外文文献翻译(图片版)

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外文参考文献翻译-中文

外文参考文献翻译-中文

外⽂参考⽂献翻译-中⽂基于4G LTE技术的⾼速铁路移动通信系统KS Solanki教授,Kratika ChouhanUjjain⼯程学院,印度Madhya Pradesh的Ujjain摘要:随着时间发展,⾼速铁路(HSR)要求可靠的,安全的列车运⾏和乘客通信。

为了实现这个⽬标,HSR的系统需要更⾼的带宽和更短的响应时间,⽽且HSR的旧技术需要进⾏发展,开发新技术,改进现有的架构和控制成本。

为了满⾜这⼀要求,HSR采⽤了GSM的演进GSM-R技术,但它并不能满⾜客户的需求。

因此采⽤了新技术LTE-R,它提供了更⾼的带宽,并且在⾼速下提供了更⾼的客户满意度。

本⽂介绍了LTE-R,给出GSM-R与LTE-R之间的⽐较结果,并描述了在⾼速下哪种铁路移动通信系统更好。

关键词:⾼速铁路,LTE,GSM,通信和信令系统⼀介绍⾼速铁路需要提⾼对移动通信系统的要求。

随着这种改进,其⽹络架构和硬件设备必须适应⾼达500公⾥/⼩时的列车速度。

HSR还需要快速切换功能。

因此,为了解决这些问题,HSR 需要⼀种名为LTE-R的新技术,基于LTE-R的HSR提供⾼数据传输速率,更⾼带宽和低延迟。

LTE-R能够处理⽇益增长的业务量,确保乘客安全并提供实时多媒体信息。

随着列车速度的不断提⾼,可靠的宽带通信系统对于⾼铁移动通信⾄关重要。

HSR的应⽤服务质量(QOS)测量,包括如数据速率,误码率(BER)和传输延迟。

为了实现HSR的运营需求,需要⼀个能够与 LTE保持⼀致的能⼒的新系统,提供新的业务,但仍能够与GSM-R长时间共存。

HSR系统选择合适的⽆线通信系统时,需要考虑性能,服务,属性,频段和⼯业⽀持等问题。

4G LTE系统与第三代(3G)系统相⽐,它具有简单的扁平架构,⾼数据速率和低延迟。

在LTE的性能和成熟度⽔平上,LTE- railway(LTE-R)将可能成为下⼀代HSR通信系统。

⼆ LTE-R系统描述考虑LTE-R的频率和频谱使⽤,对为⾼速铁路(HSR)通信提供更⾼效的数据传输⾮常重要。

外文文献扫描翻译教程

外文文献扫描翻译教程

由于导师给的是扫描件,扫描件的pdf格式无法复制文字,用翻译的软件也比较难识别文本,所以给出以下教程(以下软件都能够在360软件管家里面下载)
第一步,去网上下载cajviewer,如图表所示,安装完以后打开。

用软件打开导师给的pdf文档,在软件的左上角有个文字识别,利用这个功能就能扫描出排版工整的文字了。

第二步,如果出现了图片不公整(图片斜的),扫描出来的文字就跟原文有较大的出入,所以我们要调整图片的位置。

首先你电脑里要有以下软件,楼主就直接下载的360软件管家
里面的,
然后在下载dopdf(如果是office2007可不下此软件)
最后下载一个ps软件(楼主下的光影魔术手)
有可能安装有问题,那么换美图秀秀也可以的。

操作如下
S1先用Adobe Reader打开文档
S2复制一张不工整的(斜的图片)扫描件到电脑附件自带画图软件里面
保存
S3利用PS软件将图片调整成水平位置(位置调整角度一般很小),保存图片
S3 用电脑自带的office新建个word文档,将PS过后的图片插入到文档中去
S4 如果电脑中office是2003时则在文档中选项中选择文件/打印(如下图所示),记得将打印机的名称改成doPDF 8,然后确定,跳出来对话框,选择转化成pdf格式的存放位置点OK确认就生成pdf文件;
如果office是2007可直接文件/另存为PDF格式的就可以了
S5 操作如上述用cajviewer扫描出文字然后用软件翻译外文即可。

