经济类外文文献
国际贸易 经济 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式
Trade liberalization and patterns of strategicadjustment in the US textiles and clothing industryBelay SeyoumU.S.A.International Business Review，Issue 16 ,2007Belay SeyoumNova Southeastern University, 3301 College Avenue, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA Received 2 December 2005; received in revised form 17 April 2006, 11 October 2006, 23 November 2006; accepted13 December 2006The overall environment facing the US TC industry will be one of rapidly changing market conditions and technological innovation. With the phase out of quotas and growing number of trade agreements, the US TC industry is being exposed to intense competition in export and domestic markets. This is likely to lead domestic industries/labor to demand intervention by national governments to mitigate the adverse impact of trade liberalization (Standbury & Vertinksy, 2004).In spite of the substantial job losses, the US TC industry remains technologically advanced partly due to increased productivity resulting from advances in technology and design capabilities. Textile production is capital intensive and modern technology is essential to meet the increasing for high-quality products. Over the last few years, US textiles and apparel firms have substantially increased their investment to maintain modern manufacturing facilities as well as improve production and marketing capabilities in order to maximize their inherent advantages to market proximity. In apparel, low skill production jobs have moved to low-cost locations offshore while the more skilled ones have been retained. To successfully adapt to the new environment, US TC industries need to capitalize on their sources of competitive advantage. They need to develop a more flexible operational arrangement, meet high standards in product innovation and generally develop a more change-seeking business culture (Kilduff, 2005).An important survival tool for US TC firms is to expand their potential market by offering new product designs and product categories. Manufacturers must try to bring a steady stream of products to market that are in line with the taste, preferences of theconsumer. They can also expand their market potential by offering new product categories. Two of the fastest growing apparel segments in the US, for example, have been the women’s plus and men’s big and tall segments (Driscoll, 2004). Plus-size apparel marketing was estimated at $47 billion in 2005 accounting for 20% of total apparel market. It is important to identify the firm’s target customers and assess whether the firm is successfully addressing their needs.US TC firms should target a narrow segment of the market that provides the best opportunity for success. In textiles, the focus should be on a few specialized segments such as carpets, nonwovens and technical textiles. Similarly, apparel producers should increase their focus on core products, reduce vertical integration to shed overhead costs, and establish alliances with other firms to consolidate resources and increase market share.Finally, in view of rising incomes and high growth rates in many developing countries such as China, Brazil, and India, there are potential export market opportunities for US textile and apparel products. US export interests may be served by seeking improved access to the retail distribution systems of developing countries. US textile firms should also be able to use Mexico to export to the European Union and other countries, taking advantage of the Mexico-EU trade agreement. Since the conclusion of NAFTA, a number of Asian and European firms have produced certain products in Mexico in order to export to the US market.This paper suggests a demand pull model as a basis for developing a network structure in the clothing industry. In a demand pull model, consumer demand is the driver of sales unlike the supply push model whereby the manufacturer pushes goods to the retailer regardless of consumer demand.Retail companies have become powerful due to their sufficient capital and marketing expertise to build loyalty among consumers. They are the lead firm in view of their central role in the organizational network. The lead clothing retailer integrates industrial capabilities such as sourcing of textiles, design, product branding and its relations with consumers enables it to keep abreast of fashion consumption trends.The lead firm conveys its requirements to these changing trends (changes in style, material requirements) to its suppliers or subcontractors (Table 7). It also provides assistance with the purchasing of capital equipment and technology necessary to produce apparel in accordance with market demand. The fragmented webs of suppliers and subcontractors are bound together through information technology, online data sharing, joint product development, and collaborative forecasting, planning and replenishment activities. Retailers will hold less inventory as shipments become smaller and more frequent since point of sale data is directly transmitted to the manufacturer/supplier who will produce and ship garments as it is needed. This model shows the role of the retailer as an intermediary integrating the functions of design, textile sourcing, branding and as facilitator of apparel production through a web of suppliers/subcontractors. Such restructuring through technological improvements and information technology is one means of succeeding in an increasingly competitive environment. The horizontally structured, mass production methods no longer ensure future competitiveness.The lion’s share of the benefits from quota elimination is expec ted to accrue to China. Its low labor cost, high productivity, range and flexibility of services as well as efficient supplier networks will make China the supplier of choice. About 87% of apparelexecutives that participated in a cotton sourcing summit in Miami in February 2004, agreed that China will soon account for 50–90% of all apparel sold in the US market (National Labor Committee, 2004). This means rationalization of production and a massive consolidation of vendors. Other winners are likely to include India and Pakistan in narrow segments of the TC industry. The elimination of quotas is also likely to lead to lower prices for consumers in view of the absence of quota costs which is often a significant part of the cost of TC sold in the US market. Well-known brands may still hold market value since they are not subject to retail price deflation. It is important for TC firms to evaluate their internal capabilities such as sourcing, manufacturing, logistics, transportation etc. in order to develop an action plan for the post-quota world.Exporters from Latin America, Africa and the Caribbean are likely to lose market share to China since they largely compete on price (not quality) and lack the capability to produce high value added products. Even with the introduction of safeguards on a range of products that are of export interest to these countries, their US market share has declined since the phase out of quotas. With the complete removal of quotas in 2008, it is difficult for these countries to compete on price. Since the US government lifted quotas in 2002 on 29 categories, for example, China’s market share (in these categories) jumped from just 9% (2002) to 65% (2003) while prices paid by US retailers (for apparel from China) dropped by 48% (National Labor Committee, 2004). In cotton dressing gowns (quotas removed) China’s share in 2003 jumped from 25% to 39% while that of Caribbean countries fell from 13% to a mere 3%. In the first 12 months after the phase out of quotas, China’s market share in apparel rose by 59% in value while that of many Central and South American countries showed a sharp decline.What are the implications for TC firms in countries that are vulnerable to competition from China? First, they should capitalize on their proximity to the US market. Their ability to offer lower transport cost, lower lead times as well as duty free entry to the US market may attract the fashion-oriented segment of the US industry. This will depend on access to good local transport infrastructure to get goods to market as well as advanced telecommunications systems to link suppliers and customers. Local firms and governments need to collaborate in creating a climate which is conducive to business and to develop infrastructure to attract and retain TC industries that are so vital in generating exports and employment.Secondly, low wages do not necessarily provide a comparative advantage with respect to China. Firms should develop new capabilities in areas in which China does not have a comparative advantage (yarn, and silk non-apparel). This requires, inter alia, investment in modern production methods and development of competitive sources of local raw materials. Even in product areas in which China is expanding its exports, developing country suppliers that enhance their skills, technology, supply chains and marketing capabilities (through joint ventures, licensing arrangements) faster than China can still maintain their shares to the US market.Thirdly, an important strategic consideration that limits the competitive impact of China is the need on the part of multinationals to diversify their risk portfolios. US manufacturers and retailers are likely to adopt a diversified risk adjusted sourcing strategy that balances cost, speed to market as well as political and economic stability. They may not be prepared to rely on China for critical inputs beyond a certain threshold of risk. Furthermore, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean could be attractive options for US companies in some fashion sensitive segments of the industry where quick response or fast turnaround is important.Finally, existing US rules of origin requirements to qualify for free access to the US market have had unintended consequences. One of the requirements is that they have to use US yarn and fabric. This has had the effect of making their exports less competitive. The US may have to modify its rules of origin to allow developing countries to import from Asia or other competitive sources without losing their preferential status.美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式贝蕾·塞尤姆美国国际商务评论，第16期,2007年贝蕾·塞尤姆诺娃东南大学，学院大道3301，劳德代尔堡，佛罗里达33314，美国2005年12月2日收到稿件；分别于2006年4月17日、2006年10月11日和2006年11月23日收到修改稿件；2006年12月13日正式录用美国纺织品和服装行业面临的是一个市场条件快速变化、科技不断创新的环境。
毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文
金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R．SemenovDepartment of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen（荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院）这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。
一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。
金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。
然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。
这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。
很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。
因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。
【经济类文献翻译】国际商务谈判
外文文献翻译International Business NegotiationsPervez Ghauri & Jean-Claude UsunierWhen two people communicate, they rarely talk about precisely the same subject, for effective meaning is flavored by each person’s own cognitive world and cultural conditioning. Negotiation is the process by which at least two parties try to reach an agreement on matters of mutual interest. The negotiation process proceeds as an interplay of perception, information processing, and reaction, all of which turn on images of reality (accurate or not), on implicit assumptions regarding the issue being negotiated, and on an underlying matrix of conventional wisdom, beliefs, and social expectations. Negotiations involve two dimensions: a matter of substance and the process. The latter is rarely a matter of relevance when negotiations are conducted within the same cultural setting. Only when dealing with someone from another country with a different cultural background does process usually become a critical barrier to substance; in such settings process first needs to be established before substantive negotiations can commence. This becomes more apparent when the negotiation process is international, when cultural differences must be bridged.When negotiating internationally, this translates into anticipating culturally related ideas that are most likely to be understood by a person of a given culture. Discussions are frequently impeded because the two sides seem to be pursuing different paths of logic; in any cross cultural context, the potential for misunderstanding and talking past each other is great. Negotiating internationally almost certainly means having to cope with new and inconsistent information, usually accompanied by new behavior, social environments, and even sights and smells. The greater the cultural differences, the more likely barriers to communication and misunderstandings become. When one takes the seemingly simple process of negotiations into a cross-cultural context, it becomes even more complex and complications tend to grow exponentially. It is naive indeed to venture into international negotiation with the belief that “after all, people are pretty much alike everywhere and behave much as we do.” Even if they wear the same clothes you do, speak English as well as (or even better than) you, and prefer many of the comforts and attributes of American life (food, hotels, sports), it would be foolish to view amember of another culture as a brother in spirit. That negotiation style you use so effectively at home can be ineffective and inappropriate when dealing with people from another cultural background; in fact its use can often result in more harm than gain. Heightened sensitivity, more attention to detail, and perhaps even changes in basic behavioral patterns are required when working in another culture.Members of one culture may focus on different aspects of an agreement (e.g., legal, financial) than may members of another culture (personal, relationships). The implementation of a business agreement may be stressed in