企业纳税筹划文献综述

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企业所得税税收筹划案例参考文献

企业所得税税收筹划案例参考文献

企业所得税税收筹划是企业在合法合规的前提下,通过合理运用税法规定的优惠政策和税收政策,降低纳税额,提高企业经济效益的一种税务管理方式。

税收筹划是合法的,是企业应尽的义务,但必须在法律规定的范围内进行。

在进行税收筹划时,企业要遵循稳妥和适度的原则,不能违法规定和损害国家的税收利益。

下面将通过对一些企业所得税税收筹划案例参考文献的分析,来帮助读者更深入地了解企业所得税税收筹划的具体操作方法和效果。

1. 郭达《企业所得税筹划的理论与实务》郭达的这本专著详细地介绍了企业所得税税收筹划的理论基础和实际操作方法。

书中对企业所得税的基本概念、税收筹划的原则和方法、税收筹划与企业经营决策的关系等内容进行了全面深入地阐述,为企业的税收筹划工作提供了理论指导和实务操作的参考。

2. 王军《企业所得税法律实务及筹划》这是一本介绍企业所得税法律实务和筹划案例分析的专业书籍。

王军在书中系统地介绍了企业所得税的税率、纳税对象、纳税基础等基本概念,同时通过一些实际的税收筹划案例进行了分析与讨论,为企业在实际操作中遇到的税收筹划问题提供了可行的解决思路和方法。

