPT课件
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the first fourteen years were filled with unrest, alarm and misery, and they contrasted with the growing prosperity and general good feeling of the succeeding twenty-two years when England, having committed herself to industrialism and free trade, because for a theme 'the workshop of the world'
The Victorian Age
(1832-1902)
PPT课件
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Objectives
1. To have the basic knowledge about the brief history of the Victorian Period.
英国维多利亚时期的文化与艺术
英国维多利亚时期的文化与艺术19世纪末，维多利亚时期成为英国历史上一个重要的时代。
在这个时期，英国从农业社会转型为工业化社会，科技进步和全球化的推动将英国带入了繁荣昌盛的阶段。
在这个时代的文化和艺术方面，也出现了非常有特色的表现形式。
文化维多利亚时期，文化表现出了和以往完全不同的特点。
这个时代的文化不再是对知识和学问的简单追求，而是更加注重人们的生活和日常行为。
英国的出版业呈现爆发式发展，新的作品和新的文学形式不断涌现。
在此期间，英国文学还形成了初步的美学体系和社会评论体系。
在这个时期，出现了许多文化名人，例如狄更斯、乔治·艾略特等一批出色的文学家。
除此之外，在维多利亚时期，绘画和音乐也取得了巨大进展。
英国画家在这个时期创作了大量优秀的艺术作品，例如浪漫派的普雷拉夫和威廉·特纳。
而音乐和剧场表演同样蓬勃发展，剧场经历了文艺复兴以来最激动人心的阶段，歌剧和爱尔兰音乐也开始成为主导流派。
因此，英国也产生了一批在文学、艺术和音乐领域都有着巨大影响力的人物。
艺术在维多利亚时期的艺术领域，英国的画家们开始尝试着脱离传统，创作新的绘画形式，从而对绘画艺术进行改革。
浪漫主义在英国的艺术中有着非常重要的地位，代表作品有约翰·克莱姆的《雾中的水车》和特纳的《地中海上的尼欧》等。
这些著名的作品制造了浪漫意识，并呈现出欧洲艺术在这个时代的主流趋势。
此外，维多利亚时期的英国开创了一种新的艺术形式——临时展览。
临时展示的艺术品不仅代表了艺术家的水平，而且在视觉上也是一种新颖的体验。
艺术品的展示和现场的氛围相互融合，在这个过程中，观众可以感受到强烈的视觉触动和大师们的艺术思想。
总结英国维多利亚时期的文化和艺术代表了一个新时代的兴起，这个时期的艺术家和文人们不再追求纯粹的知识和学问，而是开始更加注重人们的日常生活。
英国艺术在这个时期也经历了巨大的发展和变革，浪漫主义为维多利亚时期的英国艺术留下了浓郁的色彩和深远的影响。
维多利亚时代历史
维多利亚时代历史1.关于19世纪英国维多利亚时期的历史从时间上讲，维多利亚文学时期恰好与维多利亚女王1836年至1901年执政期相吻合，这一时段是英国历史上最光辉灿烂的时段。
维多利亚执行初期，英国面临着飞速的经济发展及严重的社会问题。
1832年改革法案通过后，国家政权从腐朽没落的贵族手中移向新兴的中产阶级工业资本家，不久，大工业革命*** 迭起，各种科技发明与技术创新为国家经济带来新生力量，如火车、蒸汽船、纺织机器、印刷机器等。
英国一度成为"世界工厂"，通过向海外发展市场与剥削殖民地的各种资源积累了大量财富。
19世纪中期英国成为全世界的经济第一强国。
但在这繁荣与财富下掩盖的是工人阶级的贫困与不幸，为了谋生连妇女和儿童都要受雇到艰险肮脏的工厂矿山去卖苦力。
日趋尖锐的阶级矛盾终于引发了1836至1848年著名的英国 *** 运动。
工人阶级团结一致推出《人民 *** 》，要求 *** 保障人权，改善生活与工作环境。
运动席卷了几乎所有城市。
这次运动尽管在1848年衰落下去，但却取得了一定成就，同时也标志着工人阶级的觉醒。
在意识形态方面，维多利亚时代经历了巨大的变革。
科学技术的大发展与各个领域的新发现打破了人们过去坚定的宗教信仰，宗教大厦开始坍塌。
达尔文的《物种起源》（1859〉与《人类的进化》（1871）都是动摇了传统信仰的理论基。
诗人丁尼生在长诗《悼念》中就明确表述了自己对宗教与上帝的怀疑。
另一方面，实用主义大行其道，任何事物都要经过实用的检验方可定其价值，由于物质进一步战胜精神。
《圣经》与《福音书》等宗教经典都被认为是过时的迷信，或干脆也要接受实用主义的检验。
这些观念都使得资本家进一步残酷剥削劳动人民，不再有精神道德上的顾虑。
狄更斯、卡利尔、拉斯金及许许多多有社会责任感的作家们都极力批驳实用拜金主义，尤其是它对文化道德的贬低及对人类情感的漠然。
维多利亚文学作为一个时代的产物，自然带有宏大与多样性的特点。
维多利亚时代的小说
维多利亚时代的英国小说以现实主义为特征。
作为整个欧洲现实主义文艺思潮的一部分维多利亚时代的现实主义小说表现的是普世意义上的生活经验。
道德和常理这些被浪漫主义时代遗弃多年的主题，又回到了文学主流中来。
此时期文学，真实地反映了时代的现实与精神，其中体现出的高度的活力，脚踏实地的精神，善意的幽默与无羁无绊的丰富联想都是空前的。
特别的是艾米莉’勃朗特的《呼啸山庄》，是那个时代的变徵之音。
《呼啸山庄》是一部有丰富象征意义的小说，在艺术手法上，结合了现实主义，浪漫主义，象征主义的边县手法。
一方面通过曲折生动的故事情节，典型的任务形象塑造，表象了英国乡村庄园的日常生活，爱情婚姻，反映19世纪特殊的历背景下，远离都市的庄园生活所受到的外来影响。
同时，小说通过一系列的象征手法，曲折地表达了一种隐蔽的“反家庭”倾向，如画眉山庄的排外与封闭，呼啸山庄的混乱无序。
另一方面，小说采用了大量的象征手法，梦境的运用，超自然力的表现等等。
在小说中，对大自然的描绘占有重要地位，作者通过人物的性格特征，人内心的风暴与大自然的风暴对应描写，表现了人与自然的密切联系。
小说中对于自然充满浪漫主义的激情描写，传达了鲜明的地方色彩。
寂寞的沼泽峡谷，荒凉的山顶上，被风雨摧残的荒野，寒冷的空气，坚硬的土地，形象地传达了苍凉荒凉所特有的那种惊心动魄的狂野。
在小说中，大自然作为男女主人公逃避家庭带来的痛苦的避难所，与家庭封闭，压抑的空间形成了鲜明的对照。
读完了艾米莉·勃朗特的呼啸山庄，有一种难以言表的复杂感受，或许出自于对艾米莉的深佩、或许也就是如同小说本身的主题，思想和艺术结构一般多元而耐人寻味，由此的一些感慨。
应该是在大约1847年左右，至今家喻户晓，世界文坛著名的勃朗特三姐妹中，年长的夏洛蒂·勃朗特和二姐艾米莉·勃朗特同时推出了各自不同寻常的小说。
当时谁也没有想到，亲姐妹的杰作问世之后，命运却大相径庭。
《简·爱》立刻受到热情地欢呼，是作者在一夜间留名于发展迅速的英国文坛，而《呼啸山庄》一开始就遭到评论界猛烈谴责。
英国文学史维多利亚时期文学背景及特点概要
Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603) and Queen Victoria (1819-1901).
• The English people were proud of two queens in their history: Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603) and Queen Victoria (1819-1901). There are similarities between the two queens. First, both queens were on the throne for a long period of time, Queen Elizabeth being on the throne for over forty years (1558-1603) and Queen Victoria more than 60 years (1837-1901).
accession in 1837 and her death in 1901. She ruled for 63 years, the longest in English history. The period has been
generally regarded as one of the most glorious in the English history.
The Victorian Age