one culture, while the range and prevention of practical problems may be emphasized in another culture. In some cultures, the attention of people is directed more toward the specific details of the agreement (documenting the agreement), while other cultures may focus on how the promises can be kept (process and implementation). Americans negotiate a contract; the Japanese negotiate a personal relationship. Culture forces people to view and value differently the many social interactions inherent in fashioning any agreement. Negotiations can easily break down because of a lack of understanding of the cultural component of the negotiation process. Negotiators who take the time to understand the approach that the other parties are likely to use and to adapt their own styles to that one are likely to be more effective negotiators.American and Russian people are not similar; their ethical attitudes do not coincide: they evaluate behavior differently. What an American may consider normative, positive behavior (negotiating and reaching a compromise with an enemy), a Russian perceives as showing cowardice, weakness, and unworthiness; the word “deal”has a strong negative connotation, even today in contemporary Russia. Similarly, for Russians, compromise has negative connotation; principles are supposed to be inviolable and compromise is a matter of integrity (The Russians are not alone here: a Mexican will not compromise as a matter of honor, dignity, and integrity; likewise, an Arab fears loss of manliness if he compromises.) A negotiation is treated as a whole without concessions. At the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) talks, the Americans thought they had an agreement (meaning conclusive commitment), while the Russians said it was an understanding (meaning an expression of mutual viewpoint or attitude). When the Americans thought they had an understanding, the Russians said it was a procedural matter, meaning they had agreed to a process for conducting the negotiation. Different cultural systems can produce divergent negotiating styles--styles shaped by each nation’s culture, geography, history, and political system. Unless you see the world through the other’s eyes (nomatter how similar they appear to you), you may not be seeing or hearing the same. No one can usually avoid bringing along his or her own cultural assumptions, images, and prejudices or other attitudinal baggage into any negotiating situation. The way one succeeds in cross cultural negotiations is by fully understanding others, using that understanding to one’s own advantage to realize what each party wants from the negotiations, and to turn the negotiations into a win-win situation for both sides. A few potential problems often encountered during a cross-cultural negotiation include ( Frank, 1992):Insufficient understanding of different ways of thinking.Insufficient attention to the necessity to save face.Insufficient knowledge of the host country--including history, culture, government, status of business, image of foreigners.Insufficient recognition of political or other criteria.Insufficient recognition of the decision-making process.Insufficient understanding of the role of personal relations and personalities.Insufficient allocation of time for negotiations.Over two-thirds of U.S.-Japanese negotiation efforts fail even though both sides want to reach a successful business agreement (The U.S. Department of Commerce is even more pessimistic; it estimates that for every successful American negotiation with the Japanese, there are twenty-five failures.) In fact, these numbers hold true for most cross-cultural meetings. Often barriers to a successful agreement are of a cultural nature rather than of an economical or legal nature. Since each side perceives the other from its own ethnocentric background and experience, often neither side fully comprehends why the negotiations failed. It is precisely this lack of knowledge concerning the culture and the “alien” and “unnatural” expectations of the other side that hinders effective negotiation with those from another culture.In cross-cultural negotiations, many of the rules taught and used domestically may not apply--especially when they may not be culturally acceptable to the other party. For most Western negotiators this includes the concepts of give and take, of bargaining, and even of compromise. The stereotypical, common Western ideal of a persuasive communicator--highly skilled in debate, able to overcome objections with verbal flair, an energetic extrovert--may be regarded by members of other cultures as unnecessarily aggressive, superficial, insincere, even vulgar and repressive. To other Americans, the valued American traits of directness and frankness show evidence of good intentions and personal convictions. To an American it is complimentary to becalled straightforward and aggressive. This is not necessarily so, however, for members of other cultures. To describe a person as “aggressive”is a derogatory characterization to a British citizen. To the Japanese, those very same traits indicate lack of confidence in one’s convictions and insincerity. Instead, terms such as thoughtful, cooperative, considerate, and respectful instill positives in the Japanese and many Asian cultures.Domestically, the study of negotiation tends to encompass business relationships between parties, tactics, bargaining strategies, contingency positions, and so on. However, in a cross-cultural context, besides the usual rules of negotiation, one has to be wary of fine nuances in relationships and practices and how they are perceived and executed by members of the other culture. The two business negotiators are separated from each other not only by physical features, a totally different language, and business etiquette, but also by a different way to perceive the world, to define business goals, to express thinking and feeling, to show or hide motivation and interests. From the other party’s perspective, for example, to some cultures Americans may appear aggressive and rude, while to others, those very same Americans appear calm and uninterested.1 The Art of NegotiationsThe word “negotiations”stems from the Roman word negotiari meaning “to carry on business” and is derived from the Latin root words neg (not) and otium (ease or leisure). Obviously it was as true for the ancient Romans as it is for most businesspersons of today that negotiations and business involves hard work. A modern definition of negotiation is two or more parties with common (and conflicting) interests who enter into a process of interaction with the goal of reaching an agreement (preferably of mutual benefit). John Kenneth Galbraith said “Sex apart, negotiation is the most common and problematic involvement of one person with another, and the two activities are not unrelated.” Negotiations are a decision-making process that provides opportunities for the parties to exchange commitments or promises through which they will resolve their disagreements and reach a settlement.A negotiation is two or more parties striving to agree when their objectives do not coincide.Negotiation consists of two distinct processes: creating value and claiming value. Creating value is a cooperative process whereby the parties in the negotiation seek to realize the full potential benefit of the relationship. Claiming value is essentially a competitive process. The key to creating value is finding interests that the parties havein common or that complement each other, then reconciling and expanding upon these interests to create a win-win situation. Parties at the negotiating table are interdependent. Their goals are locked together. A seller cannot exist without a buyer. The purpose of a negotiation is a joint decision-making process through which the parties create a mutually acceptable settlement. The objective is to pursue a win-win situation for both parties.Negotiations take place within the context of the four Cs: common interest, conflicting interests, compromise, and criteria (Moran and Stripp, 1991). Common interest considers the fact that each party in the negotiation shares, has, or wants something that the other party has or does. Without a common goal, there would be no need for negotiation. Conflict occurs when people have separate but conflicting interests. Areas of conflicting interests could include payment, distribution, profits, contractual responsibilities, and quality. Compromise involves resolving areas of disagreement. Although a win-win negotiated settlement would be best for both parties, the compromises that are negotiated may not produce the result. The criteria include the conditions under which the negotiations take place. The negotiation process has few rules of procedure. Rules of procedure are as much a product of negotiation as the issues. Over time, the four Cs change and the information, know-how, and alternatives available to the negotiating international company and the host country also change, resulting in a fresh interpretation of the four Cs, the environment, and the perspective. In essence, negotiation takes place within the context of the political, economic, social, and cultural systems of a country. The theory of the negotiation process includes the following dimensions: (1) bargainer characteristics, (2) situational constraints, (3) the process of bargaining, and (4) negotiation outcomes. This theory is based on actors who share certain values and beliefs based on their culture. These actors function in business and economic situations that also have cultural influences, and they act in certain culturally inscribed ways. We bargain when:1. A conflict of interest exists between two or more parties; that is, what is, whatone wants is not necessarily what the other one wants.2. A fixed or set of rules or procedures for resolving the conflict does not exist,or the parties prefer to work outside of a set of rules to invent their own solution to the conflict.3. The parties, at least for the moment, prefer to search for agreement rather thanto fight openly, to have one side capitulate, to permanently break off contact, or to take their dispute to a higher authority to resolve it.In summary, negotiations primarily consists of five aspects: (1) goals: motivating the parties to enter; (2) the process of negotiating that involves communications and actions; (3) outcomes; (4) preexisting background factors of cultural traditions and relations; and (5) specific situational conditions under which the negotiation is conducted.2 VerbalLanguage is highly important. When people from different cultures communicate, culture-specific factors affect how they encode and decode their messages. Negotiators should check understanding periodically, move slowly, use questions liberally, and avoid slang and idioms. Even the discussion of negotiation, compromise, and agreement has different meanings to different cultures. Both the American and Korean meanings for the word “corruption”are negative; however in the United States, the word connotes being morally wrong while for the Koreans it implies being socially unfortunate. The Mexican will not compromise as a matter of honor, dignity, and integrity. The Arab fears loss of manliness if he compromises. In Russia, compromise has a negative connotation; principles are supposed to be inviolable and compromise is a matter of integrity. For Russians, a negotiation is treated as a whole without concessions.In the American culture, those who refuse to bargain are viewed as cold, secretive, and not really serious about conducting business. The Dutch are not hagglers; you should make your offer fairly close to your true asking price; if you start making large concessions you will lose their confidence. The Swedes are methodical, detailed individuals who are slow to change positions. Bargaining is not highly valued in Swedish culture; those who bargain, who attempt to negotiate by offering a higher price in order to concede to a lower price, can be viewed as untrustworthy, inefficient, or perhaps out for personal gain at the expense of others.3 Nonverbal Communications in Cross-Cultural NegotiationsNonverbal behavior may be defined as any behavior, intentional or unintentional, beyond the words themselves that can be interpreted by a receiver as having meaning. Nonverbal behaviors could include facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, body movements, posture, physical appearance, space, touch, and time usage. They are all different from culture to culture. Nonverbal behaviors either accompany verbalmessages or are used independently of verbal messages. They may affirm and emphasize or negate and even contradict spoken messages. Nonverbal behaviors are more likely to be used unconsciously and spontaneously because they are habitual and routine behaviors.The wide range of behaviors called nonverbal behavior can be divided into seven categories. Gestures, body movement, facial movement, and eye contact are combined in the kinesic code commonly called body language. Vocalics refers to call vocal activity other than the verbal context itself. Also called paralanguage, vocalics includes tone, volume, and sounds that are not words. Behaviors that involve touching are placed in the haptics code. The use of space is called proxemics, and the use of time is chronemics. Physical appearance includes body shape and size, as well as clothing and jewelry. Finally, artifacts refer to objects that are associated with a person, such as one’s desk, car, or books. It should be emphasized that these codes do not usually function independently or sequentially; rather, they work simultaneously. In addition, nonverbal behavior is always sending messages; we can not communicate without using them, although, at times, the messages may be ambiguous. This wide range of nonverbal behaviors serves various functions in all face-to-face encounters. Most important, emotional messages at the negotiating table are expressed nonverbally by gestures, tone of voice, or facial expressions. The other side’s interpretation of your statement depends on the nonverbal more than what was actually said. Nonverbal communications is significant.From: International Business Negotiations, 2001国际商务谈判伯维茨.高利, 简.科劳德.阿斯尼尔当两个人交流时,他们很少精确地谈论相同的问题,因为实际的意思会受到每个人认知的世界和文化熏陶的影响。