本人用过金山词霸还有谷歌翻译(需要翻墙),对比看谷歌翻译还是可以的,但是还是有20-30%的错误率,有些专业术语还要自己重新翻译的。

3D打印外文文献翻译译文

3D打印外文文献翻译译文

文献出处:Paul G. 3D printing technology and its application[J]. Anatomical sciences education, 2015, 10(3): 430-450.原文3D printing technology and its applicationPaul GAbstract3D printing technology in the industrial product design, especially the application of digital product model manufacturing is being a trend and hot topic.Desktop level gradually mature and application of 3D printing devices began to promote the rise of the Global 3D printing market, Global industrial Analysis pany (Global Industry Analysis Inc) research report predicts Global 3D printing market in 2018 will be $2.99 billion. Keywords: 3D printing;Application; Trend13D printing and 3D printers3D printing and 3D printing are two entirely different concepts.3D printing is separated into different angles the picture of the red, blue two images, then the two images according to the regulation of parallax distance overprint together, using special glasses to create the 3D visual effect, or after special treatment, the picture printed directly on the special grating plate, thus rendering 3D visual effect of printing technology.And 3D printing refers to the 3D ink-jet printing technology, stacked with hierarchical processing forms, print increase step by step a material to generate a 3D entity, meet with 3D models, such as laser forming technology of manufacturing the same real 3D object digital manufacturing technology.3D printers, depending on thetechnology used by its working principle can be divided into two categories:1.1 3D printer based on 3D printing technologyBased on 3D printing technology of 3D printer, by stored barrels out a certain amount of raw material powder, powder on processing platform is roller pushed into a thin layer, then the print head in need of forming regional jet is a kind of special glue.At this time, met the adhesive will rapidly solidified powder binder, and does not meet the adhesive powder remain loose state.After each spray layer, the processing platform will automatically fall a bit, according to the result of puter chip cycle, until the real finished.After just remove the outer layer of the loose powder can obtain required for manufacturing three-dimensional physical.1.2 3D printers based on fused deposition manufacturing technologyBased on fused deposition manufacturing technology of the working principle of 3D printer is first in the control software of 3D printers into physical data generated by CAD and treated generated to support the movement of materials and thermal spray path.Then hot nozzle will be controlled by puter according to the physical section contour information in printed planar motion on the plane, at the same time by thermoplastic filamentous material for wire agency sent to the hot shower, and after the nozzle to add heat and melt into a liquid extrusion, and spraying in the corresponding work platform.Spray thermoplastic material on the platform after rapid cooling form the outline of a thickness of 0.1 mm wafer, forming a 3D printing section.The process cycle, load, decrease of bench height then layers of cladding forming stacked 3D printing section, ultimately achieve the desired three-dimensional object.2 The application of 3D printing needsThe 3D printing technology support for a variety of materials, can be widely used in jewelry, footwear, industrial design, construction, automotive, aerospace, dental, medical, and even food, etc. Different areas., according to the requirements of application targets used by material with resin, nylon, gypsum, ABS, polycarbonate (PC) or food ingredients, etc.3D printers of rapid prototyping technology has a distinct advantage in the market, the huge potential in the production application, hot applications outlined below.2.1 Industrial applications"Air cycling" is located in Bristol, UK the European aeronautic defense and Space pany using 3D printers, application of 3D printing technology to create the world's first print bike.The bike to use as strong as steel and aluminum alloy material of nylon, the weight is 65% lighter than metal materials.More interestingly, "air bike", chain wheels and bearings are printed at a time, without the original manufacture parts first, and then the parts together of assembly process, after printing, bicycles will be able to move freely.Bicycle manufacturing process like printing discontinuous in graphic print as simple lines, 3D printer can print out the object space is not connected to each other. 