(完整版)英文跨文化沟通复习资料
新编跨文化交际英语教程复习资料
《新编跨文化交际英语教程》复习资料U5(总6页)-本页仅作为预览文档封面，使用时请删除本页-Unit 5Culture and Verbal CommunicationSome Ideas Related to verbal communication and culture1. Different orientations to communication patternsEast Asian orientation1. process orientation — communication is perceived as a process of infiniteinterpretation2. differentiated linguistic codes — different linguistics codes are used dependingupon persons involved and situations3. indirect communication emphasis — the use of indirect communication is prevalent and accepted as normative4. receiver centered — meaning is in the interpretation, Emphasis is on listening, sensitivity, and removal of preconception.North American orientation1. communication is perceived as the transference of messages2. Less differentiated linguistic codes — linguistic codes are not as extensively differentiated as East Asia3. Direct communication emphasis — direct communication is norm despite the extensive use of indirect communication4. sender centered — meaning is in the message created by the sender. Emphasis is on how to formulate the best message, how to improve source credibility and delivery skills2. Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction StylesThe tone of voice, the speaker’s intention, and the verbal content reflect our way of speaking, our verbal style, which in turn reflects our cultural and personal values and sentiments.Verbal style frames “how” a message should be interpreted. The direct-indirect verbal interaction dimension can be thought of as straddling a continuum. Individuals in all cultures use the gradations of all these verbal styles, depending on role identities, interaction goals, and situations. However, in individualistic cultures, people tend to encounter more situations that emphasize the preferential use of direct talk, person-oriented verbal interaction, verbal self-enhancement, and talkativeness. In contrast, in collectivistic cultures, people tend to encounter more situations that emphasize the preferential use of indirect talk, status-oriented verbal interaction, verbal self-effacement, and silence.The direct and indirect styles differ in the extent to which communicators reveal their intentions through their tone of voice and the straightforwardness of their content message. In the direct verba l style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions and are enunciated in a forthright tone of voice. In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to camouflage the speaker’s actual intentions and are carried out with more nuanced tone of voice. For example, the overall . American verbal style often calls for clear and direct communication.Phrases such as “say what you mean,” “don’t beat around the bush,” and “get to the point” are some examples. The direct verbal style o f the larger . culture is reflective of its low-context communication character.3. Person-Oriented and Status-Oriented Verbal StylesThe person-oriented verbal style is individual-centered verbal mode that emphasizes the importance of informality and role suspension. The status-oriented verbal style is a role-centered verbal mode that emphasizes formality and large power distance. The former emphasizes the importance of symmetrical interaction, whereas the latter stresses asymmetrical interaction.The person-oriented verbal style emphasizes the importance of respecting unique, personal identities in the interaction. The status-oriented verbal style emphasizes the importance of honoring prescribed power-based membership identities. Those who engage in status-oriented verbal interaction use specific vocabularies and paralinguistic features to accentuate the status distance of the role relationships ., in parent-child interaction, superior-subordinate relations, and male-female interaction in many Latin American cultures). While low-context cultures tend to emphasize the use of the person-oriented verbal style, high-context cultures tend to value the status-oriented verbal mode.4. Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal StylesThe self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the importance of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities. The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand, emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations, modest talk, and the use of self-deprecation concerning one’s effort or performance.For example, in many Asian cultures, self-effacement talk is expected to signal modesty or humility. In Japan, when one offers something to another person such as a gift or a meal that one has prepared, verbal self-deprecation is expected. There are set expressions for verbal humility such as “It’s not very tasty” and “It’s nothing special.” The hostess who apologizes to her guests that “There is nothing special to offer you” has probably sent the be tter part of two days planning and preparing the meal. Of course the guest should protest such a disclaimer and reemphasize her or his gratitude. Self-effacement is a necessary part of Japanese politeness rituals.In the . culture, individuals are encouraged to sell and boast about themselves, for example, in performance review or job interview sessions, or else no one would notice their accomplishments. However, the notion of merchandizing oneself does not set well with the Japanese. In Japan, one does not like to stand out or be singled out, even by others; it is far worse to promote oneself.In many Asian cultures, individuals believe that if their performance is good, their behavior will be noticed, for example, by their supervisors during promotion review situations. However, from the Western cultural standpoint, if my performance is good, I should document or boast about it so that my supervisor will be sure to take notice. This difference is probably due to the observer-sensitive value of theAsian, high-context communication pattern, as opposed to the sender-responsible value of the Western, low-context interaction pattern.We should note that the pattern of verbal self-effacement cannot begeneralized to many Arab or African cultures. In Egypt, for example, a popular saying is “Make your harvest look big, lest your enemies rejoice”. Effusive verbal self-enhancement is critical to the enhancement of one’s face or honor in some large power distance Arab cultures.Reading IUnderstanding the Culture of Conversation Comprehension questions1. What made the author feel learning to converse in Mexico City was easier for him/her in one way, more difficult in another?It's easier because Mexicans service the relationship and they care about everyone in the conversation. But their conversation doesn‘t move in a straight line, drifting around both in the topic and in the way they use words.2. Why did the Mexican customer slide into the topic of the full eclipse of the sun? For the Mexican, the conversation starts with one topic, but if another interesting topic seeps in he or she will ride it around for a while. Sticking to the first topic is less important than having an interesting conversation.3. What did the American businessman feel ab out the Mexican‟s way of conversation?For the American, a conversation should have a topic, and he wants to take a straight line through it from beginning to end. So he felt very impatient about the Mexican‘s way of conversation.4. What “conversational ideal” was represented by the example of a championship skier who was interviewed on TV?The Swedish conversational ideal is to response in a concise manner without elaborating specific details, especially those for self-promotion. .5. What problems are likely to occur if an American talks with a Swede?The American may feel totally lost in the conversation since he or she would not get as much information from the Swede as he or she has expected.6. What are the differences between Anglos and Athabaskans in conversation?There are a lot differences between them. For instance, at the beginning of a conversation, Anglos almost always speak first. Athabaskans think it is important to know what the social relationship is before they talk with someone. There isanother difference in how long one should talk. Athabaskans tend to have longer turns when they talk with each other, but Anglos expect shorter turns.7. Is it enough just to learn to speak in grammatically correct manners when one learns a foreign language What else does he or she also need to knowIt is far from enough just to learn to speak in grammatically correct manners when one learns a foreign language. One also has to know about the culture of using the language in social life, things like who talks first, who talks next, who opens and closes conversations and how they do it, in order to be able to use the language in culturally appropriate manners.8. In what ways are Chinese similar to or different from the Americans, Mexicans and SwedesIt seems that we Chinese are somewhat similar to Mexicans in the way we are having a conversation. Unlike Americans, we do not usually move in a straight line in a conversation and may also care much about the other‘s feeling.Reading IIThe Way People SpeakComprehension questions1. Why didn‟t the American openly disagree