有关金融危机中羊群效应的外文文献综述
有关金融危机中羊群效应的外文文献综述Adam Szyszka在《Behavioral Anatomy of the Financial Crisis》一文中首先交代了2008年金融危机发生的宏观经济背景，其次剖析了人的行为是如何深刻加剧了金融危机。
其中一个重要的行为就是羊群效应。
文中写道：在楼价反弹伴随着股价和大宗商品价格迅速增长的时候，很明显是由于市场参与者的从众行为导致的投机泡沫，羊群行为可能同时发生于理性和非理性投资者中（(Bikhchandani & Sharma,2000;Devenow & Welch, 1996; Hirshleifer & Teoh, 2003)。
对羊群效应的分析构成了行为金融学，因为投资者整体出错才会影响资产价格，单一投资者的投资行为是不会影响市场价格的，如果投资者没有集体行动，并且未在在同一时间犯类似的错误心理，他们的行为会在很大程度上彼此抵消，市场将保持高效率。
在牛市期间，非理性的投资者做出购买决策并不是基于该资产的基本面，而是基于观察别人在该资产早前价格上涨中的行为，从而模仿其进行投资决策。
他们希望资产进一步增值，却忽略了一个事实，即此时的资产价格已经相当的昂贵。
他们的思维动机和行为方式可以描述如下：由于人们的投资，资产价格上涨。
因为别人都买，因此价格会越来越高，利润也就由此产生。
这是典型的跟着增长趋势下赌注，这种机制在文献中被称作反馈交易。
有相当多同样思维的投资者在践行着反馈机制，由于越来越多的新投资者加入，从而导致大量的需求并推高价格的上涨，媒体的宣扬和专家的看涨言论也助长了更多地投资者加入。
Cutler, Poterba, & Summers (1990) and DeLong et al. (1990)描述了非理性投资者的反馈交易模型，此外，DeLong et al. (1990)认为，理性的投资者可以预期反馈交易中存在非理性投资者并且能够故意的破坏价格，换句话说，通过预测非理性投资者的行为，理性的投资者可以提前决定购买一些资产，当非理性的投资者的羊群行为导致资产价值越来越发散时，理性投资者也有足够的时间出售资产获利。
关于经济的外文文献
关于经济的外文文献1."Capital in the Twenty-First Century" by Thomas Piketty（《21世纪的资本》 - 托马斯·皮凯蒂）2."Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything" by Steven D.Levitt and Stephen J.Dubner （《怪诞经济学：一个叛逆经济学家揭示一切的隐藏面》 - 史蒂文·D·列维特和斯蒂芬·J·邓纳）3."The Wealth of Nations" by Adam Smith（《国富论》 - 亚当·斯密）4."Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness" by Richard H.Thaler and Cass R.Sunstein （《推动力：关于健康、财富和幸福的决策改进》 - 理查德·H·塞勒和卡斯·R·桑斯坦）5."Thinking, Fast and Slow" by Daniel Kahneman（《思考，快与慢》 - 丹尼尔·卡尼曼）6."The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time" by Karl Polanyi（《伟大转型：我们时代的政治与经济起源》 - 卡尔·波兰尼）7."The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle" by Joseph A.Schumpeter（《经济发展理论：对利润、资本、信用、利息和商业周期的探究》 - 约瑟夫·A·熊彼特）8."The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time" by Jeffrey D.Sachs（《贫困的终结：我们时代的经济可能性》 - 杰弗里·D·萨克斯）9."Development as Freedom" by Amartya Sen（《自由发展》 - 阿马蒂亚·森）。
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外文文献原文Improve the concept of financial supervision in rural areas Farmers in China's vast population, has some large-scale production of the farmers, but also survival-oriented farmers, huge differences between the financial needs of rural finance intermediation makes complex, together with agriculture itself is the profit low, natural and market risks hig h risk decision to weak agricultural industry characteristics, resulting in the cost of rural finan cial transactions is far higher than the city, also decided to organize the rural financial system in terms of operation or in the market has its own special characteristics. 20 years of financial refor, financial development while the Chinese city made impressive achieveme-nts, but the rural finance is the entire financial system is still the weakest link.Insufficient sup ply of rural finance,competition is not sufficient,farmers and agricultural enterprises in getting loans and other issues is alsovery prominent, backward rural financial system can no longer e ffectively support the development of modern agriculture or the transformation of traditional agriculture and the building of new socialist countryside,which to improve the rural financial supervision new topic.China's rural financial regulatory problems(A) the formation of China's financial regulatory system had "a line three commission " (People's Bank,the Securities Regulatory Commission,Insurance Regulatory Commissio n and the Banking Regulatory Commission) financial regulatory structure.Bank These stringent requirements,different management and diversification of monitoring has its positive role,but it also had some negative effects.First,inefficient supervision,supervis ion of internal consumption of high costs,limited financial industry business development and innovation space.Second,the regulatory agencies,regulatory bodies and the information asym metry between central banks,banking, securities,and insurance mechanisms of coordination b etween regulatory bodies are not rmation between central banks and regulatory ag encies is difficult to share,is difficult to create effective monitoring forc. Basically between th e various regulators in their respective state regulators,regulatory policies and measures to ove rlapping or conflicting phenomena have occurred,unable to cope with China's current rural fin ancial market complexity and diversity and so on.Third,financial institutions have liquidity ris k or out of the market and so on,may be excessive because the central bank assistance,financial institutions and financial institutions led to the person in charge "capacity risk" and "moral hazard",or for financial institutions regulatory arbitrage possibilities;addition,since the lack of recourse,may adversely affect the financial stability.(B) rural financial ecological environment is not in-depthThe current financial environment in rural county building still remains in the letter the use rvillage,township,community development credit level, "government-led,human-propelled,departmental interaction" and create a mechanism for financial ecological environm ent in rural areas lack.Local governments and authorities the importance of financial knowled ge of the ecological environment is not deep,implementation and functions of individual local protectionism and heavy,there is interference with the financial sector credit and other daily b usiness situation.Rural credit system lag,lack of bad credit punishment mechanism, rural busi nesses and residents in the overall credit awareness is not high,rural finance development and expansion of social services and social protection of the environment has not yet formed. (C) China's existing legal system of financial supervision and a number of shortcomings, can not guarantee that financial regulation is reasonable, effective, standardized implem entation.First,regulatory lag,supporting regulations are incomplete,the content is too rough,too simpl e,the banking,securities and insurance supervision laws and regulations more old,a general lac k of quantitative science.Supervisory regulations and standards, regulatory methods and techn ical means not meet regulatory requirements in the market. Staff in the actual implementation, not easy to grasp the scale, may of operation. Second, the Chinese regulators and the regulate d objects exist some interest, and the existing regulations, lack of supervision and regulatory enforcement are to ensure that financial regulation can not be just and reasonable. Finally, Chi na's financial supervision is still difficult to shake off the inertia of the executive-style regulatory impact.(D) of the Rural Financing drifting outside the existing financial regulatoryAccording to IFAD study, Chinese farmers from the informal financial institutions, loans fr om official credit institutions about 4 times. For farmers, the importance of informal financial markets over the formal financial market. China's mainly rural folk form of finance rural credi t cooperatives, Cooperation, private lending, private banks, private funds, microfinance, etc., of which only rural credit cooperatives and microfinance in China's financial supervision under the rest of the financial forms the lack of appropriate supervision. The general lack of rural financial organizations of civil norms, there is a big risk, China's existing laws and regulations on private financial institutions in rural areas is one of "isolation" policy, making a lot of mon ey from the dark into the rural financial market and greater regulation of financial difficulty, o n rural financial security is a potential threat.learn from the developed countries(A) improve coordination of rural finance mechanisms for external supervision1. The United States "multiple composite" of the coordination mechanism. U.S. financial c ooperation system in rural areas by the federal mid-term credit banks, cooperative banks, federal land banks and federal land bank system compo sed of three Cooperatives, the Farm Credit Administration (NCUA) leadership, and with the Council under the leadership of the private banks in rural commercial credit, National Rural C redit Bank policy of the United States shared the task of rural financial intermediation. The or ganizational model is a typical multi-mode hybrid system, three systems have an independent management system, with clear term s of reference. To ensure the healthy development of rural financial institutions, commercial b anks in the United States adopted a different regulatory models, specifically setting up a relati vely sound financial regulatory system in rural areas, including regulators, industry self-regulation associations, financial intermediation and mutual insurance group clearing center, t he four kind of independent agencies and their subsidiary bodies, the functions of different, b ut share the same objectives as a common rural cooperative financial institutions to serve the r egulatory system.2. Germany's "comprehensive regulatory model" of coordination mechanisms. Low concen tration of the German banking system, in the very important parts of the bank, the representati ve of the financial mixed operation. Commonwealth Bank and the Federal Financial Supervis ory Authority the power to regulate the two main regulators of the banking sector there is a cl ear division of labor, but also close cooperation. Commonwealth Bank in Germany, nine state s have branch offices, using their own network advantages to the Federal Financial Supervisor y Authority is responsible for daily transmission of data banks focus for the Federal Financial Authority to provide a better basis for the exercise of regulatory functions, but it is not directl y involved in the regulation work, nor has the administrative punishment. The Federal Financial Supervisory Authority did not have branches in the states, it is difficult to carry out regular supervision, need to cooperate with the Commonwealth Bank to perform its regulatory functi ons. Germany's main central banks and industry rely on the federal audit of the regulatory syst em and risk prevention and protection system to ensure rural finance in the specification on the basis of continuous development.3. Japan's "complement each other-type" coordination mechanism. In Japan, the dual supervision of the implementation of rural f inance: first, the Office of Government financial regulation, supervision on the implementatio n of various financial institutions, to achieve the overall risk control; Second, national and loc al Forestry and Fisheries Department with the Office of Financial Regulation on the impleme ntation of rural financial institutions supervision, including the Ministry of Agriculture consist s of the branch on Norinchukin supervision, Forestry and Fisheries set up in six major areas of agricultural area in County Council on joint supervision of the letter, and all, Road House, Co unty Farmer of the Ministry of Agriculture within its jurisdiction Association for Cooperative Finance Supervision Department(B) the establishment of deposit insurance and emergency rescue system to form a three-tier safety netDeveloped financial system generally established strict internal management system, depos it insurance system and the system of three emergency safety net. As a second-class safety net of deposit insurance system has been very satisfactory. The federal governme nt on rural finance unified compulsory deposit insurance, the specific business operation by th e Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation's SavingsAssociation Insurance Fund, and to assume supervision of the insured financial institutions; the German government on the implementati on of the voluntary deposit of credit co-insurance, not mandatory insurance, its insurance sector is the industry organization; Japan's c redit co-national compulsory deposit insurance, the insurance agency is a joint venture between Gover nment and the people, by the Government, Norinchukin Bank, Japan Bank, Credit Union and a coalition of agricultural water fishery credit cooperatives Industry Insurance Agency. As a t hird-class safety net for emergency rescue system, specific measures for implementation in different countries, bank deposits for the brink of bankruptcy, in some countries directly by the centr al bank to offer special low-interest loans (such as the U.S. and Italy), in some countries by the bank regulatory authorities and other Commercial Bank for the establishment of special institutions to finance the rescue (such as France and Belgium), a number of countries came forward by the deposit insurance a gency to provide funds (such as Japan), more by one or a few large banks in support of officia l support.