2.2 Medical applicationsIn medicine, the use of 3D printing will two-photon polymer and biological functional materials bination modified into the capillaries, not only has good flexibility and patibility of human body, also can be used to replace the necrosis of blood vessels, bined with artificial organs, partly replacing experimental animals in drugdevelopment.Biotechnology in Germany in October 2011 show, Biotechnical Fair), using 3D printers print artificial blood capillary to attract the attention of the participants, these artificial capillary has been applied in clinical medicine.2.3 application of daily life"3D food printer" is developed by Cornell University in New York, the United States food manufacturing equipment.The "3D food printer" used similar routine puter printers, the working principle of ingredients and ingredients in the container (cartridge) in advance only need to enter the required recipe, by supporting the CAD software can keep the food "print out".For many chefs, the new kitchen cooking means that they can create new dishes make food more individuality, higher food ing the "3D food printer" making food, from raw materials to finished products can significantly reduce the link, so as to avoid the pollution in the links of food processing, transportation, packing and so on and preservation, etc.Because of the cooking materials and ingredients must be placed in the printer, so food raw materials must be liquid or other can "print" state.2.4 IT applicationsRecently, a group of researchers in Disney's use of 3D printing in the same effect with the organic glass high pervious to light plastic, at low cost to print out the LCD screen with a variety of sensors, realize the new breakthrough in the IT ing 3D printing light pipe can produce high-tech international chess; the chess pieces can detect and display the current location.Although the monochrome screen pared with in the daily life, rich and colorful display some insignificant, but it hasa 3D printing the advantages of low cost, simple manufacturing process.In addition to the display screen, the use of 3D printing will also be able to print out a variety of sensors.These sensors can be through the stimulation such as infrared light to detect touch, vibration, and the results output.3D printing will create more for life and wisdom city of IT applications.3 The development trend of 3D printing technology3D printing technology continues to develop, greatly reduce the cost of the already from research and development of niche space into the mainstream market, the momentum of development is unstoppable, has bee a widespread concern and civil market rapidly emerging new areas.3D printing production model, the application of gifts, souvenirs and arts and crafts, greatly attracted social attention and investment, development speed, the market began to quantity and qualitative leap.It is predicted that in 2020, 3D printing products will account for 50% of the total production.In the next 10 years on the puter to plete the product design blueprint, gently press the "print" key, 3D printers can bit by bit with the designed model.Now some foundry enterprises began to develop selective laser sintering, 3D printer and its application to plex casting time reduced from 3 months to 10 days.Engine manufacturers through 3D printing, large six-cylinder diesel engine cylinder head of sand core development cycles, reduced to 1 week from the past 5 months.The biggest advantage of 3D printing is to expand the designers’ imagination space.As long as you can on the puter design into 3D graphics, whether is different styles of dress, elegant handicraft, or personalized car, as long as can solve the problem of material, can achieve 3D printing.With 3D printing technology breakthroughs, constantly improved increasingly, the new material of 3D printing in improving speed, size, its technology is constantly optimized, expanding application fields, especially in the field of graphic art potential, producer of the concept of 3D model can better municate ideas or solutions, a picture can be more than a few hundred or even thousands of words of description. Professionals believe that personalized or customized 3D printing can be envisioned a real-time 3D model in the eyes, can quickly improve product, growth will be more than imagine, will shape the future of social applications.3D printing technology to eliminate traditional production line, shorten the production cycle, greatly reduce production waste, raw materials consumption will be reduced to a fraction of the original.3D printing is not only cost savings, improve production precision, also will make up for the inadequacy of traditional manufacturing, and will rise rapidly in the civilian market, thus opening a new era of manufacturing, bring new opportunities and hope for the printing industry.译文3D打印技术及其应用Paul G摘要3D打印技术在工业产品设计,特别是数字产品模型制造领域的应用正在成为一种潮流和热门话题。