with the Italian?In general, the American did not enjoy verbal conflicts over politics or anything else.2. What are the differences between “high involvement” style and “high considerateness” style?Many people from cultures that prefer ―high involvement styles tend to: (1) talk more; (2) interrupt more; (3) expect to be interrupted; (4) talk more loudly at times; and (5) talk more quickly than those from cultures favoring ―high considerateness styles. On the other hand, people from cultures that favor ―high considerateness styles tend to: (1) speak one at a time; (2) use polite listening sounds; (3) refrain from interrupting; and (4) give plenty of positive and respectful responses to their conversation partners.3. How do New Yorkers and Californians perceive each other because of their differences in conversational style?To some New Yorkers, Californians seem slower, less intelligent, and not as responsive. To some Californians, New Yorkers seem pushy and domineering.4. What does the author think is the reasonable way to react to cultural differences? We should know that the way the other speaks may be different from our way of speaking because he or she must have had a different cultural upbringing. We shouldn‘t judge the other according to our own standards of what is an acceptable communication style.5. How to determine whether a culture favors a direct or indirect style in communication?One way to determine whether a culture favors a direct or indirect style in communication is to find out how the people in that culture express disagreement or how they say, ―No.6. On what occasions do American women tend to be more direct than men?When talking about emotional issues and feelings, American women tend to be more direct than men.7. What are the goals of indirect communication?Indirect communication aims not to be angering, embarrassing, or shaming another person. Instead, it aims to be saving face and maintaining harmony in general.8. How is “Ping-Pong” conversational style different from “Bowling” style?In an American ―Ping-Pong‖ conversation, one person has the ball and then hits it to the other side of the table. The other player hits the ball back and the game continues. Each part of the conversation follows this pattern: the greeting and the opening, the discussion of a topic, and the closing and farewell. However, in a Japanese ―Bowling‖ conversation, each parti cipant waits politely for a turn and knows exactly when the time is right to speak. That is, they know their place in line. In Japanese conversation, long silences are tolerated. For Americans, even two or three seconds of silence can become uncomfortable.Case StudyCase 17When these two men separate, they may leave each other with very different impressions.Mr Richardson is very pleased to have made the acquaintance of Mr Chu and feels they have gotten off to a very good start. They have established their relationship on a first-name basis and Mr Chu‘s smile seemed to indicate that he will be friendly and easy to do business with. Mr Richardson is particularly pleased that he had treated Mr Chu with respect for his Chinese background by calling him Hon-fai rather than using the western name, David, which seemed to him an unnecessaryimposition of western culture.In contrast, Mr Chu feels quite uncomfortable with Mr Richardson. He feels it will be difficult to work with him, and that Mr Richardson might be rather insensitive to cultural differences. He is particularly bothered that, instead of calling him David or Mr Chu, Mr Richardson used his given name, Hon-fai, the name rarely used by anyone, in fact. It was this embarrassment which caused him to smile. He would feel more comfortable if they called each other Mr Chu and Mr Richardson. Nevertheless, when he was away at school in North America he learned that Americans feel uncomfortable calling people Mr for any extended period of time. His solution was to adopt a western name. He chose David for use in such situations. Case 18Even if the American knew Urdu, the language spoken in Pakistan, he would also have to understand the culture of communication in that country to respond appropriately. In this case, hehad to say ―No at least three times.In some countries, for instance, the Ukraine, it may happen that a guest is pressed as many as seven or eight times to take more food, whereas in the UK it would be unusual to do so more than twice. For a Ukrainian, to do it the British way would suggest the person is not actually generous.Indeed, British recipients of such hospitality sometimes feel that their host is behaving impolitely by forcing them into a bind, since they run out of polite refusal strategies long before the Ukrainian host has exhausted his/her repertoire of polite insistence strategies.Case 19Talking about what‘s wrong is not easy for people in any culture, but people in high-context countries like China put high priority on keeping harmony, preventing anyone from losing face, and nurturing the relationship. It seems that Ron Kelly had to learn a different way of sending message when he was in China. At home in Canada he would have gone directly to the point. But in China, going directly to the problem with someone may suggest that he or she has failed to live up to his orher responsibility and the honor of his or her organization is in question. In high-context cultures like China, such a message is serious and damaging. In low-context cultures, however, the tendency is just to ―spit it out, to get it into words and worry about the result later. Senders of unwelcome messages use objective facts, assuming, as with persuasion, that facts are neutral, instrumental, and impersonal. Indirectness is often the way members of high-context cultures choose to communicate about a problem.Case 20It seems that the letters of request written in English as well as in Chinese by Chinese people are likely to preface the request with extended face-work. To Chinese people, the normal and polite way to form a request requires providing reasons that are usually placed before the requests. Of course, this is just the inverse of English conventions in which requests are fronted without much face-work. In the view of the English-speaking people, the opening lines of Chinese requests and some other speech acts do not usually provide a thesis or topic statement which will orient the listener to the overall direction of the communication. Worst of all, the lack of precision and thefailure to address the point directly may lead to suspicions that the Chinese speakers are beating around the bush. To them, the presence of a clear and concise statement of what is to be talked about will make the speech more precise, more dramatic, and more eloquent.However, the Chinese learning and using English in communication may find it difficult to come to terms with the common English tendency to begin with a topic statement. In the Chinese culture, stating one‘s requ est or main point at the beginning would make the person seem immodest, pushy, and inconsiderate for wanting things. If your speech gives others the impression that you are demandingsomething, you would lose face for acting aggressively and not considering the others.Thus you‘d be hurting people by claiming something for yourself.In such a situation, it is usually considered a smart strategy if you carefully delineate the justifications that will naturally lead to your request or argument. Therefore, instead of stating their proposition somewhere in the beginning and then proceeding to build their case, Chinese people often first establish a shared context with which to judge their requests or arguments. Only after carefully prefacing them with an avalanche of relevant details, as if to nullify any opposition, will they present the requests or arguments.。
跨文化交际复习资料
跨文化交际复习资料Unit 1&2Reviewing Papers for Intercultural CommunicationUnit 1&2I- Keywords（1）Sender/Source: A sendcr/source is the person who transmits a message.（信息发出者/信息源：信息发岀者/信息源指传递信息的人。
）（2）Message: A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.（信息：信息扌呂弓I 起信息接受者反应的任何信号。
）（3）Encoding: It refers to the activity during which the sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.（编码：编码指信息发岀者选择言语或用非言语的方式发出有目的的信息的行为。
）⑷ Channel/NIedium：It is the method used to deliver a message・（渠道/媒介：渠道/媒介指发送信息的方法。
）（5）Receiver: A receiver is any person who notices and gives some meaning to a message・（信息接受者：信息接受者指信息接收者是指注意到信息并且赋予信息某些含义的人。
）（6）Decoding: It is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols iie/she has received.（解码：解码指信息接受者赋予其收到的言语或符号信息意义的行为。
新编跨文化交际英语教程复习资料