(C) rural finance within the industry associations to play a regulatory role1. U.S. Rural Cooperative Finance Association of self-management. In the United States, various credit associations or co-finance up to several dozen, including a long history, nationally renowned for the National As sociation of Credit (CUNA), a specialized credit services for the Federal Register Association (NAFCU), there are also special school credit for community service credit unions and associ ations (CCUC), etc.. While the states also have their own Credit Union Association. The trade association is one of the major work to develop a code of conduct, self-regulation management.2. German credit cooperation and other cooperative system of industry self-regulation of mutual integration. German cooperation in the National Credit Union (BVR) is a cooperative bank industry self-regulatory organizations, grass-roots local cooperative banks, cooperative banks and district central cooperative banks, as wel l as professional co-finance companies, cooperative credit union is a member. Germany 11 contributions from the various types of cooperatives set up jointly organized a regional cooperative audit association, responsible for annual audit of the specialized agencies of the various types of cooperatives, which are also common types of cooperatives at the district level, the industry watchdog, play s an important industry supervisory role.3. Set supervision and service in one of the Japanese Agricultural Association. Japanese go vernment in 1947 promulgated the "Agricultural Cooperative Law," agricultural association p rovides services for members of cooperative organizations, its not for profit, adhere to the rur al communities and members for the service centers, institutional system based on grass-roots level according to facilitate farmers , established the principle manageable. The main source of funding is to absorb the rural deposits, in principle, limited to serving as a member of t he farmers and agricultural groups. To ensure financial security cooperation, and healthy run, set up a rural credit insurance, temporary transfers of funds mutual aid system and credit coop erative organizations, and government co-funded deposit insurance system, agricultural disaster compensation system and the agricultur al credit guarantee system for the insurance system measures.improve the financial supervision of the concept of rural China(A) improve and perfect the legal system of rural financial regulation, supervision accor ding to lawFinance as the core of the economy, the continued growth of rural finance is more in need o f legal regulation and a sound legal environment, accelerate the development of rural finance l aws, no legal basis to change the situation, has become the strong demand of rural financial d evelopment. Since the reform and opening up, no one for rural finance, rural financial regulati on can serve as a basis for law. To achieve effective supervision, the need for additional profe ssional laws, regulations, and specific regulatory measures, regulations and implementation d etails, so as to achieve from the general administrative supervision to improve the legal syste m, efforts to establish changed the credit system, and ultimately control law.While in strength ening the legal system, adopt effective measures to strengthen the integrity of the whole com munity education and step up publicity to raise awareness of the general financial and legal re sidents, to actively support the work of the national collective finance; education of the popul ation according to lending, and actively with the illegal lending practices fight, really create a sound legal basis, that the law according to the credit environment and legal environment. (B) give full play to grassroots government, professional regulatory function Actively co operate with local governments at all levels and support the financialTo actively coordinate local government and non-basic level target consistency, to avoid the expense of national interests and local interests of t he occurrence. The Chinese government should establish a tax system is different from com mercial banks, a low tax or tax-free policy, by policy banks to provide low-interest or interest-free loans of rural finance, rural finance to increase subsidies and assistance. Those relatively large amount of private credit, shall be approved by local authorities just to strengthen the aud it checks to the legitimate rights and interests protected. China's rural economy, small and dispersed operations, has not been large-scale establishment of agricultural insurance, in case of force majeure, the rural financial syste m will face great risk. Chinese financial institutions in the internal governance structure and ri sk management system has been initially established, the basic external financial regulation in place of the case, should refer to the experience of developed countries, commercial banks in the country to establish a mandatory deposit insurance system and the emergency rescue syste m, the formation of three protection network.(C) strictly rural financial institutions, "access and" to improve the professional standar ds of financial supervisionFinancial regulators should be a good loan companies, postal savings banks, rural credit uni on funds, village banks and other new-type rural financial institutions, market access, ensure that the new-type rural financial institutions in corporate governance, capital adequacy ratio to meet the req uirements. Kind in the country selected the new rural financial institutions, better internal cont rol system, modified to add a representative of management to form the template to help set u p rural financial institutions, covering credit, billing, savings, cash, security and other risk poi nt of internal control system . Establish small rural banks and other financial institutions, guid ance system, the financial regulators to conduct the transition of its guidance, to promote rural financial institutions to a sound system of internal control as soon as possible, improve mana gement, risk control and management mechanisms work well.(D) to play the role of industry self-regulatory associations, to promote the vitality and force the formation of the banking se ctorWorking Committee, the current to China Banking Regulatory Commission and the provin cial government regulatory framework based on an industry self-regulatory organization more. Promoting the Development, promoting and developing self-regulatory functions of trade associations, for building a healthy banking system in China is si gnificant. Association to play a functional role to guide the establishment of liaison mechanis ms and management of daily work, and improving the industry conventions and regulations, r egulators should not control those, which were needed in the work of regulatory bodies, as far as possible by the association responsible for promoting the formation of the energy and banking efforts to achieve self-management and trade association national regulatory authorities to monitor the combination system of regulation.ConclusionIn short, improving financial supervision in terms of its breadth, should be an include gover nment regulation, industry self-regulation, financial institutions, internal control, four levels of social supervision system; its depth, it should be involved in risk prevention, effective access, legal norms, the operation si mple and efficient aspects of a systems engineering. Only by striving to improve the new con cept of financial supervision, the introduction of new methods of financial supervision in orde r to receive financial regulation expected results. Only in this way can be established consiste nt with China's national conditions, but also to adapt to modern requirements of international financial regulatory system in rural China.外文文献译文发展中国农村金融监管的思考农民在中国人口众多,有一些大型生产的农民,但也自给自足的农民,巨大的金融需求之间的差异使农村金融需求很是复杂,连同农业本身是利润低、自然和市场风险高的风险决策农业产业特性,软弱的农村金融交易的成本远高于城市,也决定组织农村金融体系的运行或市场有其自身的特点。
文化遗产保护和旅游经济外文文献翻译2019中英文
文化遗产保护和旅游经济外文文献翻译中英文2019英文The Economy of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and ConservationPatin Valery1. The economy of cultural heritage, a recent theoretical approachAwareness of the economic role of cultural heritage is relatively recent. It principally stems from the rapid growth of tourism (roughly 1 billion international tourists worldwide in 2010), which is irrigating this sector intensely. This new approach entails reviewing the traditional status of cultural heritage, which until recently was partly not subject to the usual rules of competition-based economy. Cultural heritage is now considered as a form of enterprise and, especially, is solicited to become a key instrument to increase local development. Beyond direct site revenue (ticketing and ancillary revenue), expenditure on nearby facilities and services provides the most resources. These resources encompass indirect expenditure (purchases to companies working directly with the sites) and induced expenditure (in facilities near the sites, such as restaurants, shops and hotels, on services, and real-estate acquisitions).2. Financing and managing cultural heritage2.1 The new trendsThe relative economic autonomy that cultural heritage recently acquired, paired with broader megatrends (the economic downturn and globalization), has stretched the financial constraints that weighed on cultural assets. The institutions - the largest ones, principally - have embarked on a wide variety of initiatives to generate new resources. Engineering and franchises are two examples. The Louvre Museum, Guggenheim Foundation and Beau Bourg Centre are supporting the creation of new museums that will use their names in exchange for substantial compensation. Others, which are not creating new institutions, are letting outworks of art on long-term leases, either in existing museums (e.g., leases of works of art from the Louvre Museum to the Atlanta Museum, USA) or in newly-built museumsThe obvious increase in admission prices,in particular for temporary exhibitions (which sidestep the rule of free admission for people under 18 in France) is another clear sign. The larger business areas in cultural sites are also driving this movement. Large-scale works in Europe's leading museums (the Louvre, British Museum and Prado) led to noticeable extensions in shop, café and restaurant areas. Managing derived rights (image) more efficiently via international photo banks (Corbis) has also opened up new revenue streams. Large-scale temporary exhibitions, which often generate net profits besides encouraging people to visit the permanent collections as well, are now commonplace.We can also see a concurrent and symmetrical trend as regards the financing practices. French legislation is adjusting itself to promote private-sector financing (laws passed in 2003 and 2008) via patronage and associated management conditions. From this perspective. The use of subsidiary revenue earmarked for cultural heritage is developing, belying the principle that bans allocating tax revenue such as taxes on online gambling (poker), based on a model involving levies in several countries, and in the UK in particular (the Lottery Fund). The para-fiscal option that is already being used to acquire and protect natural areas (Departmental Tax for Sensitive Natural Areas) does not yet seem to be making significant inroads as regards cultural-heritage buildings, in spite of a few attempts (proposition to tax luxury hotels). There are efforts to make old monuments more profitable by building hotels and restaurants. The French Centre des Monuments Nationaux is seriously studying this option. The sacrosanct principle of inalienability is starting to splinter. And, if the market-economy rule takes over, it will not hold for long in current conditions.In the Anglo-Saxon world, where most sites are free of charge for the visitors, it is the opposite: private-sector management (trustees and foundations) are clearly the majority and are calling on public-sector institutions to protect their balance increasingly often.Naturally, earmarking cultural heritage as a real option to reinforce local development has kick-started a flurry of efforts to protect and promote the first to support the second. These operations have worked very well in some cases, but failed to deliver the expected results in others. Failures are often due to an overestimation ofthe expected profits or to projects inappropriate to the local reality.2.2 Conflicts of understandingSince economy has burst into the cultural heritage field, misunderstanding between actors from this sector and economic players has get worse. Their respective formations did not generally prepare them for dialoguing. Whereas the cultural heritage actors understand with difficulty the economic aspect of their activity, with its procession of constraints, the economic players do not still understand all the dimensions of the cultural object (historic, emotional, social, identical, etc.), have difficulty in defining clearly its place as "capital", "resource", or "production", and do not know where to classify its preservation, whether in the "investments" or in the "non-productive expenses"...For the first ones, the cultural heritage, priceless by definition, should escape the trivial contingency of the imperatives of profitability and competition. This collective feeling has been disseminated everywhere in France. The notion of "cultural exception" has maybe also intelligently educated it while inviting it to evolve since in fact it makes the cultural heritage actors get into the boxing ring of the competitive economy, while stressing its specificity and affirming the necessity of regulations, a notion we seem today to rediscover everywhere else...For the second ones, it is urgent to improve the econometric tools and the modelling regarding cultural heritage and the returns expected from enhancement and particularly tourist one. In spite of recent but real progress, as we shall see, the contribution of cultural heritage to a certain quality of life for the usual users of a territory, to its image and to the feeling of belonging, is still insufficiently taken into account.Finally, all share a real difficulty: reconcile the long term of cultural heritage preservation, which has to be passed on, thus preserved infinitely, with the short term of its economic operation and expected profits.2.3 The risksIn this situation and given recent developments, which have not always been properly managed, abuses can sometimes occur. This is at least the case in the light ofthe traditional and essential roles of cultural heritage, namely conservation, scientific research, knowledge dissemination and cementing social links. These abuses can take different shapes. Firstly, the quest for financing may lead to questionable schemes.To pay for refurbishing work on the Doge's Palace in Venice, for instance, the city council rented a section of the monument outside walls and a facade of the Bridge of Sighs to Coca-Cola, which set up massive promotional billboards on them.Poor visitor-flow management can damage sites and the visitor experience. Also in Venice, the city council allowed up to 300 metre long cruise ships to dock in Tronchetto port. These ships pour out several thousand visitors a day, and there is now way of channelling them. This city had managed to stem tourist flows by limiting the number of new hotels in it, but has moved into a new cycle now that it has agreed to plans to build