电气类外文文献及其翻译--正弦脉宽调制

电气类外文文献及其翻译--正弦脉宽调制

24.437 Power ElectronicsSinusoidal Pulse width modulationThe switches in the voltage source inverter(See Fig.1)can be turned on and off as required.In the simplest approach,the top switch is turned on If turned on and off only once in each cycle,a square wave waveform results.However,if turned on several times in a cycle an improved har- monic profile may be achieved.Fig 1:Simple V oltage SourcedIn the most straightforward implementation,generation of the desired output voltage is achievedby comparing the desired reference waveform(modulating signal)with a high-frequency triangu- lar…carrier‟wave as depicted schematically in Fig.2.Depending on whether the signal voltage is larger or smaller than the carrier waveform,either the positive or negative dc bus voltage is applied at the output.Note that over the period of one triangle wave,the average voltage appliedto the load is proportional to the amplitude of the signal(assumed constant)during this period.The resulting chopped square waveform contains a replica of the desired waveform in its low fre- quency components,with the higher frequency components being at frequencies of an close to the carrier frequency.Notice that the root mean square value of the ac voltage waveform is still equal to the dc bus voltage,and hence the total harmonic distortion is not affected by the PWM process. The harmonic components are merely shifted into the higher frequency range and are automati- cally filtered due to inductances in the ac system.When the modulating signal is a sinusoid of amplitude Am,and the amplitude of the triangular carrier is Ac,the ratio m=Am/Ac is known as the modulation index.Note that controlling the modulation index therefor controls the amplitude of the applied output voltage.With a sufficiently high carrier frequency(see Fig.3 drawn for fc/fm=21 and t=L/R=T/3;T=period of funda- mental),the high frequency components do not propagate significantly in the ac network(or load) due the presence of the inductive elements.However,a higher carrier frequency does result in a larger number of switchings per cycle and hence in an increased power loss.Typically switching frequencies in the 2-15 kHz range are considered adequate for power systems applications.Alsoin three-phase systems it is advisable to use s so that all three waveforms are symmetric.Fig 2:Princ ipal of Pulse Width ModulationFig.3:SPWM with fc/fm=48,L/R=T/3Note that the process works well for m ≤1.For m >1,there are periods of the triangle wave in which there is no intersection of the carrier and the signal as in Fig.4.However,a certain amountof this“overmodulation”is often allowed in the interest of obtaining a larger ac voltage magni- tude even though the spectral content of the voltage is rendered somewhat poorer.Note that with an odd ratio for fc/fm,the waveform is anti-symmetric over a 360 degree cycle. With an even number,there are harmonics of even order,but in particular also a small dc compo- nent.Hence an even number is not recommended for single phase inverters,particularly for smal ratios of fc/fm.SPWM Spectra:Although the SPWM waveform has harmonics of several orders in the phase voltage waveform, the dominant ones other than the fundamental are of order n and n±2 where n=fc/fm.This is evi- dent for the spectrum for n=15 and m=0.8 shown in Fig.5.Note that if the other two phases are identically generated but 120o apart in phase,the line-line voltage will not have any triplenhar-monics.Hence it is advisable to choose,as then the dominant harmonic willbe eliminated.It is evident from Fig 5b,that the dominant 15th harmonic in Fig.5a is effectively eliminated in the line voltage.Choosing a multiple of 3 is also convenient as then the same trian- gular waveform can be used as the carrier in all three phases,leading to some simplification in hardware.It is readily seen that as the where E is the dc bus voltage,that the rms valueof the output voltage signal is unaffected by the PWM process.This is strictly true for the phase voltage as triplen harmonic orders are cancelled in the line voltage.However,the problematic har- monics are shifted to higher orders,thereby making filtering much easier.Often,the filtering is carried out via the natural high-impedance characteristic of the load.Fig.5:SPWM Harmonic Spectra:n=15,m=0.Selective Harmonic Elimination(also called Optimal PWM)Notice that in the SPWM strategy developed above,a large number of switchings are required, with the consequent associated switching losses.With the method of Selective Harmonic Elimina- tion,only selected harmonics are eliminated with the smallest number of switchings.This method however can be difficult to implement on-line due to computation and memory requirements. For a two level PWM waveform with odd and halfwave symmetries and n chops per quarter cycleas shown in Fig 4,the peak magnitude of the harmonic components including the fundamental,are given byEqn.1:Here is the magnitude of the harmonic and is the primary switching angle.Even har- monics do not show up because of the half-wave symmetry.The n chops in the waveform afford n degrees of freedom.Several control options are thus possi- ble.For example n selected harmonics can be eliminated.Another option which is used here is to eliminate n-1 selected harmonics and use the remaining degree of freedom to control the funda- mental frequency ac voltage.To find theα‟s required to achieve this objective,it is sufficient to set the corresponding h‟s in the above equations to the desired values(0 for the n-1 harmonics to be eliminated and the desired per-unit ac magnitude for the fundamental)and solve for theα‟s.Fig 4:A two-level PWM waveform with odd and halfwave symmEquation 1 can be readily proved by finding the fourier coefficients of the waveform shown inFig.4.In general,for a periodic waveform with period,the Fourier Cosine and Sine Coeffi- cients are given by:Because of the half-cycle symmetry of the waveform of Fig.4,only odd order harmonics exist. Also,it is easy to see that the Fourier Cosine coefficients disappear with the choice of coordinateaxes used.Utilizing the quarter cycle symmetry,the Fourier Sine coefficients become:Substituting the two-valued pwm waveform for,one obtains(see Fig.4):The following example illustrates the use of three chops per quarter cycle which allow for three degrees of freedom.We may use these to eliminate two harmonics and control the magnitude of the fundamental to any desired value:Example:Selective Harmonic Elimination is applied with a view to controlling the fundamental component of voltage to 50V(rms)and eliminating the 3rd and 5th harmonics.The source voltage is 100 V. Calculate the required chopping angles.As three objectives are to be achieved,we need 3 chops.The fundamental,3rd and 5th harmonic magnitudes are given by:We require:翻译24.437电力电子正弦脉宽调制电压源逆变器的开关(见图1)可以按要求打开和关闭。