《新编跨文化交际英语教程》复习资料U9(总7页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Unit 9 Intercultural Adaptation Some Ideas Related to Culture Shock and Adaptation Strategies1. Culture ShockWhat is culture shock Culture shock is a common experience of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad. It refers to phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis. It is associated with feelings in the person of estrangement (being unfriendly or hostile to others; alienation), anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness, and even physical illness. The person undergoing culture shock views his new world out of resentment, and alternates between being angry at others for not understanding him and being filled with self-pity.Culture shock is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols or social contact. Those cues or sighs include various ways in which we adapt ourselves to the situation of daily life: When to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to buy things, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not. These cues, which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, or customs, are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which we do not carry on the level of conscious awareness.Now when an individual enters a strange culture, all or most of these familiar cues are removed. He or she is like fish out of water. Edward Hall describes a hypothetical example of an American living abroad for the first time — at first, things in the cities look pretty much alike. There are taxis, hotels with hot and cold running water, theatres, neon lights, even tall buildings with elevators and a few people who can speak English. But pretty soon the American discovers that underneath the familiar exterior there are vast differences. When someone says “yes” it often doesn’t mean yes at all, and when people smile it doesn’t always mean they are pleased.When the American visitor makes a helpful gesture he may be rebuffed; when he tries to be friendly nothing happens. People tell him that they will do things and don’t. The longer he stays, the more enigmatic (puzzling) the new country looks.2. Possible signs of culture shockThe following sentences describe different stages of culture shock.a. The person holds a hostile and aggressive attitude toward the host country.b. The person begins to open the way into the new cultural environment.c. The person now accepts the customs of the country as just another way of living.d. The person is fascinated by the new environment.3. Suggestions found to be helpful in fighting culture shock1) Recognize that you are experiencing culture shock, and your reactions are not from some other source. Remember that many others have had the same experience, and that it is normal. Understand that your feelings are part of a response to learning about the other culture and consider it a positive sign.2) Give yourself permission to temporarily indulge the symptom: if you are sleepy, sleep.3) Find other from your culture and spend time together talking about home, eating, sharing experiences.4) Help someone from your home culture who has recently arrived. You will be surprised at how much you’ve learned.5) Communicate with family and friends. Write letters or call. Remember that those at home might not realize that culture shock is a normal experience. Let them know it is a temporary phase of adjusting to life in a different culture.6) Become an expert on some aspect of the other culture. Choose something you like, and learn more about people in the host culture.7) Maintain your sense of humor. Laugh at the mistakes you make; they are usually not serious.8) Keep busy. Get to know the area where you live by walking around and observing. Say hello to a neighbor in the place you live, and perhaps start a friendship.9) Become friendly with classmates. Spend some out-of-school time together.10) Do something you enjoy. Contact a relative or acquaintance whose address you may have. Browse through department stores. Visit a museum. Walk through a new area of town. See a play or go to a movie.11) Forget that your English is less than perfect, and feel free “to ask” people for information, guidance, or directions. Many people are friendly, and helpful. It is important not to dwell on negative incidents. Disappointments are simply a fact of life.12) Be flexible. Make up your mind that you are going to enjoy your new adventure.4. Two views of culture shockTwo views of culture shock1) The disease viewThe culture-shocked person experiences a breakdown in communication, is unable to cope, and feels isolated and lost. He develops a number of defensive attitudes and behaviors to protect the mind from the confusion of an entirely new situation. He is a helpless victim.He can experience many emotional and mental difficulties. He may become extremely frustrated, angry, and rejecting of the new culture. He considers the host country bad, ridiculous, stupid, and hopeless.He may start to glorify his home country. He fears physical contact with anyone or anything from the new culture. He may feel harmed, tricked, deceived, injured, orignored. People can become physically ill from the stress of culture shock — ulcers, headaches, stomach aches, back aches, the flu — physical symptoms.2) The self-awareness viewThe educational experience provides a mirror in which one’s own culture is reflected. Exposure to new cultures enables them to gain new insights into their own culture and society.Positive cross-cultural learning experiences typically involve change and movement from one cultural frame of reference to another.5. Four ways of adaptationAssimilation （同化）Separation（隔绝）Marginalization（边缘化）Integration（融合）Reading IAdapting to a New CultureComprehension questions1. What are the terms that can be applied to the concept of “culture shock”Terms that can be applied to the concept of ―culture shock are culture stress, adaptation, transition shock, adjustment, socialization, and so on.2. W hat are the symptoms of a person at his or her “honeymoon stage” in the process of adapting to a new culture?In this stage, one feels a sense of excitement, pleasure, and self-satisfaction for making the decision to come to this beautiful place. In his or her view, nearly everything appears wonderful.3. Does everybody experience the Stage Two How to cope with the negative feelings one may have at this stage?No, some people never experience this stage. In order to cope with the negative feelings one may have at this stage, one should not withdraw from all contact with the new culture and instead try to have more contact with the host nationals.4. According to the author, what is the best thing to do when one is experiencing culture shock?The best thing to do when you are experiencing culture shock is to admit that you are experiencing culture shock, try to identify your stage of culture shock, and work toward becoming more familiar with the new culture.5. What are the problems that people are confronted with when they return to the home culture from overseas?Upon their first returning home, there is a sense of relief and excitement about being in familiar surroundings. However, a sense of depression and negative outlook follows the initial reentry cycle, for a person may find that the home culture is no longer the same. They may have difficulty readjusting to the home culture and the reentry process has often involved their suffering quietly with stress.6. What are the improvements people usually make when they get into Stage Three?When people get into Stage Three, they become more accustomed to the foods, sights, sounds, smells, and nonverbal behaviors of the new culture and have less physical problems and less confusion, uncertainty, and loneliness. Their normal contacts with host nationals are increasing and now they can accept themselves and others around them.7. What do you think of the author’s suggestion of using the native language to compliment people in the host culture?It is very important for one to be able to use the native language if one hopes to survive successfully in a new cultural environment, for it can not only compliment the local people, but also greatly enhance mutual understanding.8. Do you have any other suggestions for adapting successfully to a new culture?Apart from those suggestions given by the author, one should also try to learn from those who have much experience in adapting to a new culture, which may be helpful in one‘s effort to overcome the difficulties in the process of cultural adaptation. Reading IIOvercoming Ethnocentrism in Communication Comprehension questions1. Why do people involved in intercultural communication often evaluate the other(s) negatively?Because in intercultural communication we tend to use the categories of our own culture to judge and interpret the behaviors of the others who are culturally different from us.2. What is the basic difference between American and Japanese communication styles?The basic difference may be that Americans are much more direct while Japanese are very indirect.3. What will happen when communicators engage in mutual negative evaluation in American-Japanese interaction?When communicators engage in mutual negative evaluation, the communication event may deteriorate even further. The American, sensing Japanese reluctance to confront a problem, becomes even more personal and aggressive. The Japanese, reacting to an embarrassing social indiscretion, becomes even more formal and indirect.4. What do you think the Nigerian communication style is like?Nigerians are inclined to take the more contextual style in communication. They tend to provide as much context as they can before they get to the point.5. Why does the Thai employee continue to use the formal title to address