new capacity (turning the former mill on Guidecca Island into an upmarket hotel). On specific days, the visitor crowds in certain sites (Versailles, the Louvre) make visiting conditions unacceptable.Seeking short-term profits can also contribute to deteriorating cultural heritage. Renting out works of art for more or less long exhibitions, shooting films in monuments and renting spaces for events (which is occurring increasingly often) can cause damage to certain objects and places, which restorers do not always have time to prevent or repair.Local populations may feel dispossessed of their cultural environment. Foreigners buying up real-estate en-masse can lead to excess. That is the case in Morocco in general and in Marrakech in particular, where national legislation entitles foreigners to buy freeholds. In that same vein, efforts to protect and promote heritage, in particular in character-filled historical town centres and villages, can lead to speculation on real-estate and land. In both cases, the local populations are faced with very fast and destabilizing changes in their economic and cultural environment.One of the risks that have made the most media headlines is the reproduction of sites and historical monuments. This trend is not new and has to be distinguished from the copying of fragile sites, validated by the scientific community and which contributes to their preservation (Lascaux, Egyptian tombs), whereas reproductionsare more and more often aimed to create attractions and thereby generate quick profits in more favorable conditions than in the original sites. The Japanese, for instance, have reproduced part of The Hague (The Netherlands) in Omura Bay, paired with a large-scale property development and marina, all of which did not turn out to be a great success. The Syrians created a fake Palmyra at the entrance to Damascus, which is on the contrary attracting a large number of visitors - who also flock to the restaurants and cafés around it. It is interesting to note that the international law is really uncertain in that field, which often leads to excesses. Abusive restoration for imperatives of comfort, modernization, or quick profits, constitutes another important risk.Management basically geared to generate short-term profit can also in a way drain meaning out of sites and works. In a number of well-known sites, literature is wanting or unavailable, there are too many visitors, the area is heavily built-up and commercial, the staging modest and the visitor circuits constraining. The Sphinx of Giza (Egypt) is one example.2.4. Sustainable management of cultural heritage: methods and techniques2.4.1 Methods of economic assessment of cultural heritageGiven those risks, authorities have set up a number of assessment methods and systems to step in.One of the first measures involves evaluating as accurately as possible the economic reality of the operations and the resulting proceeds involving culturalheritage. "This approach spurs concerted protection and promotion strategies and partnerships. It sharpens professional skills practices and partnerships between the cultural and tourism realms (coproducing data and pooling resources). Furthermore, highlighting the economic and social stakes associated with cultural heritage is a factor that contributes substantially to the acceptability, appropriation and support for local preservation and promotion strategy".In this area, the most traditional assessment methods combine approaches focusing on land and real-estate value, and on the balance sheet. These approaches are strictly limited to the site itself and to its financial dimension. It is therefore a fairlyrestrictive approach. It considerably undervalues fragile cultural assets that required heavy conservation investment, and pays little if any attention to the social and cultural dimensions.Methods stemming from economic theory nevertheless provide an option to assess cultural assets from a development and investment perspective. These methods are used by international backers, for instance. This is in particular the case for Contingent Valuation Methods (CVMs), which take into account nonmonetary value such as image of the site or the destination. It involves measuring the theoretical contribution that populations are willing to make (whether or not they use the site, and whether they live in the city or country or further away) to protect a component of cultural heritage. Other methods, such as relocation costs, costs versus advantages, hedonic costs and multi-criterion appraisals, are also sometimes used.Lastly, assessing indirect proceeds from cultural-heritage management most often involves the 'impacts' method which gauges the number of jobs, cash flows (wages, taxes) and social impacts (awareness of cultural heritage, the people's contribution to safeguarding and promoting cultural assets, the sense of belonging it nurtures, transmission, citizenship, etc.) generated by what visitors do and what they spend, in the area near the site (i.e. spanning transport, accommodation, restaurants, shops and services), as well as public and private investment to protect and promote cultural heritage.2.4.2 Sustainable management techniquesTo preserve cultural heritage, guarantee visitor comfort and spur indirect returns, managers and administrators use the specific techniques that provide the basis of the Site Management Plan recommended by UNESCO (World Heritage Centre).a) Visitor flow managementVisitor flow management contributes to site preservation and management. Several systems are now up and running, including visitor-number forecast analysis on new sites. This technique makes it possible to assess a site's attendance over time, using a direct approach by analysing the territorial catchment, using a comparative approach, or combining both. The results are generally reliable. This assessment zerosin on "peak days" and peak times (visitor-number snapshots) to provide the maximum visitor numbers. Then it is used to assess daily and hourly visitor numbers during the 30, 40 or 50 busiest days of the year (design days). These estimates provide the raw material we need to devise the protection and promotion programme by calibrating facilities and amenities as effectively as possible. Some of the newly-built museums programming has been made on this basis, as in the Louvre Museum in Lens (France).In existing sites, there are also several techniques to support visitor management: group bookings, individual bookings (increasingly often), tariff schedules, longer opening hours, smaller guided-tour groups, quotas (in very fragile sites such as the Villa Borghese Gallery in Roma) and visit paths to deal with shortstay visitors (tourist groups) and long-stay visitors (groups with specialist lecturers and enthusiasts) separately. These strategies rely on the assessment of the site capacity (acceptable number of visitors depending on the site surface) in exterior as well as interior spaces. Then, a minimum surface per visitor is calculated. This surface can go down to 1,50m2 in very popular exhibitions. Such a technique can be difficult to apply in complex sites (archaeological/natural ones) but can often provide useful elements of management.Providing information before visitors reach the site (via the Internet, smartphone applications, visitor guides) also plays a role. Negative marketing (momentarily withdrawing communication) to contribute to limiting the number of visitors in a site at the same time is very rarely used. Lastly, networking sites into package deals such as the Carte Musées Monuments providing access to 70 museums and monuments in and around Paris, and sharing literature and road signs, can contribute to easing pressure on the main highlights. A beautiful example of this flow-management strategy was used in the Alhambra in Granada (Spain), which combines measures to restrict automobile traffic and visitor numbers, requires individual and group booking, limits group visit time slots, and associates the city's companies working with tourists (taxis, restaurants and hotels), entitling them to distribute top-priority visit bookings. The site attending which rose to 2,8 million of annual visits has come down to a little bit more than 2 millions. In terms of capacity, the average surface per visitor whichwas 3,44m2 has been turned into 5m2.b) Preventive conservation associated with tourist numbersAction on this front is still modest and mainly experimental. As it has been already noted, copies (Lascaux, Valley of the Kings) can contribute to the preservation of very fragile sites and monuments. Copying gets a lot of media attention but is still rare since these techniques are difficult, as the different attempts to reproduce the Lascaux cave has showed it. Reproduction of furniture or decoration occurs more often thanks to the two different techniques of copy and casting. When the copy or catering substitutes to the original in situ, it serves to protect the original value. When this is the original which stays in situ, the copy and catering have a cultural memory value, when the original has lost its representative value or has been destroyed (for instance, Roman copies of Greek works of art or the catering preserved in the Musée des Monuments français, such as the statues of the Reims cathedral or the Roman fresco of Saint-Savin sur Gartempe).Regarding tourism and housing, these trends led to successful economic realizations. New tourist resorts are borrowing local architectural and decorative vocabulary (Le Crouesty in Morbihan and Valmorel in Savoy are two French examples). It is also the case of rebuilt buildings inspired by traditional buildings, for instance in Beirut or Tunis (the Hafsia Quarter). This trend combines traditional charm with modern-day comfort and convenience. Cultural heritage becomes a backdrop stripped of some of its meaning but serves a profitable economic purpose. This also applies to urban revamps that involve keeping nothing but façades (façadism).The most common intervention consists in mapping out visit circuits in sites, and indeed in cities (Strasbourg) to provide tourists with an overview of the highlights while avoiding the more fragile spots by providing visitors with free documentation and informative marking. When this option is unfeasible, the classical measures such as closing off areas to visitors, permanent or temporary embedding objects (mosaics, in particular), adding security systems around attractions and indirectly around visitors (barriers, fences), are used. There are also specific measures for site fringes, inparticular as regards automobile traffic and parking, such as moving them further away from the site, blending them into the natural environment, establishing the principle of non co-visibility (facilities and historical sites should not be visible at the same time) and segregating areas (several little parking areas instead of a big one close to the site and too visible). Human risks can stretch beyond tourism-related concerns to urban issues. Here, it is rarely balanced. Site outskirt protection often involves legal measures that are difficult to apply. They often stem from contracts between site managers and owners (Hadrian's Wall in the UK, Cyrene in Libya).c) Integrating local populationsThis approach concurrently stems from sustainable-development ideology and a more efficient strategy to protect and promote cultural heritage. It contributes to preventive conservation. There are two main trends at work here: one to maintain cultural usage and the other to bolster economic activity. In the first case, it is a question of protecting site traditional use, which can range from mere walks to religious or 'magical' practices. In both cases, measures that do not necessarily rank profit cost-efficiency at the top of the list take precedence. It sometimes entails sidestepping fences (Palmyra in Syria, Petra in Jordan, Dougga in Tunisia) to allow people to cross the site to get to their workplace. In Chellah (Rabat) the site is accessible free of charge on Fridays to allow local people to reach natural springs that, according to local tradition, help women to give birth to their first child. Tour operators are also involved in efforts to raise visitor awareness via codes of conduct prescribing adequate behaviour (). Naturally, school trips and attractions for local people can only strengthen the appropriation bond.Integration, however, necessarily also entails supporting local economic development, which can be done in several ways such as training craftsmen, shopkeepers, hotel staff and innkeepers in visitor expectations, supporting exports, distributing micro-credit to small-scale local producers and, if possible, employing on the site the local population (security, guiding, maintenance).3. The example of the World Bank in Mauritania3.1 The World Bank and the Cultural HeritageThe World Bank is an intergovernmental agency of the United Nations Organization. Its mission is to help states to finance actions of development. Since 1975, the Bank has developed a strategy to support projects in the cultural heritage sector to serve as a basis for local growth. It intervened in Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia, Honduras, Russia, Mauritania, China, Peru, Ethiopia. It provides loans, which is the most frequent case, or grants, according to the economic level of countries.3.2 Conditions of intervention of the World BankThe recipient countries also give counterparts to the loans provided by the Bank (direct financing, allocation of staff, fiscal adjustments). This financing is used to rehabilitate or create museums or cultural institutions (such as conservatoire of music), to restore and renew historic centres, to produce cultural events, to strengthen the conditions of protection and preservation of cultural assets, to improve the economic and cultural integration of the local populations.3.3. The case of MauritaniaThe case of Mauritania is particular because the Bank intervention focused partly on the protection/enhancement of World Heritage sites (Caravan cities of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Oulata