(1832-1902)
Objectives
1. To have the basic knowledge about the brief history of the Victorian Period. 2. To know something about the critical realist 3. To be familiar with Charles Dickens’ writing styles and major contribution to English literature.
英国文学史维多利亚时期文学背景及特点
• Secondly, during their long reigns England developed rapidly both politically and economically. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, capitalism first took its shape, and the small island country defeated the strong naval power Spain in 1588. During the long reign of Queen Victoria, England grew the workshop of the world as well as its financial and political center.
• With the introduction of the steam engine, it was possible for the capitalists to hire unskilled workers, such as women and children. Many skilled workers were unemployed, and what made the situations worse was the enforcement of the Corn Laws, which forbade importing any grain from foreign countries when the price of wheat dropped to a certain price; this measure kept wheat at a high price in the interests of the landed class. In 1845 serious crop failures in England and the potato blight in Ireland kept the price of bread still higher.
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• It can be divided into 2 periods:
– - Early Victoria Period （1832-1868）
– - Late Victoria Period （1869-1902）
3. To be familiar with Charles Dickens’ writing styles and major contribution to English literature.
Historical Background
Victoria age:
-- began with the passage of the Reform Bill in 1832 and closed at the end of the Boer War in 1902.
一 Political
• 1 Reform • 2 Chartist Movement (1838-48)
The Progress of Reform
• ① great changges in administration • leadership/ financial policy
the first fourteen years were filled with unrest, alarm and misery, and they contrasted with the growing prosperity and general good feeling of the succeeding twenty-two years when England, having committed herself to industrialism and free trade, because for a theme 'the workshop of the world'
• Thirdly, during their reigns, literature flourished. In the age of Queen Elizabeth drama flourished and with it there was the greatest dramatist William Shakespeare. whereas in the age of Queen Victoria, novel flourished and with it a galaxy of brilliant novelists appeared on the literary scene.
The Victorian age can be roughly divided into three periods
• the early period 1832-1854, the middle period 1855-1879, a period of economic prosperity and religious controversy;
• Secondly, during their long reigns England developed rapidly both politically and economically. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, capitalism first took its shape, and the small island country defeated the strong naval power Spain in 1588. During the long reign of Queen Victoria, England grew the workshop of the world as well as its financial and political center.
• Victoria ；
• the queen Victoria’s
accession in 1837 and her death in 1901. She ruled for 63 years, the longest in English
history. The period has been generally regarded as one of the most glorious in the English history.
Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603) and Queen Victoria (1819-1901).
• The English people were proud of two queens in their history: Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603) and Queen Victoria (1819-1901). There are similarities between the two queens. First, both queens were on the throne for a long period of time, Queen Elizabeth being on the throne for over forty years (1558-1603) and Queen Victoria more than 60 years (1837-1901).
The Victorian Age
(1832-1902)
Objectives
1. To have the basic knowledge about the brief history of the Victorian Period.
2. To know something about the critical realist