外文文献及翻译

外文文献及翻译

Yunnan Ethnic pattern in Packaging DesignAbstract: Art is a folk Mother of the arts,is the source of the new art, From which to draw a strong tradition of high—grade Nutrition。

The persons belonging to national folk arts Ethnic patterns,are folk arts Intraoperative a gem, its development Research,and with the means of modern art,art wind Grid,professional skills combine to form a unique Style and features a modern design There are important applications,this paper focuses on Minority Folk pattern in modern packaging design Meter applications are discussed.Keywords: Yunnan Ethnic. Pattern。

Packaging Design.IntroductionYunnan is a multi-ethnic province, Here multiply survive the Han, Yi, Bai More than twenty families, Zhuang, Miao, Dai, etc。

Nation. Long history of various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province, the source is far Long, creating a rich and colorful Folk art。

本科毕业设计外文文献翻译

本科毕业设计外文文献翻译

(Shear wall st ructural design ofh igh-lev el fr ameworkWu Jiche ngAbstract : In t his pape r the basic c oncepts of man pow er from th e fra me sh ear w all str uc ture, analy sis of the struct ur al des ign of th e c ont ent of t he fr ame she ar wall, in cludi ng the seism ic wa ll she ar spa本科毕业设计外文文献翻译学校代码: 10128学 号:题 目:Shear wall structural design of high-level framework 学生姓名: 学 院:土木工程学院 系 别:建筑工程系 专 业:土木工程专业(建筑工程方向) 班 级:土木08-(5)班 指导教师: (副教授)nratiodesign, and a concretestructure in themost co mmonly usedframe shear wallstructurethedesign of p oints to note.Keywords: concrete; frameshearwall structure;high-risebuildingsThe wall is amodern high-rise buildings is an impo rtant buildingcontent, the size of theframe shear wall must comply with building regulations. The principle is that the largersizebut the thicknessmust besmaller geometric featuresshouldbe presented to the plate,the force is close to cylindrical.The wall shear wa ll structure is a flatcomponent. Itsexposure to the force along the plane level of therole ofshear and moment, must also take intoaccountthe vertical pressure.Operate under thecombined action ofbending moments and axial force andshear forcebythe cantilever deep beam under the action of the force levelto loo kinto the bottom mounted on the basis of. Shearwall isdividedinto a whole walland theassociated shear wall in theactual project,a wholewallfor exampl e, such as generalhousingconstruction in the gableor fish bone structure filmwalls and small openingswall.Coupled Shear walls are connected bythecoupling beam shear wall.Butbecause thegeneralcoupling beamstiffness is less thanthe wall stiffnessof the limbs,so. Walllimb aloneis obvious.The central beam of theinflection pointtopay attentionto thewall pressure than the limits of the limb axis. Will forma shortwide beams,widecolumn wall limbshear wall openings toolarge component atbothen ds with just the domain of variable cross-section ro din the internalforcesunder theactionof many Walllimb inflection point Therefore, the calcula tions and construction shouldAccordingtoapproximate the framestructure to consider.The designof shear walls shouldbe based on the characteristics of avariety ofwall itself,and differentmechanical ch aracteristicsand requirements,wall oftheinternalforcedistribution and failuremodes of specific and comprehensive consideration of the design reinforcement and structural measures. Frame shear wall structure design is to consider the structure of the overall analysis for both directionsofthehorizontal and verticaleffects. Obtain theinternal force is required in accordancewiththe bias or partial pull normal section forcecalculation.The wall structure oftheframe shear wall structural design of the content frame high-rise buildings, in the actual projectintheuse of themost seismic walls have sufficient quantitiesto meet thelimitsof the layer displacement, the location isrelatively flexible. Seismic wall for continuous layout,full-length through.Should bedesigned to avoid the wall mutations in limb length and alignment is notupand down the hole. The sametime.The inside of the hole marginscolumnshould not belessthan300mm inordertoguaranteethelengthof the column as the edgeof the component and constraint edgecomponents.Thebi-direc tional lateral force resisting structural form of vertical andhorizontalwallconnected.Each other as the affinityof the shear wall. For one, two seismic frame she ar walls,even beam highratio should notgreaterthan 5 and a height of not less than400mm.Midline columnand beams,wall midline shouldnotbe greater tha nthe columnwidthof1/4,in order toreduce thetorsional effect of the seismicaction onthecolumn.Otherwisecan be taken tostrengthen thestirrupratio inthe column tomake up.If theshear wall shearspan thanthe big two. Eventhe beamcro ss-height ratiogreaterthan 2.5, then the design pressure of thecut shouldnotmakeabig 0.2. However, if the shearwallshear spanratioof less than two couplingbeams span of less than 2.5, then the shear compres sion ratiois notgreater than 0.15. Theother hand,the bottom ofthe frame shear wallstructure to enhance thedesign should notbe less than200mmand notlessthanstorey 1/16,otherpartsshouldnot be less than 160mm and not less thanstorey 1/20. Aroundthe wall of the frame shear wall structure shouldbe set to the beam or dark beamand the side columntoform a border. Horizontal distributionofshear walls can from the shear effect,this design when building higher longeror framestructure reinforcement should be appropriatelyincreased, especially in the sensitiveparts of the beam position or temperature, stiffnesschange is bestappropriately increased, thenconsideration shouldbe givento the wallverticalreinforcement,because it is mainly from the bending effect, andtake in some multi-storeyshearwall structurereinforcedreinforcement rate -likelessconstrained edgeofthecomponent or components reinforcement of theedge component.References: [1 sad Hayashi,He Yaming. On the shortshear wall high-rise buildingdesign [J].Keyuan, 2008, (O2).高层框架剪力墙结构设计吴继成摘要: 本文从框架剪力墙结构设计的基本概念人手, 分析了框架剪力墙的构造设计内容, 包括抗震墙、剪跨比等的设计, 并出混凝土结构中最常用的框架剪力墙结构设计的注意要点。