and Tichitt) and partly on the protection of the libraries and the numerous ancient manuscripts present in the country. These surprising libraries were constituted on the occasion of the pilgrimage in Mecca, but also by exchanges between the inhabitants and the caravanners coming from Mali or from Arabia and Egypt.These libraries are not under common law. They are family's properties and cannot be sold or donated. They traditionally go to the leader of the family owner who keeps watch over them and is answerable for them to the main family's members during annual stocktaking. The most important among them, the library of the Habott family in Chinguetti, includes more than 1 500 manuscripts mainly of the XIXth century -some of them are much more ancient (exegesis of the Koran, astronomy, mathematics and logic, law). Some of these libraries are preserved in boxes by the nomad tribes living in the north and east of the country. The intervention of the Bank took place between 2001 and 2005.A project unit gathering Mauritanian specialists was in charge of the onsite actions conception and management. The Bank regularly sent missions of evaluation to follow their progress. Punctually international institutions also provided a scientific and technical support: UNESCO regarding the operations of preservation and training dedicated to the caravan cities. The financing was assured through a subsidy to the Islamic Republic of Mauritania.The strategy adopted by the Project with the support of the Bank consisted in implementing a series of actions of protection intended to strengthen the heritage knowledge and the associated know-how. Complete building surveys and inventories were made in the world heritage cities. Training courses on the restoration of dry-stone buildings were organized for the young local population. In Oualata, famous city for the inside and outside decorations of houses, an emergency action allowed to train girls in painting these very codified patterns and to preserve this knowledge about to disappear.Concerning manuscripts, the Bank financing was used to make an inventory of the private libraries (more than 600 on a total estimated at 700/750) and to catalog more than 40 000 works (on a total estimated at 50 000). These research works allowed to elaborate a computerized data bank of which the BnF (French National Library) has a copy (Department of manuscripts. Service of Arabic manuscripts). The service of restoration of the BnF assured the training of a group of owners of private libraries. Finally the Bank acquired neutral cardboards to distribute in libraries. But the political situation which became unstable in 2005 did not allow to finalize this initiative. A second project of reprinting the ten more important Mauritanian manuscripts suffered the same fate.This first phase of consolidation was completed by the publishing of travel guides in partnership with the Cultural Service of the Embassy of France in Nouakchott, the organization of trainings intended for the caravan cities innkeepers, the realization of a festival of nomadic musics in Nouackchott and punctual actions of support for the craft sector, in particular for the traditional hairdressers who have an exceptional know-how and were gathered within very dynamic associations of womenentrepreneurs. As in any project of the Bank, an important aspect of the program was dedicated to the institutional and legislative framework intensification.This Bank program certainly allowed to produce information and documents essential to the cultural heritage preservation (surveys, inventories, cataloguing, long-term preservation of know-how) and to the information circulation about the country (publishing of travel guides) without durably modifying the situation of the Mauritanian cultural heritage. The tourist flows, directed first and foremost to the visit of the caravan cities of the North (Oudane, Chinguetti), hiking in Sahara and the natural site of the Banc d'Arguin, registered as a world heritage site, benefited from these interventions, but the degradation of the political situation and the security conditions in this zone compromised the project results. On the other hand, the country limited institutional and economic capacities make it difficult to follow up these operations. Mauritania mainly progresses in this domain at the rate of international supports, while many Mauritanians have the skills required to assure a wider development of the cultural and tourism economy.中文文化遗产保护和旅游经济1.文化遗产旅游经济，一种最新的理论方法对文化遗产的经济作用的认识是相对较新的。
绿色经济外文文献资料
绿色经济外文文献资料以下是关于绿色经济的一些外文文献资料：1. Green Economy - Concept, Principles and Issues Green Economy - Concept, Principles and Issues这篇文章系统地讲解了绿色经济的定义、原则和问题。
绿色经济是指通过减少生态足迹、提高能源和物质资源的效率、支持可持续生产和消费、促进公正和包容性等方式，推动经济发展和社会进步的一种经济模式。
然而，绿色经济面临的挑战包括可持续性标准的缺乏、技术和金融支持的不足、生态失衡问题的存在等。
2. The Green Economy and its Implementation in China The Green Economy and its Implementation in China中国是世界上最大的碳排放国之一，也是追求绿色经济的国家之一。
这篇文章介绍了中国在推动绿色经济方面所做的努力，包括建设低碳城市、发展可再生能源、加强环保法律等。
文章认为，中国面临的绿色经济挑战包括城市化进程的压力、能源结构的不平衡等。
这篇报告介绍了“生态系统与生物多样性经济学”（TEEB）的理念和目标。
TEEB旨在通过评估生态系统和生物多样性的价值，揭示生态系统的贡献和相关的经济收益，为制定政策提供科学依据。
报告认为，绿色经济的成功实施需要政策、科技、市场等方面的支持，同时还需要将大自然的贡献纳入经济计算，并且将全社会变成绿色经济行动者。
4. Sustainable Development and the Green Economy Sustainable Development and the Green Economy本文综述了绿色经济的概念和原则，以及可持续发展的历史和实践。
绿色经济被认为是可持续发展模式的一个重要方面，其关注点包括生态和社会价值、公民参与、技术创新和政策合作等。
石油行业外文文献资料
石油行业外文文献资料石油行业外文文献资料引言石油是目前全球最重要的能源之一，对于世界各国的经济发展起着至关重要的作用。
石油行业的发展受到多种因素的影响，包括市场需求、技术创新、政策法规等。
因此，研究和了解石油行业的外文文献资料对于我们在国内石油行业的发展中具有重要意义。
本文将介绍一些关于石油行业的外文文献资料，希望能对读者有所帮助。
文献资料一：《The Role of Technological Innovation in the Oil Industry》这篇文献探讨了技术创新在石油行业中的作用。
文章指出，石油行业的发展离不开技术创新的推动。
通过引入新技术和工艺，石油行业可以提高生产力、降低成本、改善环境效益。
文章还详细介绍了石油行业在勘探、开采、生产和加工等方面的技术创新，并提出了一些关于技术创新的建议。
文献资料二：《The Impact of Market Demand on the Oil Industry》这篇文献研究了市场需求对石油行业的影响。
文章指出，市场需求是石油行业发展的重要驱动力。
石油行业需要根据市场需求的变化来调整生产规模和产品结构，以适应市场变化。
文章还通过分析历史数据和市场趋势，探讨了市场需求对石油行业的长期和短期影响，并提出了一些关于市场需求预测和管理的建议。
文献资料三：《Policies and Regulations in the Oil Industry: International Comparison》这篇文献比较了石油行业的政策法规在国际上的差异。
文章指出，不同国家的政策法规对于石油行业的发展有着不同的影响。
通过比较国际上的石油行业政策法规案例，文章分析了不同政策法规对石油价格、市场竞争、环境保护等方面的影响，并提出了一些关于石油行业政策法规的建议。
文献资料四：《Emerging Technologies in the Oil Industry》这篇文献介绍了石油行业中的新兴技术。
低碳经济中英文外文文献
本科毕业设计（论文）外文文献(此文档为word格式,下载后您可任意修改编辑!)标题: The Challenge of Changing to a Low-Carbon Economy: A Brief Overview作者: Carrasco, Jorge F出版物名称: Low Carbon Economy卷: 5;期: 1;页: 1-5;页数: 5;出版年份: 2014;出版商: Scientific Research Publishing出版物国家/地区: United StatesISSN: 21587000The Challenge of Changing to a Low-Carbon Economy: A BriefOverviewCarrasco, Jorge FAbstractClimate change alters all sustainable development dimensions for a given nation or region, therefore, decreasing emission of GHG is not only an environmental issue, but it has also implication on the economic, social and political matters. In 2009, the Copenhagen Accord adopted the 2°C global warming increase limit as an international policy, being this threshold the maximum allowable warming to avoid dangerous and irreversible anthropogenic interference in the climate system. The observed monthly average CO^sub 2^ concentrations in the atmosphere crossed the 400 parts per million thresholds, for the first time in April and May 2013. The energy sector is the single largest source of climate changing GHG emissions, and therefore moving from fossil fuel to clean energy production should be a priority challenge for all countries. For that, it is necessary to develop a low carbon economy for confronting the climate change.Keywords：Climate Change; Carbon Dioxide; Low-Carbon Economy; 2°C Target1. OverviewSince the release of the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [1], when the main conclusion was that the climate change is unequivocal; the vast majority of the world reached the consensus that this environmental change is real and it is due to the atmosphere warming as a con- sequence of the increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) of anthropogenic origin. This has recently been confirmed by the Fifth IPCC Report [2]. One of the main conclusions indicates that "human influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, as well as, changes in the global water cycle, in re- ductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise, and in changes in some climate extremes". Also, the re- port reveals that "it is extremely likely (i.e., 95% - 100% probability) that human influence has been the domi- nant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century" [2]. Climate model simulations project further warming and changes in all components of the climate system as emissions of CO2 continue, or even if emis- sions of CO2 are stopped now [2]. Therefore, it is necessary to face and to be prepared for a warmer world than the present one, with an appropriate worldwide plan and/or with integrated and synergetic national programs that globally mitigate the emission of GHG. This mainly implies to end with our dependence on fossil fuels, which is the major source of carbon dioxide(CO2) released into the atmosphere, and to assume that this action is a challenge that should be the main worldwide environmental problem of our time. The CO2 is the most impor- tant anthropogenic GHG contributing ~64% to the radiative forcing of the long-lived GHG, and it is responsible for ~84% of the increment in radiative forcing since 2002 [3]. Climate change alters all sustainable development dimensions for a given nation or region, therefore, de- creasing emission of GHG is not only an environmental issue, but it has also implications on the economic, so- cial and political matters. Since this issue was recognized by the global community, several actions and agree- ments have been taking place in the Conference of the Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Conven- tion on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Among others, in 2009 the Copenhagen Accord endorsed the continuation of the Kyoto Protocol; it recognized that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time and em- phasized the needed for a "strong political will to urgently combat climate change in accordance with the prin- ciple of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities". Also, it was recognized that deep cuts in global emissions are required according to science results [1] [2] and that countries should agree in cooperative way in stopping from rising global and national GHG emissions "as soon as possible". To achieve this, it is necessary to develop a low CO2 emission strategy in order to secure a sustainabledevelopment. Later in the COP at Durban 2011, the governments recognized the need of a new universal, legal agreement to deal with climate change beyond 2020, where all parties will play their part to the best of their ability. Meanwhile, an amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in the COP at Doha 2012 where the parties agreed on an 8-year second commitment period, this in order to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.Also, the Copenhagen Accord adopted the 2°C global warming increase limit [4] as an international policy, being this threshold the maximum allowable warming to avoid dangerous and irreversible anthropogenic inter- ference in the climate, beyond this threshold the risks of significant damage to ecosystems and of non-linear responses are expected to increase rapidly. These actions are now even more urgent after knowing the results of the last Fifth IPCC Report [2]. The International Energy Agency (IEA) [4] also recognized that the energy sector is the single largest source of climate changing GHG emissions, and therefore changing from fossil fuel to clean energy production should be a priority challenge. This means to develop an economic based on a low-emission pathway, in other words, to establish a low carbon economy (LCE) for confronting the climate change. This im- plies a low-fossil-fuel economy, or a decarbonized economy that has a minimal output of GHGemissions into the atmosphere, specifically CO2 as a result of human activity. The IEA [5] recently indicated that even though Governments have decided collectively that the world needs to limit the average global temperature increase to no more than 2°C (as sooner as possible), any resulting global agreement related with this challenge will emerge after 2015 and new legal obligations will most probably begin after 2020. Meanwhile, despite the agreement taken by governments and that many countries are taking new ac- tions, the GHG emission continue increasing and the world target for accomplishing the 2°C is drifting further from the track that it needed to follow [5]. In fact, the observed monthly average CO2 concentrations in the at- mosphere crossed the 400 parts per million thresholds, for the first time in April and May 2013, in several ob- serving stations (Barrow/Alaska-USA, Alert/Canada, Ny-?lesund/Norway, Iza?a/Canary Islands-Spain, and Mauna Loa/Hawaii-USA) [6]. Recently, the PwC (PricewaterhouseCooper LLP) [7] revealed that the annual rate reduction of CO2 emission for the 2012-2050 period, needed to accomplish the 2°C warming target, has ris- en from 3.7% to 5.1% (Figure 1) [6]. Also, the IEA indicated in its World Energy Outlook Special Report [5] that we are more likely to increase the air temperature between 3.6°C and 5.3°C during the 21th century, com- pared with pre-industrial values (see also Peter et al. [8]). Figure 1 also shows that the business as usual projec- tion will not accomplish the 2°C targetreduction. Neither it will be if the annual reduction rate is 3.7% as origin- ally was estimated. If we continue the business as usual pathway, every year the annual reduction rate needed will be larger and therefore more challenge to achieve. Peter et al. [8] comparing the observed annual global CO2 emission with those projected by different IPCC scenarios, since the first report until those used in the fifth one, concluded that the current trend follows or even is above the worse scenario. They concluded that if the CO2 emission track continues the global warming will be above the 2°C target, and that to return to the 2°C