his American manager in their conversations?Because the Thai people usually consider it quite disrespectable to address the manager by his first name, for in their culture, one should always be aware of one‘s place in the organization‘s hierarchy and behave accordingly. .6. Why does the author say that the case of American-British interaction deserves closer attention?Because the case of American-British interaction is more complicated. Americans and the British employ different cultural approaches in response to different occasions. The British, like other Europeans, tend to use a low-context approach to intellectual confrontation and a more high-context style in personal matters of feeling and relationship, whereas Americans usually treat a relationship in a low-context manner handle intellectual confrontation in a high-context manner.7. What should we do to overcome the tendency to stereotype and negatively evaluate others who are culturally different from us?We can overcome the tendency to stereotype and generate negative evaluations by approaching every cross-cultural situation as a kind of experiment. Using available generalizations about the other culture, we can formulate a hypothesis and then test it for accuracy. As more knowledge of relevant cultural differences is acquired, generalizations can become more specific, hypotheses more particular, and communication difficulties more predictable.8. If we cannot help making generalizations, how to use cultural generalizations effectively?We can use generalizations to hypothesize likely areas of contrast and possible communication problems and then acquire specific cultural differences through intercultural practice.Case StudyCase 33The problems that Li Li has encountered during her stay in the United States are typically some of those that people will usually be faced with when they enter a new culture.There are obviously distinct stages that Li Li has gone through in the process of her adaptation to the American cultural environment: honeymoon period (Letter 1), when she was fascinated and excited by almost everything in the United States and felt elated to be in the new culture; culture shock. (Letter 2), when she was immersed in many problems that she had not been prepared for and became extremely homesick; initial adjustment (Letter 3), when she learned more about American culture and cultural adaptation and began to feel much better then; mental isolation (Letter 4), when she felt frustrated and became even somewhat hostile towards Americans; and acceptance period (Letter 5), when she began to realize the positive and negative aspects of the country and have a more balanced perspective about her experiences there.What she me ans by writing in her fifth letter that ―I think I have finally arrived in America is that she has finally learned to accept the culture very different from her own and begun to integrate herself into it. She is no longer like a fish out of water, and does not feel alienated from the new environment any more.Case 34In this case, it seems that Kevin failed to understand that customs for such a social gathering would be culturally different and Blanca were not properly prepared for experiencing a culture shock like this when she came to work and live in a new cultural environment.In Dominican culture, it is usually considered inappropriate for a young unmarried female to go to a social gathering alone without anyone else accompanying her. A chaperone is often required, and getting one‘s parents‘permission is also necessary. However, all this may be very strange to North Americans nowadays. Kevin could not quite understand why Blanca, already an adult supposed to be independent, had to bring her little sister along to the gathering so as to get her parents‘permission.Another thing at which they differ is that in Dominican culture, somewhat like our Chinese culture, people going out together to eat seldom pay separately. The elder one(s) would pay for the younger one(s), and the male(s) would pay for the female(s). Because of having expected that Kevin would pay for their meals, Blanca didn‘t bring much money with her when she was going to The Blue Hat. Therefore, when Kevin said ―separate checks, please‖ to the waiter, as North American people usually do while going out together to eat, he didn‘t realize that he had put Blanca in a very embarrassing situation. That‘s why Blanca whispered to her sister, telling her that she didn‘t have much money with her then and just ordered something to drink when she said they were not hungryat all.Case 35The American‘s personal experience in Russia has taught us not to jump to a conclusion about any other culture. We may misinterpret the behavior and intention of people in other cultures, for we are easily influenced by some popularovergeneralizations about other cultures. We have to be aware that things in other cultures may not be what they appear to us foreigners. One of the difficulties wewill experience in adjusting to a new culture is that we may have taken too much of our own―cultural baggage: misleading stereotypes and preconceptions about members of that culture. In intercultural communication it is sometimes true that a little learning about other cultures can be a dangerous thing. Distorted or biased knowledge may be worse than no knowledge at all. Even if what we know about other cultures has been proved to be right and well grounded, we still have to remember that there will often be variation within any culture. We should always be prepared for exceptions when interacting with individuals from another culture. Case 36We all know that we are members of a particular culture and we share the same cultural identity with other members of the culture. However, much of our cultural identity may simply be outside of our awareness. Not until we find ourselves in situations where our sense of self --- our values, beliefs, practices --- is called into question do we perceive the tacit dimensions of our cultural identity. In this incident, the German woman has found out that Americans treat their neighbors in a way that isdifferent from the way Germans do. As her expectations were thwarted, she became aware of her own cultural identity, her cultural way of thinking, of interpreting the world. This could be a painful process, which many of us, as the German woman in this case, may not be prepared for. Therefore, it is important to raise people‘s awareness of their culturally shaped identity and acknowledge the likelihood of some emotional disturbance during the cultural adjustment.。
(完整版)跨文化交际英文版
munication is a dynamic, systematic process in which meanings are created and reflected in human interaction with symbols.2.Culture: The deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, meanings,hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.3.Acculturations: occurs when a society undergoes drastic culture change under the influence of a moredominant culture and society with which it has come in contact.4.Intercultural communication:It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions andsymbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event.5.co-culture: when talking about groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics,perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture.nguage is an organized, generally agreed on, learned symbol system used to represent theexperiences within a cultural community.7.Perception: the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and information to create ameaningful picture of the world.8.Value: is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally orsocially preferable to another.9.Culture patterns: refers to both the conditions that contribute to the way in which a people perceiveand think about the world, and the manner in which they live that world.10.Collectivism:is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups andout-groups.11.Masculinity: is the extent to which the dominant values in a society are male oriented and associatedwith ambitions, differentiated sex roles, achievements, acquisition of money and signs of manliness. 12.A high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either inthe physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the massage. A low-context (LC) communication is just the opposite; i.e., the mass of information is vested in the explicit code.13.Context: the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of thatevent.14.World view is a culture’s orientation toward God, humanity, nature, questions of existence, theuniverse and cosmos, life, moral and ethical reasoning, suffering, death, and other philosophical issues that influence how its members perceive their world.15.Argot is a more or less private vocabulary peculiar to a co-cultural group, and a group must have anargot if it is to be considered a co-culture.16.Nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that aregenerated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver.17.A learning style is a particular way that an individual receives and processes information.18.Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes our experiences and guidesour behavior toward a group of people.19.Culture shock: when we are thrust into another culture and experience psychological and physicaldiscomfort from this contact we have become victims of culture shock.20.Ethnocentrism: the belief that one’s culture is primary to all explanations of reality.21.Seven characteristics of culture affect communication: learned, transmitted from generation togeneration, based on symbols, dynamic, integrated, ethnocentric, adaptive.22.Belief: our conviction in the truth of something. Learned and subject to cultural interpretation andcultural diversity.23.Individualism:refers to the doctrine, spelled out in detail by the seventeenth. The single mostimportant pattern in the US.24.Hofstede’s Value Dimensions:four parts: individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, powerdistance, and masculinity and femininity.25.Culture differs in their attitudes toward: individualism and collectivism, uncertainty avoidance,power distance, masculinity and femininity, human nature, the perception of nature, time, activity, relationships, context, formality and informality, assertiveness and interpersonal harmony.26.Religious Similarities: sacred writings, authority, traditional rituals, speculation, ethics.27.Five religious orientations: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism.28.the family we are born into the family of orientation and take a spouse the family of procreation.29.problems of translation and equivalence：vocabulary or lexical equivalence, idiomatic and slangequivalence, grammatical-syntactical equivalence, experiential-cultural equivalence, conceptual equivalence.30.The use of argot reflects a co-culture’s need to have a language that permits them to 1.sharemembership,2. participate in their social and cultural communities,3. identify themselves and their place in the universe, 4. communicate with one another about their own social realities.31.Functions of communication: repeating, complementing, substituting, regulating, contradicting.32.The study of how movement communicates is called kinesics. Kinesic cues are those visible bodyshifts and movements that can send messages about 1.our attitude toward the other person 2. our emotional state 3. our desire to control our environment.33.Eyes serve six communication functions: 1. indicates degree of attentiveness, interest, and arousal 2.help intiate and sustain intimate relationships 3. influence attitude change and persuasion 4. regulate interaction 5. communicate emotions 6. define power and status relationships 7. assume a central role in impression management.34.kinds of vocalizations: vocal characterizers, vocal qualifiers, vocal segregates.。
大学英语跨文化复习资料
⼤学英语跨⽂化复习资料⼤学英语跨⽂化复习资料第⼀章：⽂化(1) Culture (from intercultural communication perspective): is the deposit of knowledge, experience, belief, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.（从跨⽂化交际学⾓度定义⽂化：⽂化是个⼈和群体在种族发展过程中所获得的知识、经验、信仰、价值观、⾏为、态度、阶级、宗教、时间观、⾓⾊、空间观、宇宙观和艺术品的集合。
）(2) Culture Identity:refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.（⽂化⾝份：认为⾃⼰归属于某⼀⽂化或民族群体的感觉。
）(3) Subculture: refers to a culture that exists within dominant culture, and is often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.（亚⽂化：指存在于主流⽂化中的⽂化，其划分通常基于经济地位、社会阶层、民族、种族或地理区域。
）(4) Co-culture: refers to groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture.（共⽂化：指具有独特的交际特征、感知特点、价值观、信仰和⾏为，区别于其他群体、社团以及主流⽂化的群体或社团。
跨文化交际复习资料
Key intercultural concepts and theoriesreviewI. Value FrameworkKluckhohn’s Five Basic Questions克拉克洪五个基本问题（文化维度）1. What is the character of innate human nature（人的本性）?= Human nature orientation2. What is the relation of humans to nature（人与自然的关系）?=Man-nature orientation3. What is the temporal (time) focus（时间焦点）of human life?=Time orientation4. What is the mode of human activity（人的活动方式）?=Activity orientation5. What is the mode of human relationships（人与人之间的关系模式）? =Social orientationHofstede’s Cultural 5 Dimensions Model霍夫斯泰德的文化五维度模型⚫Power Distance (PD)How inequalities are viewed and handled in the culture(strong hierarchical relationships versus egalitarian relationships)⚫Individualism/Collectivism (I-C)How individuals view themselvesAre they an individual striving for individual goals or a part of a collective group, where group harmony is important?⚫Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)How accepting of uncertainty is the culture?Masculinity/Femininity (M-F) Hard and SoftHow the culture values competitiveness/assertiveness (i.e., masculine traits) and cooperation/nurturing (i.e., feminine traits).⚫Long Term Orientation (Confucian Dynamism)This dimension accounts for people’s preference time frame.Do the people focus on long term goals or the more immediate, short term goals?⚫Indulgence/RestraintIndulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.II. Communication stylesPing-Pong style vs Bowling styleDirect vs indirectHigh involvement vs high consideratenessPerson-Oriented style vs Status-Oriented styleLow context vs high contextEdward Hall’s Theory on High and Low Context CulturesIII. Nonverbal communicationOverview of Nonverbal Communication1. Body Language•General appearance and dress •Gestures•Eye contact•Facial expression•Posture•Touching 2. Paralanguage•Silence•Pitch•Volume3. Environment Language•Space•TimeIV. Intercultural ConflictIntercultural conflict is the implicit or explicit emotional struggle or frustration between persons of different cultures over perceived incompatible values, norms, face orientations, goals, scarce resources, processes, and/or outcomes in a communication situation.Individualistic conflict lensOutcome-focused Content goal-oriented Doing-centered Self-face concernLow-context conflict styleCompetitive/dominating behaviors Conflict effectivenessCollectivistic conflict lensProcess-focusedRelational goal-oriented Being-centered Other-face concernHigh-context conflict styles Avoiding/obliging behaviors Conflict appropriatenessSapir-Whorf Hypothesis P146 沃尔夫假说“沃尔夫假说(Sapir –Whorf hypothesis)”，又称为“语言相对论(linguistic relativity)”是关于语言、文化和思维三者关系的重要理论，即在不同文化下，不同语言所具有的结构、意义和使用等方面的差异，在很大程度上影响了使用者的思维方式。
跨文化交际 复习资料
1、文化：cultureIt is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.The Characteristics of Culture:Learned、transmitted、Subject to change、unconscious、integrated、symbolic、adaptive.2、跨文化交际：intercultural communicationIntercultural communication means the communication between people from different cultural backgrounds. It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.3、高语境文化：High-Context Cultures①Infer information from message context, rather than from content.②Prefer indirectness, politeness and ambiguity.③Convey little information explicitly.④Rely heavily on nonverbal signs.4、价值观：ValuesA standard by which members of culture define what is desirable or undesirable、good or bad、beautiful or ugly、acceptable or unacceptable. V alues are standards set by the members of a society.V alues are often highly contexted. V alues can change significantly over time. V alues can differ within one society and around the world.5、言语交际：verbal communication:It refers to any form of communication that is directly dependent on the use of language.非言语交际：Nonverbal communicationIt will be defined as the process by which nonverbal behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in the exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or context.6、本地化：LocalizationThe process of adapting a product or service to a particular language, culture, and desired local “look-and-feel.”Aspects to be considered in localization: Language、Time zones、Money、National holidays、Local color sensitivities、Product or service names、Gender roles、Geographic examples 、Advertisements7、刻板印象：StereotypesA fixed general image, characteristic, etc. that a lot of people believe to represent a particular type of person or thing.Stereotypes are a form of generalization about some group of people, or a means of organizing images into fixed and simple categories that are used to stand for the entire collection of people. It is found in nearly every intercultural situation. The reason forthe pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.8、文化休克：Cultural shockIt is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse.9、符号：SymbolA person，an object, an event, etc. that represents a more general quality or situation.1、猫头鹰的故事：①This is because Chinese and English native speakers assign different associative meanings to the same bird—owl.②Owl in China is the sign of bad luck. The mere sight of an owl or the sound of the creature’s hooting is enough to cause people to draw back in fear.But in English it is associated with wisdom. In children’s books and cartoons, whenever there is a dispute among birds or beasts, it is the owl that acts as judge.③The term dog elicits different feelings in these two cultures. In China gou(dog) often has derogative meanings, such as 狼心狗肺. But in West is considered the best friend of man, which is well established in their cultures. So the feel disgusted at eating dog meat.④Long(龙) is a symbol of the emperor in ancient China. It has been almighty to us Chinese. Today long is often identified with China or Chinese. But to the English—speaking people, the Chinese long has been rendered in English as “dragon”. Dragon is a fire—spitting monster, cruel and fierce that destroys and therefore must be destroyed.