毕业设计论文 外文文献翻译

毕业设计论文 外文文献翻译

毕业设计(论文)外文参考文献翻译计算机科学与信息工程系系(院)2008 届题目企业即时通Instant Messaging for Enterprises课题类型技术开发课题来源自选学生姓名许帅专业班级 04计算机科学与技术指导老师王占中职称工程师完成日期:2008年4 月 6 日目录I NSTANT M ESSAGING FOR E NTERPRISE (1)1. Tips (1)2. Introduction (1)3. First things first (2)4.The While-Accept loop (4)5. Per-Thread class (6)6. The Client class (7)企业即时通 (9)1.提示 (9)2.简介 (9)3.首先第一件事 (10)4.监听循环 (11)5.单线程类 (13)6.用户端类 (14)Instant Messaging for Enterprise1. TipsIf Java is, in fact, yet another computer programming language, you may question why it is so important and why it is being promoted as a revolutionary step in computer programming. The answer isn’t immediately obvious if you’re coming from a tr aditional programming perspective. Although Java is very useful for solving traditional standalone programming problems, it is also important because it will solve programming problems on the World Wide Web. What is the Web?The Web can seem a bit of a mys tery at first, with all this talk of “surfing,”“presence,” and “home pages.” It’s helpful to step back and see what it really is, but to do this you must understand client/server systems, another aspect of computing that is full of confusing issues. The primary idea of a client/server system is that you have a central repository of information,some kind of data, often in a database。

外文参考文献(带中文翻译)

外文参考文献(带中文翻译)

外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance(c)Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目:未来的中小企业融资背景:中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品,贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。

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本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学(贸易方向)年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文(一)中国银行业的改革和盈利能力(第1、2、4部分) (1)2 外文文献原文(一)CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY(Part 1、2、4) (9)1概述世界银行(1997年)曾声称,中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。

当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候,金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要(Lardy,1998年,Prasad,2007年)。

事实上,不久前,中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”,它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。

但是,在银行改革开展以来,最近,强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。

但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路,它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。

此外,其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲,但不可持续增长。

随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化,银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。

本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响,这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。

相反,我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略,并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现,但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。

本文有三个部分。

在第二节中,我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略,以及其执行情况,这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。

第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行:中国工商银行(工商银行),中国建设银行(建行),对中国银行(中银)和交通银行(交通银行)。

引人注目的是中国农业银行,它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。

第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。

2 银行改革战略及其实施2.1 银行改革战略改革前,国有独资银行由国家拥有并服务于国家经济政策的目标。

由于他们并没有完全牟利的商业实体,评估其财务表现并不严格适用于普遍商业银行。

不过,一旦国家在1992年10月中共代表大会的决定着手进行社会主义市场经济,国有银行商业化已经成为定局。

银行业改革的目标是将国有银行转变成那些具有市场竞争力,可以提供高效的国家储蓄得中介。

发挥它们在金融中介的优势,银行在资金的有效配置中起着关键作用。

2.1.1 银行改革创造了有利环境自从国家在1992年十月的中共第14届中共代表大会宣布市场改革开放方案,目标是建立社会主义市场经济,从而有效地结束了自20世纪70年代末推出的实验性经济改革开放方案。