pathway requires a sustainable global mitigation, including capture and storage CO2, but also high level of technological, social and political innovations [8].Despite of this, the 2°C target is still a feasible challenge but it is now more difficult to achieve and actions are urgently needed before 2020. It is well recognized that energy accounts for around two-third of GHG emis- sions, as more than 80% of global energy consumption is based on fossil fuels. Therefore, achieving a LCE is a worldwide challenge in order that the climate change impacts can be mitigated any time soon. Such an endeavor must be undertaken, not only by developed countries (Annex 1 of the Kioto Protocol), but it should also be a compromise by developing countries (non Annex 1 of the Kioto Protocol). However, any action should be in accordance with the principle ofcommon but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. Natural energy resources are vital for securing economic growth and development for all countries, not just today but for future generations. The relationship between economic growth and the environment is complex. Changes in technology due to LCE can have the potential of reducing the environmental impacts, but also of af- fecting the economic growth. Traditional economy is based mainly on energy generated by using fossil fuel. For this reason many economical indexes include results of consumption of fossil fuel, like the economic growth, nation and people prosperity, and other overall cost and benefits. The LCE implies the development of a new way of generating energy, which it should be based on "clean-renewable" sources. For the vast majority of the countries this shift is highly cost and it will affect their economy, mainly to those less-developed communities. As indicated earlier, the international community recognizes that the climate change (and its impacts) is one of the largest problems facing humanity. This is well assumed in economic terms, but the challenge goes beyond this, arising ethical questions that many time are often overlooked, questions that have to be with ourselves and with our interaction with the environment including the ecosystems and the biodiversity. What should be the objectives of climate change, and who should bear the burdens of climate change? Who should be included in decision-making about mitigationand adaptation strategies? Is it only governmental decision? What role plays the private sector? Beinhocker and Oppenheim [9] ind icated that moving to a LCE involves a technology shift might cause job losses in some sectors, but on the other hand is likely to create more jobs than it will destroy. Also, greater social equity could be an additional benefit of such a low-carbon revolution. For example, in de- veloping countries innovations in power generation technology could make electricity both more affordable and more accessible to less-developed communities. Increased electrification has a wide variety of development benefits ranging from improved healthcare and access to clean water, to greater economic growth. Even, the de- velopment of a truly sustainable biofuels industry could offer vast economic opportunities for the rural poor communities.Clearly climate change will impact our way of life, moving to a LCE for accomplishing the goal of 2°C target will cause changes in the current social status, on the people's capacity to enjoy fundamental rights to life, food, water and health [9]. This means that the 2°C target is likely to be too high to safeguard these rights. Then, how we as worldwide society are able to confront the challenge imposed by climate change, in moving to a LCE and adopting polices for mitigation and adaptation, without compromising people's rights for a better life and the environment as a whole. No doubt that LCE requires an ethical and political frameworkthat differs from current ones.Climate change is the result of human activity involving many actors from the individual level (summing bil- lions of people), to industry and governmental levels, and from national (private and public) to international in- stitutions. To move to a LCE requires a collective action of all countries and across the entire society, from pri- vate to public sectors, from the individual to a community levels. It requires actions that go beyond legal decla- rations, (完整文献请到百度文库) from national legislatures and international agreement and involving national and international organi- zations, like the World Trade Organization and World Bank, two bodies funding research into new technologies. It also requires that these institutions coordinate and cooperate with each other to ensure that social and eco- nomic policies are not pursued in ways that destroy the environment. In many countries, the balance between private and public investment in a LCE should be driven by the market but with governmental policies and regu- lations that ensure the least impact on the most vulnerable communities. It is most probable that the private sec- tor will not act on those areas where the return investment is of long-term or highly uncertain. In these cases, ac- tion from the public sector will be needed by taking responsibility on the investment or by subsidizing private ones or to the vulnerable communities. The climate change is a global problem with a global solution, even though the responsibilitiesare differentiated, all countries should take actions, and all industries should be in- volved in moving to a LCE. Today, in a global market and economy, most industrial production is also of an in- ternational scale and, therefore, they should be involved in LCE actions.The LCE also implies the concept of low carbon technology (LCT) for energy generation and the develop- ment of new technology with zero carbon emission. This development has relationships with electricity, trans- portation and construction sectors; chemistry industry and many other new technologies. Globally, technology development has dramatically accelerated over recent decades in developed countries, however, this develop- ment remains slow in low- and middle-income countries. Technology transfer from developed to developing countries needs further implementation. Also, LCT involves research for improving efficiency of existing tech- nology and for developing new technology from renewable energy that comes from natural resources. Advances in technology and policy will allow renewable energy and energy efficiency to play major roles in replacing fos- sil fuels, meeting global energy demand, but at the same time reducing CO2 emissions. In summary, the world is facing a warmer environment due to human activity that have being increasing the GHG concentration. To overcome the impacts of the climate changes we need to adapt to the new scenarios, but also to reduce the GHG emission by moving to a LCE, which requires the compromiseof all countries and indi- viduals. LCE will impact the society in different way, for example on the economic growth which can be com- promised; it will need a balance between private and public investment, governmental policies and regulations, research and development of new technologies. It will require an international agreement where all nations should act with generosity for the well-being of humanity. AcknowledgementsThis study was carried out when the author was still affiliated with the Dirección Meteorológica de Chile. This article is a contribution to FONDAP (CR2) N° 1511009. ReferencesReferences[1] Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M. and Miller, H.L. (2007) Contri- bution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC 2007, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New Y ork. [2] Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Alexander, L.V., Allen, S.K., Bindoff, N.L., Bréon, F.-M., Church, J.A., Cu- basch, U., Emori, S., Forster, P., Friedlingstein, P., Gillett, N., Gregory, J.M., Hartmann, D.L., Jansen, E., Kirtman, B., Knutti, R., Krishna Kumar, K., Lemke, P., Marotzke, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Meehl, G.A., Mokhov, I., Piao, S., Ra- maswamy,V., Randall, D., Rhein, M., Rojas, M., Sabine, C., Shindell, D., Talley, L.D., V aughan, D.G. and Xie, S.-P. (2013) Technical Summary. In: Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V. and Midgley, P.M., Eds., Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge Uni- versity Press, Cambridge and New Y ork, in Press. [3] WMO (2013) The State of the Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere Based on Global Observations through 2012. Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, 9, 4 p. [4] Jaeger, C.C. and Jaeger, J. (2010) Three Views of Two Degrees. European Climate Forum (ECF) Working Paper 2, Potsdam.[5] International Energy Agency (2013) Redrawing the Energy-Climate Map. [6] Bala, G. (2013) Digesting 400 ppm for Global Mean CO2 Concentration. Current Science, 104, 47-48. [7] PwC (Pricewaterhouse Coopers LLP) (2012) Too Late for Two Degrees Low Carbon Economy Index. /gx/en/sustainability/publications/low-carbon-econo my-index/index.jhtml [8] Glen, P.P., Andrew, R.M., Boden, T., Canadell, J.G., Ciais, P., Le Quere, C., Marland, G., Raupach, M.R. and Wilson, C. (2013) The Challange to Keep Global Warming below 2°C. Nature Climate Change, 3, 4-6. [9] Beinhocker, E. and Oppenheim, J. (2009)Economic Opportunities in a Low-Carbon World. UNFCCC E-Newsletter. https://unfccc.int/press/news_room/newsletter/guest_column/items/4608.php AuthorAffiliationJorge F. Carrasco1,21Dirección Meteorológica de Chile, Santiago, Chile 2Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile Email:****************** Received 8 December 2013; revised 8 January 2014; accepted 16 January 2014 Copyright ?2014 by author and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY)./licenses/by/4.0/。
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外文文献原文Improve the concept of financial supervision in rural areas Farmers in China's vast population,has some large-scale production of the farmers,but also survival-oriented farmers,huge differences between the financial needs of rural finance inter mediation makes complex,together with agriculture itself is the profit low,natural and market risks high risk decision to weak agricultural industry characteristics,resulting in the cost of r ural financial transactions is far higher than the city,also decided to organize the rural financi al system in terms of operation or in the market has its own special characteristics.20years of financial refor,financial development while the Chinese city made impressive achieveme-nts, but the rural finance is the entire financial system is still the weakest link.Insufficient supply of rural finance,competition is not sufficient,farmers and agricultural enterprises in getting loa ns and other issues is alsovery prominent,backward rural financial system can no longer effec tively support the development of modern agriculture or the transformation of traditional agri culture and the building of new socialist countryside,which to improve the rural financial supe rvision new topic.China's rural financial regulatory problems(A)the formation of China's financial regulatory system had"a line three commission" (People's Bank,the Securities Regulatory Commission,Insurance Regulatory Commissio n and the Banking Regulatory Commission)financial regulatory structure.Bank These stringent requirements,different management and diversification of monitoring has its positive role,but it also had some negative effects.First,inefficient supervision,supervisi on of internal consumption of high costs,limited financial industry business development and innovation space.Second,the regulatory agencies,regulatory bodies and the information asym metry between central banks,banking,securities,and insurance mechanisms of coordination b etween regulatory bodies are not rmation between central banks and regulatory ag encies is difficult to share,is difficult to create effective monitoring forc.Basically between th e various regulators in their respective state regulators,regulatory policies and measures to ove rlapping or conflicting phenomena have occurred,unable to cope with China's current rural fin ancial market complexity and diversity and so on.Third,financial institutions have liquidity ris k or out of the market and so on,may be excessive because the central bank assistance,financi al institutions and financial institutions led to the person in charge"capacity risk"and"moralhazard",or for financial institutions regulatory arbitrage possibilities;addition,since the lack of recourse,may adversely affect the financial stability.(B)rural financial ecological environment is not in-depthThe current financial environment in rural county building still remains in the letter the use rvillage,township,community development credit level,"government-led,human-propelled,de partmental interaction"and create a mechanism for financial ecological environment in rural a reas lack.Local governments and authorities the importance of financial knowledge of the eco logical environment is not deep,implementation and functions of individual local protectionis m and heavy,there is interference with the financial sector credit and other daily business situa tion.Rural credit system lag,lack of bad credit punishment mechanism,rural businesses and re sidents in the overall credit awareness is not high,rural finance development and expansion of social services and social protection of the environment has not yet formed.(C)China's existing legal system of financial supervision and a number of shortcomings, can not guarantee that financial regulation is reasonable,effective,standardized implem entation.First,regulatory lag,supporting regulations are incomplete,the content is too rough,too simpl e,the banking,securities and insurance supervision laws and regulations more old,a general lac k of quantitative science.Supervisory regulations and standards,regulatory methods and techn ical means not meet regulatory requirements in the market.Staff in the actual implementation, not easy to grasp the scale,may of operation.Second,the Chinese regulators and the regulate d objects exist some interest,and the existing regulations,lack of supervision and regulatory enforcement are to ensure that financial regulation can not be just and reasonable.Finally,Chi na's financial supervision is still difficult to shake off the inertia of the executive-style regulat ory impact.