⑤In Chinese ,松、柏、鹤、桃stand for longevity. In English, they are just plants.2、气泡空间：①This is because each person has a “bubble” of space (territory). Studies show that people from South America, Arab countries, and many Asian countries have a smaller personal territory than do North Americans, British and Germans. In Mexican and Arab cultures, physical distance between people when engaged in conversation is very close. In order to feel comfortable while talking, what the Mexican does is to move closer, while what the North American does is to step back a little.②In Western counties, personal territory is highly valued. Each one has his/her own space at home or in office which should not be invaded. In public places, they have “temporary territory”, not be intruded upon either.③As is in the case of human behavior, the use of space is directly linked to the value system of different cultures. The Americans whose culture stresses individualism generally demand more space than do people from collectivistic cultures and tend to take an active, aggressive stance when their space is violated.3、家庭第一：①One of the reason that Annie could not understand Rosa is this:：in American culture, the nuclear family is much more important to the individual than the extended family. Most Americans feel little responsibility toward their second cousins, and may never even have met them. Therefore, Annie was confused because Rosa put so much effort into helping “just” a second cousin.②But in Rosa’s culture there is not such a big difference between nuclear and extended family responsibilities. In some countries, the extended family is the main financial and emotional support for people in times of crisis. However, this is not so far most Americans, who rely more on friends, institutions, and professionals.③Another reason is their possession of different cultural values. Rosa felt that “family comes first”, which means that her own needs come second. Annie had a hard time understanding that point of view because in her culture the individual usually comes first. In the United States the person who can “make it on his own”without help from family is respected, although of course many people do get help from their families.④Because of these differences, it is sometimes difficult for people to understand and accept the way family members in other cultures seem to treat each other. It is important, however, to remember that families show their love in different ways. These differences sometimes make it hard to see the reality of family love in every culture in the world.4、男女之间的约会：①Blanca thought that Kevin was going to pay for her because he had invited her to go out, this was the American custom. But things are changing. One reason is that many more American women work today. Therefore, many men and women think it is unfair for men to always pay for everything when they go out.②Another reason is that some women say that if a man pays for them, they feel like they own him something. And some American women prefer to pay because they like to feel like an equal partner on a date. They don’t feel equal if they are taken places and paid for.③Blanca’s understanding that Kevin was going to pay for her is an example of a cultural assumption. Our cultural assumptions are so much a part of us that many times we cannot believe that the whole world does not see things as we do. Trying to understand cultural assumptions that other people make can help to explain their way of thinking and acting.④Most Hispanic parents assume the worst will happen if they let their daughters go out alone with a man. And the Hispanic assumption about women is that they will not be able to stop a man.。
跨文化交际复习资料.docx
1 .monochronic time (M Time) : It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time isperceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future.2.polychronic time (P Time) : schedules several activities at the same time. In theseculture people emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them.3.intercultural communication : is a face-to-face communication between people fromdifferent cultural backgrounds4.host culture is the mainstream culture of anyone particular country.5.minority culture is the cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relation tothe host culture.6.subculture is a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.7.multiculturalism is the official recognition of a country^ cultural and ethnic diversity.8.cross-cultural communication is a face-to-face communication between reprentativesof business,government and professional groups from different cultures.9・ high-context culture : a culture in which meaning is not necessarily contained in words. Information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence. 10.low-context culture : a culture in which the majority of the information is vested in theexplicit code.11.perception: in its simplest sense,perception is ,as Marshall singer tells us/^the processby which an individual selects, evaluates,and organizes stimuli from the externalworld” In other words, perception is an internal process whereby we convert thephysical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiences.Non-verbal communicationIt refers to communication through a whole variety of different types f signal come into play, including the way we more, the gestures we employ, the posture we adopt, the facial expression we wear, the direction of our gaze, to the extent to which we touch and the distance we stand from each othe匚• IndividualismIndividualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, right, and duties originate in individuals. It emphasizes individual initiative, independence, individual expression, and even privacy.13> ParalanguageThe set of nonphonemic properties of speech, such as speaking tempo, vocal pitch, and intonational contours, that can be used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning.12.人际交际interpersonal communication: a small number of individuals who are interactingexclusively with one another and who therefore have the ability to adapt their messagesspecifically for those others and to obtain immediate interpretaions from (hem•指少数人之间的交往他们既能根据对方调整自己的信息，又能立即从对方那里获得解释。
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1.The importance of learning about culture1.Understanding foreign cultures is not only important for companies that operate in more than one global area and market internationally. It is just important for organizations at home that employ workers from more than one culture.2.Understanding culture is also important for individuals who work in the global workplace.3.the two important reasons for understanding culture are to learn how others make sense of（搞清.的意思）their environment, and to prevent mistakes and miscommunications.2. 对待差异的态度（Responding to Different Cultures）：1.hostility (敌对) to difference 2.Curiosity about difference3.Denying difference: Assumptions of superiority(优越); Ethnocertrism(民族中心论); Assumptions of universality4.cooperating with difference3. Minimize and prevent mistakes across cultures:1.Knowledge about one’s own culture, with this, knowledge about another culture is easier to learn.2.motivation, the drive to know and to use the knowledge.3.implementing（贯彻）knowledge, and behaving in a way that makes sense in the other culture, the one in which you want to do business.4. culture is the coherent, , shared view of a group of people about life’s concerns, expressed in symbols and activities, that ranks what is important, furnishes（提供）attitudes about what things are appropriate, and dictates behavior.5.文化三特征:1Coherent:each culture, past or present, is coherent and complete within itself—an entire view of the universe2.Learned:culture is not something we born with3.The view of a group of people:is shared by a society.三功能：1.Ranks what is important: teaches values or priorities.2.Furnishes Attitudes:attitudes are based on beliefs as well as on values.3 Dictates how to behave:behavior comes directly from attitudes about how significant something is –how it is valued.6.Onstage and backstage:Onstage culture is the behavior we display,it is easy to change.(interchangeable)Backstage culture is not so visible, it is difficult to change.(the essence of people’s culture)7.Transaction culture:a transaction culture exists when interactants respond to cultural cues and modify their own behavior, creating-or co-creating—a new, temporary culture.(调整行为，适应对方or共同产生新行为) The amount of adjusted behavior depends on several factors:1 their level of knowledge about the other culture2 their willingness to experiment with new behaviors and attitudes 3their previous experience with successful intercultural interactions.8.Culture shock:Culture shock is the sense of dislocation（转位）and the problems-psychological and even physical-that result from the stress of trying to make the hundreds of adjustments necessary for living in a foreign culture.7.Transaction culture四个阶段:1. Experiencing a new culture is usually euphoria(欣快)2.Downturn as disillusionment(幻灭)and frustration(沮丧)arise3.adjustment4.integration(融合)Euphoria: everything about the exciting new adventure is wonderful—no longer two weeks.The second stage is a downturn as disillusionment and frustration arise. It is a feeling of not being in step with the members of the culture.Adjustment.