在坚定的市场化改革中创造了中央的改革与社会主义市场经济建立的有利环境,包括首先进行的银行改革。

1994年初,为了应对通货膨胀的威胁,政府推出包括中央银行宏观经济改革,汇率管理,财政政策和税收。

宏观经济改革政策允许中央政府恢复在20世纪80年代在“放权让利”政策下下放地方当局权力的宏观调控。

虽然权力下放迎来一个快速发展时期,但也产生了重大的宏观经济不稳定。

事实上,宏观经济改革的追求大大挫伤20世纪90年代的宏观经济周期。

其次,在同一年,政府设立了三个政策性银行——国家开发银行,农业发展银行,中国进出口银行——以减轻他们的传统政策对国有商业银行的要求。

第三,政府在1995年颁布的中央银行和商业银行法对银行改革提供了法律基础。

第四,从1996年开始,政府开始大力追求企业改革,为金融改革铺平了道路,即使这是大型国有企业职工的冗余和痛苦的裁员的结果。

在追求企业改革银行改革之前,有必要考虑到国有企业是国有银行的主要客户。

因此,他们的主要来源是不良贷款,在同一时间有负债给政府。

因此,除非国有企业改革的需要,任何国家银行的改革努力将是徒劳的。

另一方面,国有企业改革向前冲的时候,银行改革不能再拖延。

这是因为国有企业的改制,清算,合并,破产或不再存在,银行必须开始认识到他们的潜在亏损。

由于不良贷款的大量注销,这反过来又引发了银行进行注资的需要。

第五,国务院决定在2002年2月将仅有商业银行改造成具有国际竞争力的金融企业,转变为国家控股的股份制商业银行,鼓励他们在市场上上市的股票。

第六,中国银行业监督管理委员会成立于2003年,以提高监管能力,监管银行。

最后,坚持到2001年的入世协议,政府将使用外国银进入市场为竞争压力注入本地银行产业,以提高效率。

从2006年年底,外资银行可以从事人民币业务。

2.1.2 改革公司治理和结构调整的资产负债表该国最大的国有银行已按照几个步骤进行企业内部改革。

改革的第一步是通过邀请其他投资者来稀释唯一的国家所有权,但仍保持其主导地位来进行公司治理改革。

特别是,银行已在寻求外国战略伙伴和引进现代银行业务和技术方面作出努力。

所有权得扩大还需要销售部分银行股的股本市场的所有权,使银行管理负责到市场上。

为了成功地吸引外来投资者,无论是战略合作伙伴或公众投资者,银行必须提出可信的内训改革方案和贯彻落实可靠。

毫无疑问,更好,更可信的内部改革方案,越有可能是为银行吸引外部合作伙信誉伴和获取与他们的同行或在股票市场更好的待遇。

因此,政府承诺的第一步是根据以前的经济规划制度,加强对信用流动已经堵塞了的,资本累计不足和坏帐堆积如山的国有银行资产负债表的平衡。

1998年,政府发出四大国有银行的价值270,000,000亿美元(326亿美元)人民币的30年财政债券进行资本重组的资产负债表:工商银行,中国银行,建设银行和农业银行符合国际资本充足标准。

同样,12月30日,2003年,美国政府提供的建设银行和中国银行各225亿美元,和稍后在2005年4月将提供工商银行的150亿美元,以支持在香港联合交易所各自的清单。

其中四大国有银行,建设银行是第一个次拥有其改革努力,通过股市场的考验,在香港联合交易所成功上市的。

此外,作为对资本重组计划的一部分,银行发行的次级债券也面向当地市场:中国银行,人民币60亿元;商业罪案调查科,400亿元,工商银行,3500亿人民币交通银行,1200亿元人民币。

1999年,政府设立四家资产管理公司管理公司资产,为“四大银行”:工商银行,建设银行,中国银行和农业银行,管理1.4万亿元人民币的国有银行贷款购买书籍万亿,其中1.3万亿被视为不良贷款(约GDP的15%)。