(D)of the Rural Financing drifting outside the existing financial regulatoryAccording to IFAD study,Chinese farmers from the informal financial institutions,loans fr om official credit institutions about4times.For farmers,the importance of informal financial markets over the formal financial market.China's mainly rural folk form of finance rural credi t cooperatives,Cooperation,private lending,private banks,private funds,microfinance,etc., of which only rural credit cooperatives and microfinance in China's financial supervision und er the rest of the financial forms the lack of appropriate supervision.The general lack of ruralfinancial organizations of civil norms,there is a big risk,China's existing laws and regulations on private financial institutions in rural areas is one of"isolation"policy,making a lot of mon ey from the dark into the rural financial market and greater regulation of financial difficulty,o n rural financial security is a potential threat.learn from the developed countries(A)improve coordination of rural finance mechanisms for external supervision1.The United States"multiple composite"of the coordination mechanism.U.S.financial c ooperation system in rural areas by the federal mid-term credit banks,cooperative banks,fede ral land banks and federal land bank system composed of three Cooperatives,the Farm Credit Administration(NCUA)leadership,and with the Council under the leadership of the private banks in rural commercial credit,National Rural Credit Bank policy of the United States shar ed the task of rural financial intermediation.The organizational model is a typical multi-mode hybrid system,three systems have an independent management system,with clear terms of re ference.To ensure the healthy development of rural financial institutions,commercial banks i n the United States adopted a different regulatory models,specifically setting up a relatively s ound financial regulatory system in rural areas,including regulators,industry self-regulation a ssociations,financial intermediation and mutual insurance group clearing center,the four kind of independent agencies and their subsidiary bodies,the functions of different,but share the s ame objectives as a common rural cooperative financial institutions to serve the regulatory sys tem.2.Germany's"comprehensive regulatory model"of coordination mechanisms.Low concen tration of the German banking system,in the very important parts of the bank,the representati ve of the financial mixed monwealth Bank and the Federal Financial Supervis ory Authority the power to regulate the two main regulators of the banking sector there is a cl ear division of labor,but also close monwealth Bank in Germany,nine state s have branch offices,using their own network advantages to the Federal Financial Supervisor y Authority is responsible for daily transmission of data banks focus for the Federal Financial Authority to provide a better basis for the exercise of regulatory functions,but it is not directl y involved in the regulation work,nor has the administrative punishment.The Federal Financi al Supervisory Authority did not have branches in the states,it is difficult to carry out regular supervision,need to cooperate with the Commonwealth Bank to perform its regulatory functions.Germany's main central banks and industry rely on the federal audit of the regulatory syst em and risk prevention and protection system to ensure rural finance in the specification on the basis of continuous development.3.Japan's"complement each other-type"coordination mechanism.In Japan,the dual super vision of the implementation of rural finance:first,the Office of Government financial regulat ion,supervision on the implementation of various financial institutions,to achieve the overall risk control;Second,national and local Forestry and Fisheries Department with the Office of Financial Regulation on the implementation of rural financial institutions supervision,includi ng the Ministry of Agriculture consists of the branch on Norinchukin supervision,Forestry an d Fisheries set up in six major areas of agricultural area in County Council on joint supervisio n of the letter,and all,Road House,County Farmer of the Ministry of Agriculture within its ju risdiction Association for Cooperative Finance Supervision Department(B)the establishment of deposit insurance and emergency rescue system to form a three-tier safety netDeveloped financial system generally established strict internal management system,depos it insurance system and the system of three emergency safety net.As a second-class safety net of deposit insurance system has been very satisfactory.The federal government on rural finan ce unified compulsory deposit insurance,the specific business operation by the Federal Depos it Insurance Corporation's SavingsAssociation Insurance Fund,and to assume supervision of t he insured financial institutions;the German government on the implementation of the volunt ary deposit of credit co-insurance,not mandatory insurance,its insurance sector is the industr y organization;Japan's credit co-national compulsory deposit insurance,the insurance agency is a joint venture between Government and the people,by the Government,Norinchukin Bank ,Japan Bank,Credit Union and a coalition of agricultural water fishery credit cooperatives In dustry Insurance Agency.As a third-class safety net for emergency rescue system,specific me asures for implementation in different countries,bank deposits for the brink of bankruptcy,in some countries directly by the central bank to offer special low-interest loans(such as the U.S .and Italy),in some countries by the bank regulatory authorities and other Commercial Bank for the establishment of special institutions to finance the rescue(such as France and Belgium ),a number of countries came forward by the deposit insurance agency to provide funds(such as Japan),more by one or a few large banks in support of official support.(C)rural finance within the industry associations to play a regulatory role1.U.S.Rural Cooperative Finance Association of self-management.In the United States,v arious credit associations or co-finance up to several dozen,including a long history,nationall y renowned for the National Association of Credit(CUNA),a specialized credit services for t he Federal Register Association(NAFCU),there are also special school credit for community service credit unions and associations(CCUC),etc..While the states also have their own Cre dit Union Association.The trade association is one of the major work to develop a code of co nduct,self-regulation management.2.German credit cooperation and other cooperative system of industry self-regulation of m utual integration.German cooperation in the National Credit Union(BVR)is a cooperative ba nk industry self-regulatory organizations,grass-roots local cooperative banks,cooperative ban ks and district central cooperative banks,as well as professional co-finance companies,coope rative credit union is a member.Germany11contributions from the various types of cooperati ves set up jointly organized a regional cooperative audit association,responsible for annual au dit of the specialized agencies of the various types of cooperatives,which are also common ty pes of cooperatives at the district level,the industry watchdog,plays an important industry su pervisory role.3.Set supervision and service in one of the Japanese Agricultural Association.Japanese go vernment in1947promulgated the"Agricultural Cooperative Law,"agricultural association p rovides services for members of cooperative organizations,its not for profit,adhere to the rura l communities and members for the service centers,institutional system based on grass-roots l evel according to facilitate farmers,established the principle manageable.The main source of funding is to absorb the rural deposits,in principle,limited to serving as a member of the far mers and agricultural groups.To ensure financial security cooperation,and healthy run,set up a rural credit insurance,temporary transfers of funds mutual aid system and credit cooperativ e organizations,and government co-funded deposit insurance system,agricultural disaster co mpensation system and the agricultural credit guarantee system for the insurance system meas ures.improve the financial supervision of the concept of rural China(A)improve and perfect the legal system of rural financial regulation,supervision accor ding to lawFinance as the core of the economy,the continued growth of rural finance is more in need o f legal regulation and a sound legal environment,accelerate the development of rural finance l aws,no legal basis to change the situation,has become the strong demand of rural financial d evelopment.Since the reform and opening up,no one for rural finance,rural financial regulati on can serve as a basis for law.To achieve effective supervision,the need for additional profe ssional laws,regulations,and specific regulatory measures,regulations and implementation d etails,so as to achieve from the general administrative supervision to improve the legal syste m,efforts to establish changed the credit system,and ultimately control law.While in strength ening the legal system,adopt effective measures to strengthen the integrity of the whole com munity education and step up publicity to raise awareness of the general financial and legal re sidents,to actively support the work of the national collective finance;education of the popul ation according to lending,and actively with the illegal lending practices fight,really create a sound legal basis,that the law according to the credit environment and legal environment. (B)give full play to grassroots government,professional regulatory function Actively co operate with local governments at all levels and support the financial To actively coordinate local government and non-basic level target consistency,to avoid th e expense of national interests and local interests of the occurrence.The Chinese government should establish a tax system is different from commercial banks,a low tax or tax-free policy, by policy banks to provide low-interest or interest-free loans of rural finance,rural finance to increase subsidies and assistance.Those relatively large amount of private credit,shall be app roved by local authorities just to strengthen the audit checks to the legitimate rights and intere sts protected.China's rural economy,small and dispersed operations,has not been large-scale establishment of agricultural insurance,in case of force majeure,the rural financial system w ill face great risk.Chinese financial institutions in the internal governance structure and risk management system has been initially established,the basic external financial regulation in pl ace of the case,should refer to the experience of developed countries,commercial banks in th e country to establish a mandatory deposit insurance system and the emergency rescue system ,the formation of three protection network.(C)strictly rural financial institutions,"access and"to improve the professional standar ds of financial supervisionFinancial regulators should be a good loan companies,postal savings banks,rural credit union funds,village banks and other new-type rural financial institutions,market access,ensure t hat the new-type rural financial institutions in corporate governance,capital adequacy ratio to meet the requirements.Kind in the country selected the new rural financial institutions,better internal control system,modified to add a representative of management to form the template to help set up rural financial institutions,covering credit,billing,savings,cash,security and ot her risk point of internal control system.Establish small rural banks and other financial instit utions,guidance system,the financial regulators to conduct the transition of its guidance,to pr omote rural financial institutions to a sound system of internal control as soon as possible,im prove management,risk control and management mechanisms work well.(D)to play the role of industry self-regulatory associations,to promote the vitality and fo rce the formation of the banking sectorWorking Committee,the current to China Banking Regulatory Commission and the provinc ial government regulatory framework based on an industry self-regulatory organization more. Promoting the Development,promoting and developing self-regulatory functions of trade ass ociations,for building a healthy banking system in China is significant.Association to play a functional role to guide the establishment of liaison mechanisms and management of daily wo rk,and improving the industry conventions and regulations,regulators should not control thos e,which were needed in the work of regulatory bodies,as far as possible by the association re sponsible for promoting the formation of the energy and banking efforts to achieve self-mana gement and trade association national regulatory authorities to monitor the combination syste m of regulation.ConclusionIn short,improving financial supervision in terms of its breadth,should be an include gover nment regulation,industry self-regulation,financial institutions,internal control,four levels o f social supervision system;its depth,it should be involved in risk prevention,effective access ,legal norms,the operation simple and efficient aspects of a systems engineering.Only by stri ving to improve the new concept of financial supervision,the introduction of new methods of financial supervision in order to receive financial regulation expected results.Only in this wa y can be established consistent with China's national conditions,but also to adapt to modern r equirements of international financial regulatory system in rural China.外文文献译文发展中国农村金融监管的思考农民在中国人口众多,有一些大型生产的农民,但也自给自足的农民,巨大的金融需求之间的差异使农村金融需求很是复杂,连同农业本身是利润低、自然和市场风险高的风险决策农业产业特性,软弱的农村金融交易的成本远高于城市,也决定组织农村金融体系的运行或市场有其自身的特点。