---as the sojourner（寄居者）learns more about the backstage culture and how the other culture works, he or she is able to cooperate more effectively with members of the host culture. the fourth stage, integration, occurs when a sojourner becomes fluent enough in the other culture to move easily within it and not be thrown by the different attitudes, beliefs, and values, and the behaviors they generate.Reverse culture shock: a similar adjustment period with its accompanying symptoms usually occurs when a sojourner returnsa9.Self-knowledge and understanding one’s own culture: Having a good understanding of one’s own culture is the best foundation for developing the ability to understand the communication behavior of people from other cultures. To achieve it---Mental representation: use mental categories that hold information items grouped together.10.Mental Representation三个心里表征：prejudice（racism，ageism）;bias; discrimination11. Prejudice generalizations that are based on limited knowledge, and that express an evaluation-usually negative-are prejudices.Bias a bias for something is really nothing more than a preference. A bias against something is a negative attitude that ranks it lowDiscrimination when biases or prejudices are acted on, the actor is showing discrimination. Discrimination is the act of sifting（过滤）out and selecting according to bias toward something or someone, and treating them differently.12. Are cultures merging into one global culture? (文化定义；onstage，backstage)13. Approaches to studying cultures:1.focus on a culture as a whole (emic studies一个文化不同层面, etic studies多种文化的共性)2 focus on individual(individuals may have any number of experiences, personal insights, personal goals, interests and expectations that are part of their idetities.14. Emic studiesStudies that concentrate on one culture alone are called emic studies.Etic studiesStudies that look for factors that exist in more than one culture are called etic studies.Cultural generalizationsStudies about whole culture give us conclusions that are generalizations about the culture.15. Cultural dimensionsCharacteristics that could be the basis of comparisons from culture to culture is called cultural dimensions.16. Stereotypes: Stereotyping means using oversimplified generalizations to understand people1stereotypes are fixed, firm, inflexible mental categories2prototypes（原型）are the original concepts or models for something.3nor are all stereotypes bad, some are positive.17. Self-identity: identity is as sth formed in part by the self and in part by group membership.Self-concept can be formed in three general ways.①Social Psychology---experience.②Communication---core symbols, labels and norms.③Critical---social contexts (history, economics, polities, public discourse).18. Self-construal(自我建构) is how we see ourselves in relation to others, with regard to feelings, thoughts, and behavior. In general, western culture have an independent self-construal, and eastern cultures have an interdependent（相互依赖的）self-construal.19. Individualism values individual achievements, failures, and rights over the collective.Collectivism values the group above the individual, and individuals have a responsibility to the group that supersedes（取代）individual needs or rights.20. 文化维度1.语境：a.高High-context cultures rely on the context, either the actual physical environment of communication or an internalized（内在化的）social context, or both, to convey a large part or even all of a message’s meaning. It is elliptical省略的，indirect，allusive（暗指的）.低:Low-context cultures entrust（委托）the meaning almost entire the words.it is explicit，direct, completely.2.集体个人a.定义b集体-关系导向型，个人-结果导向型c. A characteristic of individualist culture is competitiveness; the corresponding value in collectivist cultures is cooperation.Collectivism: relationships, old, permanent, public, high power distance (hierarchical), high-context culture, hide emotion, cooperation, harmony, dependence.Individualism:results, youth, temporary, private, low power distance (horizontal), low-context culture, express Emotion, competitiveness, independence.3.权力距离：Power distance is the degree to which less-powerful members of an organization tolerate unequal distribution of power, say, between managers and employees.cultures with a smaller power distance are more horizontal, less hierarchical, and less authoritarian than are cultures with a high power distance.Cultures with high power distance are inequality in power, less horizontal, more hierarchical, and more authoritarian.21. High-context cultures: value relationships, teamwork, and long-term group membership. It rely on subjective information that is internalized (elliptical, indirect, allusive).Low-context cultures: value independent decisions, activity that achieves goals, and individual accountability (explicit, direct, completely).22. High culture refers to those cultural activities that are often the domain of the elite or well-to-do :ballet, sumphony, opera, great literature, and fine art. International; timeless; transcendent(超然的);Low culture refers to the activities of the nonelite: music videos, game shows, professional wrestling, stock car racing, graffiti art, tv talk shows, and so on.23. Where can information about cultures be found: 1. ask people who are members of the culture you want to understand. 2. Another good source may be someone who has spent considerable time in that culture but is not a native member of it.3. You can inquire(询问) into a culture by reading fiction from that culture.4. find out what people of a culture say about themselves. rmation about cultures also comes from studies by anthropologists who research cultures in the field, going to live among the members of the culture they want to understand.24. Does Knowing Come from Concepts or Experience:1.knowing by secondhand information from a reliable source.2.in English-speaking or European cultures, abstract（提取）concepts philosophy arguments reaching back in history.3.knowing and being wise come with age 4.intuition(知觉),meditation（冥想）25. Does Learning Come from Asking Questions or Mastering Received Wisdom:1.In the United States ,students who ask questions are rewarded.2. In many cultures in Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Southern Europe, learning means receiving and taking in what is given by teachers.26. Does Knowledge Have Limits:the more you learn, the less you know. E.g. nonscientists who have faith in what science can achieve27. How Do People Reason:1.Western cultures primarily（首先）use a cause-and-effect pattern of thinking.(Linear Logic); two opposite things cannot both be true. 2. Other cultures use other patterns. (Spiral Logic)a. In Asian: thinking is linkage; the opposites co-exist28. Is Doing Important or Is Being Important:1.Doing: western cultures: activity-oriented, peace of life, crowded agendas（日程）. 2.Being: stillness, collectedness, serenity（平静）, silence(members of doing cultures view silence as waste, members of cultures that value being also often value silence).29. Are Tasks Done Sequentially or Simultaneously：1. performing tasks one-by-one in a sequence 误解disorganized 2. performing multiple tasks simultaneously 误解；inflexible30. Do Results or Relationships Take Priority1.Individulism:a.cause-and-effect,goals-oriented,to make progress （进步）. b. identify goals and work toward them c. Strategy to achievement. d. measure how close you have come 2.collectivism:a.relationship-oriented b.Value the relationship as a means to an end.31. Is Uncertainty(不确定性) Avoided or Tolerated:1.uncertainty-averse:Doing：avoid uncertainty, strive toprotect themselves from the unknown 2.uncertaimty-tolerant:Being, tolerant uncertainty; be more open to accepting the unexcepted.32. Is Luck an Essential Factor or an Irrelevance:1. Luck is irrelevant, in cultures that think in cause-and-effect patterns and that value results, planning—not luck—is the key to success. 2. In some cultures, luck or fate or destiny plays a large part, peoples role in achieving success has less effect than forces outside themselves.33. Are Rules to Be Followed or Bent: 1. Followed: neat，predictable behavior, uncertain avoidance（逃避）. 2. Bent: flexibility to meet human needs; uncertain（无常的）tolerance.34. Is Change Positive or Negative:1.The culture of the United States thinks of change as desirable and positive. New means better.2.Traditionally, agrarian cultures typically view change is negative. It means disruption（破坏）to the established patterns of life.35. Is Death the End of Life or Part of Life: Some cultures view death as the end of life, a quenching（熄灭）of the light. It is dreaded（令人畏惧的）. Some cultures view death as another phase in life, a necessary step in the pattern of life. It is accepted.简36. Relationship between Language and culture:1. culture and language are intertwined(缠绕的) and shape each other. It is impossible to separate the two.2.All languages have social questions and information questions.3. Language reflects the environment in which we live; language reflects cultural values; Sometimes different cultures use identical words that have rather different meanings.37. 