本次交易的资金部分为部分国债(820亿元人民币)中央银行贷款(RMB573亿元人民币)。

第二个转移不良贷款的资产管理公司从2004年6月到006年6月期间转移了1.186万亿元。

银行还推出改革措施,完善内部管理,包括加强人力资源基础,引入现代风险管理做法,并提出了不良贷款的分类标准,以符合国际标准。

2.2 实施改革2.2.1 寻求多样化,吸引外国战略合作伙伴随着改革的蓝图,银行成功推出并实施的改革策略。

工行,建行,中行,交行得所有权都在稀释,纳入非国家所有制70%以下的公司,其中包括外资持股,国内法人和公有制(国有和公开交易的股票),全状态的股份。

在非国家所有,外国战略伙伴关系通常拥有公司的最高股份:工商银行,7.2%,中行,13.9%,建行,10.3%和交通银行,18.7%。

外国资本和国内资本,以及国有商业银行在社会公众股的参与下,不仅增强银行的资本,也产生了对公司治理的积极影响,特别是在外国参与的情况下,它源于银行业务进入政府得不当侵扰。

第二,所有的国有商业银行已经简历了现代公司治理结构包括股东大会,公司董事会以及外部董事,监事,监事会和高级管理结构。

到2007年底,有33个外国机构投资者投资于25年国内银行,共注资213亿美元。

这些外国战略投资者与国内合作伙伴已在广泛多元化的银行领域制定各战略合作协议,包括零售银行,公司治理和风险管理,贸易,人民币衍生工具和货币交换,外汇结构性产品,以及贸易和小和中小企业融资。

此外,国内银行与外国合作伙伴实行网络共享、提供服务和交叉销售金融产品。

最后,人力资源发展计划是战略法人共同协定的,在中小企业管理和融资,财富管理,基金交易,风险管理提供培训课程中予以提供,实施巴塞尔资本协定等。

2.2.2 成功的公开上市改革后的内部调整和信誉良好的战略合作伙伴吸引外资,国有商业银行成功上市在香港(H股)和上海(A股)上市交易的股票,从而第一次受到市场自律:交通银行,2005年6月,建设银行,2005年10月,中国银行,2006年6月,工商银行,2006年10月(这是首次在香港联合交易所和上海证券交易所共同上市)。

2007年,两个小股份制银行在上海证券交易所上市交易,使上市得股份制银行在12个总额中占了7个。

此外,在三个城市商业银行的基础上,北京,南京,宁波得商业银行在上海的A股市场上市,从而为其他城市商业银行进行重组提供方式,然后争取在股票交易所上市。

从上升的股价中收益,工行,建行和中行2007年底在世界上受益分别为第一,第二和第四大银行:3389亿美元,22025亿美元和1978亿美元。

2.2.3 强化资本到2007年底,有近80%的银行已经完成资本充足率标准。

四家上市国有商业银行的资本充足率分别为工商银行13%,中国银行13.3%,建设银行12.6%和交通银行14.1%。

核心资本充足率分别为工商银行11%,中国银行10.7%,建设银行10.4%和交通银行10.2%。

2.2.4 建立风险管理系统自2006年以来建行等大型国有商业银行已经开始引入一个垂直的风险管理制度,合并到新成立的首席风险官手中的风险管理。

这项改革有助于在地方一级在贷款决策过程中免去不必要的干扰。

在同一时间,通过利用信息技术的优势,各银行已开始简化和优化业务流程顺序和程序,以降低经营风险。

银行也开始使用定量风险评估模型和情景模拟他们所面临的各种风险,如压力测试。

经济/风险资本的概念已被采用到风险限额管理,分配银行资源和产品的价格。

银行还通过改善内部控制程序和采用定量控制的工具和操作风险模型加强了对市场和流动性风险分析。

最后但并非最不重要的,银行已经采取步骤,建立一个新的风险或信贷文化。

2.2.5 追求战略转型的经营模式中国银行传统上集中于公司业务,可以说是批发银行。

然而,由于本地资本市场的逐渐成熟,中国的家庭收入和财富继续急速增长,银行找到面向消费者的金融服务不断增长的业务机会,例如共同基金,抵押融资,理财,个人贷款。

这也是金融服务领域,即新来的外资银行的目的是捕捉他们的竞争力的领域。

因此,寻求新的利润增长源,实现了更加多样化和平衡的收入基础,以及为会议上向外国银行,中资银行被迫抓住机遇,迎接挑战,走上了向零售银行的传统经营模式的战略转型的道路。

新的零售银行业务推力包括信用卡,个人贷款,财富管理,共同基金,保险产品和其他产品的产生基于收费的收入。

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