不重视语言的问题1.Acronyms(首字母缩略词)2.implication of the language barrier. (字同音不同，异国异含义)38. Selection of the right language: 1. Linguistic Considerations 2. Business Considerations 3. Political Considerations 4. The Appropriate Level of Fluency39. Communication with nonnative speakers: Effective Face-to-Face Communication： a.enunciate b. speak slowly c. Avoid Slang and Colloquialisms（白话）d. Be Careful about Jokes. e. Be Sincere g. Be Culturally Sensitiveh. Keep a Sense of Humor40. Effective Written Communication a. Use Plenty of White Space b. Use Correct Titles and Spellings of Namesc.Understand Patterns of Organizationd. Use Headingse. Be Careful with Numbersf. Be Careful with Datesg. Avoid Abbreviationsh. Follow the Conventions of Written Communication41.技术对沟通的影响：1.telephone；2.skype 3. Email,texting and twitters42. 非语言交流影响因素：1. Cultural background 2.socialeconomic background 3. Education4. Gender 5. Age 6. Personal preferences and idiosyncrasies（特质）43. Paralanguage 1.vocal qualifiers: The term vocal qualifiers refers to volume（音量）, pitch（音高）, and the overall intonation（声调）or melody（旋律）of the spoken word.2.vocalization: All cultures use nonword noises such as ahem, um, er, sucking in one’s breath, and clicking one’s tongue.44. Nonverbal business conventions：1.eye contact （a sign of honesty/privacy）2. Facial expression（不同文化频率frequency强度intensity不同a. smiling (indicate joy, embarrassment or avoid embarrassment.)b.showing anger(milder form-frowning; hide anger) 3.gesture(head/arm movements; posture) 4.timing in spoken exchanges(an environment that emphasizes equality; seniority and hierarchy;the role of men.)5.touching(people from low-context cultures tend to be feel crowded by people from high-context cultures, and people from high-context cultures feel left out and rejected by people from low-context cultures. 6. The language of space (private/ office/ public space)7.Appearance（a.不同国家穿衣风格不同b.in most cultures, dress also identifies a person as belonging to a specific group and having a certain status.）8.Silence:(高语境文化更倾向于使用沉默，低语境：silence often is interpreted as the absence of communication)45. Signals of respect: it can be different from culture to culture, and it may take some time to learn what isexcepted behavior. Positions of authority Dress as a symbol of authority46权威的象征：1.tone and nguage(indicator)3.Family and societal structures(indicator) Assertiveness(魄力) v.s Harmony.:1.standing up for one’s own rights(individualism,low power distance)2.Preserving harmony(collectivism,high power distance)47绩效的认可及奖励：1.monetary recognition 2.nonmonetary rewards48自我认同1.Self-identity—A Social Psychology Approach：（experiences）we can think about self-concept is that we build up our sense of self from childhood, based on experiences we have had that contribute to our sense of self. 2.Self-identity—A Communication Approach（communication）：Identities（身份）are communicated in core symbols, labels, and norms.49.Self-identity—A Critical Approach(social context): The critical approach to self-identity uses history, economics, politics, and public discourse.50 Age: Is Seniority Valued or Discounted: a. In cultures that value age, the older a businessperson is the more credibility he or she has. b. in youth-oriented cultures being young seems to mean having more choices, more power, more energy, and more freedom.51 Gender: Are Women Equals or Subordinates: a.In traditional cultures, the two facts are related. Child-bearing and child-nurturing are the main roles of women. b. management rolea52 Social organization :1 Group Membership: Temporary or Permanent: a. Individuals in the United States are members of many groups simultaneously; group membership is impermanent b. In other cultures, the responsibilities of membership come before rights; group membership is permanent, belonging starts with the family.53 three functions of group communication:1.Give and Save Face 2. Displaywhere individual responsibility, results, and privacy are valued, guilt is a potent way for a culture to enforce（实施）rules of behavior. b. In collectivist cultures where group membership, relationships, and public knowledge of one’s life are important, shame enforces the rules of conduct.)54 form: Important or Untrustworthy（靠不住的）: Behaving according to form means behaving correctly.55 Personal Matters: Private or Public: a. In Europe,as in Britain, Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, a person’s work life is kept fairly separate from private life.b. cultures that emphasize relationships, view group member-ship as long term, and value harmony have a blurred （模糊不清的）distinction（区别）between what is private and what is public (or at least what is “group”).56 Social Organizational Patterns: Horizontal or Hierarchical:1.monarchies(君主制): at one extremeare rigid（严格的）vertical levels in society,2.Democracies: movement between them is very limited; at the other extreme, society is horizontal and operates with few levels.57 Approach to Authority: Direct or Mediated:1. in many cultures, the approach to authority is indirect.2. In New Zealand, in which horizontality has priority, the approach to authority is direct.58 Communicating about problems: 1.in low-context cultures: direct 2.in high-context culture: indirect, put a high priority on keeping harmony, preventing anyone important from losing face, and nurturing relationship.59 Saying no:1.it is done with delay and indirectness in low-context cultures, the rationale（基本原理）is to explain why first. 2.it is more difficult for high-context culture, which is often saying yes.60 Gift giving; 1. in many cultures, it is appropriate to take small gifts when one is invited to enjoy hospitality（好客）. 2.the way people from different cultures express appreciation for hospitality varies. 3.the timing of greetings is also important61 Managing conflicts: conflict is a clash between people or between ideas that engages（吸引）people in a struggle against each other. 1. In individualist culture (result-oriented) people are responsible for theconsequence of their own individual activities.2. in collectivist culture(relationship-oriented):they value on relationship, problems are not an individual responsibility.解决方式peting2.collaborating（合作）promising4.avoiding5.accommodating（调节）62.Popular culture refers to those systems or artifacts that most people share and that most people know63 . it's produced by culture industries.it's differs from folk culture.it's everywhere.it's fills a social function.64It differs from folk culture.Popular culture: mass-producedand mass-marketed cultureFolk culture: more authentic "folk" culturea65 CollectivismThink about the family's welfare,reputation,and honor.Marriage and birth-giving, instead of personal affairs, are taken care by all the others in your group which basically is your family.66 IndividualismTakes the marriage as one's own business.Put yourself in the first place thinking of your own happiness, interests67 The concept of face.Concern for face probably appears in many cultures, but is seen as more salient（显著的）for the Chinese than for people from other cultures. Face in Chinese culture refers to one's moral character, a person's reputation or prestige（威望）. It is the positive social value that a person claims（主张）for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular.68 Chinese culture has three values: face (public esteem); a reciprocal（互惠的）network of connections with others; lasting membership in groups.69 Encoding(编码): the construction of textual meaning by popular culture institution—within specific social context. the process of creating messages for others to understand.70 Decoding: the interpretation of the text’s meaning by receivers— is performed by various audiences in different social contexts. Decoding is the process of interpreting a message.71 Sequentially(循序地) or simultaneously?Some cultures value one who works efficiently as one who accomplishes several things at once. Other cultures value a one-thing-at-a-time approach as the most efficient. 72 Do results or relationships taking priority?Relationship-oriented cultures tend to be collectivistic. The relationships that connect people in networks are more significant than the tasks people accomplish. Results-oriented cultures value the outcomes of actions, especially measurable outcomes, as what matters at work and in life.73 Is obligation a burden or a benefit? Collectivist cultures tend to see it as a benefit to nurturing relationships. Individualist cultures tend to see it as a burden to independence.74 Is social organization horizontal or hierarchical? The general pattern in society also is reflected in companies. Where hierarchy(等级制度) characterizes（具有.特质）the national or social culture, companies also will have a clearly defined corporate ladder（阶梯）. The levels are generally agreed upon by members of the collective. In horizontal（水平的）cultures, people can move from their birth level up or down as their individual achievements（业绩）and desires warrant. Mobility（移动性）depends on the accomplishments（成就）of individuals, although their families may partake of（分享）the new status.。