3. 胡光《企业所得税筹划案例与分析》通过对一些企业所得税筹划案例的详细分析,胡光在这本专著中总结了一些成功的税收筹划经验和方法。

书中提到了企业在资产转让、股权转让、跨境投资等方面的税收筹划案例,分析了这些案例中成功的筹划方法和不利的因素,为企业在相似情况下的税收筹划提供了有益的借鉴。

4. 张三《企业所得税优惠政策的筹划应用》这本书主要介绍了各类企业所得税优惠政策的具体应用和操作方法。

张三结合了多年的税务实务经验,通过具体的案例分析和操作步骤,详细地阐述了如何合理利用国家税收优惠政策,降低企业所得税负担,增加企业的经济效益。

通过对以上四本专著的分析可以看出,企业所得税税收筹划在实际操作中需要遵循税法的规定,同时要结合企业自身的经营情况和国家税收政策进行合理筹划。

税收筹划要因地制宜,没有统一的模式,必须根据企业的实际情况和国家政策的变化来灵活运用。

纳税筹划文献综述及外文文献资料

纳税筹划文献综述及外文文献资料

纳税筹划文献综述及外文文献资料本文档包括改专题的:外文文献、文献综述一、外文文献文献信息标题:Effect of Tax Planning on Firms Market Performance: Evidence from Listed Firms in Ghana 作者:Kawor, Seyram; Kportorgbi, Holy Kwabla期刊:International Journal of Economics and Finance第6卷,第3期,页码:162-168,2014年Effect of Tax Planning on Firms Market Performance: Evidence from Listed Firms in GhanaKawor, Seyram; Kportorgbi, Holy KwablaAbstractThe study sought to ascertain the level of tax planning of firms and to explore the relationship between tax planning and firms' market performance. The study used 22 non-financial companies listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange over a twelve year period from 2000. The longitudinal correlative designed was used. The results indicate that that firms' tendency to engage in intensive tax planning activities reduces when tax authorities maintain low corporate income tax rates. Secondly, tax planning has a neutral influence on firms' performance. This finding challenges the general perception that every cedi of tax savings from tax planning reflect in the pocket of investors. It is concluded that investors must institute systems to ensure tax planning benefits reflect significantly in their pockets.Keywords: Ghana stock exchange, tax planning, market performance, longitudinal correlative design, investors1. IntroductionOver the years and throughout the world, the history of taxation brings out one fact; that taxes are coercive in nature and therefore economic units which are assigned the tax liability never wholly intend to bear the actual tax burden (Commonwealth Association of Tax Administrators (CATA), 2007). Economic units, more specifically, corporate bodies are always adopting ways to minimise, postpone, or avoid entirely, the payment of tax. The attempts by the economic units to reduce, postpone or avoid tax payment can be legal or illegal. The legal means is called tax planning while the illegal means is called tax evasion. The dire consequence of tax evasion makes it an unattractive option for listed companies (Murphy, 2004).The practice of tax planning dates back to 1947 when learned judge Hand, in the case Commissioner v Newman, held that there is nothing sinister in arranging ones affairs so as to keep taxes as low as possible. Hoffman's (1961) tax planning theory supports this argument. According to Hoffman, it is a necessity for firms to understand the prevailing tax laws and apply the laws in a manner that ensures the firms minimise their tax exposure. Hoffman posits that it makes no economic sense to pay more tax than what the law demands. Scholes and Wolfson's (1992) tax planning framework also underscores the need for corporate bodies to engage in tax planning. According to Scholes and Wolfson, a successful company is the one that is properly attuned to its tax environment.International governmental organizations, such as CA TA (2009), suggest that corporate bodies in Ghana, especially the large entities, engage in complex tax planning activities. Research by civil society groups such as Christian Aid (2008), Action Aid (2011), and Dan Watch (2011), confirm this assertions made bythe Domestic Revenue Division. The missing element in the findings is thequantitative expression of the tax planning activities of the firms.The traditional thinking is that firms that derive maximum benefit from tax planning perform better than those that do not plan their taxes (Murphy, 2007). From the empirical perspective, tax planning is positively associated with firms' performance. For instance, Desai and Hines (2002); Chen, Chen, Chen and Shelvin (2010) reported positive association between tax planning savings and firm performance. The argument is that tax represents cost of doing business, and any action that has the potential of minimising tax cost reflects in higher firm performance. This argument presupposes that tax planning cost and risk does not exceed the savings from the planning.Few studies in the UK dispel the traditional relationship between tax planning and firm performance. While admitting that tax planning has a positive association with accounting performance, Desai and Dharmaphala (2007) reported that tax planning has a neutral association with market performance. Indeed Abdul-Wahab (2010) found a negative association between tax planning and firm performance. Kportorgbi (2013) suggested that corporate governance strength plays a mediating factor in the tax planning-firm performance relationship.A study of the effect of tax planning savings on firms' market performance is crucial for all stakeholders in the emerging security markets such as the Ghana stock Exchange. In fact each possible relationship has a unique implication for the players. For instance, a positive association implies that tax planning produces a win-win situation for both management andshareholders (investors). A negative association connotes that tax planning benefits may not eventually trickle to the pocket of the shareholder. Indeed, a negative association may be an indicative of the existence of agency problem, where management is inclined to pursue tax planning to enhance their own lot rather than advancing the interest of the investor. Where a neutral association is established, it will invoke a follow up study on the possible factors that could influence the relationship either positively or negatively. Secondly, the study is necessary to inform tax planning agents and investors on the dynamics of tax planning1.1 Objective of the StudyThe primary objective of this study is to explore the relationship between tax planning savings of firms listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange and firm market performance. The study also seeks to examine the simultaneous influence of other firm specific variables on the tax planning-market performance relationship.1.2 Tax Planning Intensity of Firms in GhanaCommentators on tax behaviour of firms in Ghana paint a picture that suggests that large firms engage in tax planning activities. For instance CATA (2009) posits that Ghana Revenue Authority lost seventy-four million pounds between 2005 and 2007 to the European Union (EU) in tax revenue as a result of tax avoidance by several multinational companies. Murphy (2004) also reported that firms have complex gamut of arsenals to reduce their tax burden. The reports indicate that the tax avoiding mechanism of firms are largely allowed by the tax laws. There are also indications that the firms take advantage of the loopholes in the tax laws to derive unintended tax benefits. Theavenues for tax planning usually revolve around locational reliefs, industry-specific concessions and capital allowance provitions. Others are time variables and entity variables.Most of the reports are not precise in their estimation of the benefits that firms achieve through tax planning. The lack of precision in measuring tax planning intensity is largely attributed to the insufficient reporting of issues of taxation by firms. Aside the mandatory disclosures to tax authorities, firms are reluctant in disclosing much on tax behaviours. This is due to the perceived thin line that exist between tax planning and tax evasion. Listed companies, however, provide provide adequate information necessary to estimate the tax savings of the firms. This is made possible by virtue of the financial reporting guidelines provided by the security exchange commision.2. Review of Related LiteratureThis section is subdivided into theoretical review and empirical review. The theoritical review encapsultes the Hoffman's (1961) tax planning theory. Three main empirical studies are reviewed. They are Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dharmaphala (2009) and Abdul-Wahab (2010).2.1 Hoffman's Tax Planning TheoryAccording to Hoffman (1961) tax planning seeks to divert cash, which would ordinarily flow to tax authorities, to the corporate entities. Tax planning activities are desirable to the extent that they reduce taxable income to the barest minimum, without sacrificing accounting income. The theory is premised on the fact that firms tax liability is based on taxable income rather than accounting income. The idea is thus to intensify activities that reduce taxable income but has no indirect relationship on accounting profit. The theory thus recognised a positiveassociation between firm tax planning activity and firm performance.Hoffman (1961) also recognised the role of tax cost in the tax planning activities. The theory thus provided that the positive association between tax planning and corporate performance is on a basic assumption that tax benefits from the tax planning exceed tax cost. The scope of the Hoffman's tax planning theory does not address the dynamics of tax planning and market performance. As capital markets develop and the separation of ownership and control of corporate bodies become well-spread, the need for a comprehensive tax planning theory is imperative. This need is rather addressed through the empirical perspective than through theoretical perspective (Inger, 2012).2.2 Empirical Review and Development of HypothesisDesai and Hines (2002) provide evidence on firm performance and tax planning behaviour of firms. Again, the study investigates the relationship between tightening of tax systems and market value of firms. The study was based on 850 listed US firms. The study sample was purposively selected to reflect the characteristics desired by the researchers. The study was cross sectional and the data relates to year 2000. Correlative-description design was adopted. Simple regression and t-tests were used to establish the relationships. Desai and Hines established that intensive tax planning is associated with higher firm performance. On the other hand, the study reported that tightening of the tax system is positively associated with higher market performance of firms. The findings of Desai and Hines (2002) are similar to that reported by Chen, Chen and Chen (2010). Desai and Dharmapala (2007) provided a comprehensive study that incorporates tax planning, corporate governance andfirm performance. The study used 4,492 observations on 862 firms over the period 1993 to 2001. This panel data was drawn from the Compustat and Execucomp databases, merged with data on institutional ownership of firms from the CDA/Spectrum database. Firms' performance is measured using Tobin's q and governance quality is proxied by the level of institutional ownership. Tax planning is measured by inferring the difference between the income reported to capital markets and tax authorities (the book-tax-gap). Two analysis models were adopted-the OLS model and the IV estimation model. The OLS results shows that the average effect of tax planning on corporate performance is not significantly different from zero. In other words, there is no relationship between tax planning and firm performance. The study howeverreports a positive association between tax planning savings and performance for well-governed firms. Desai and Dharmapala (2007) thus concluded that corporate governance mediates the tax planning-firm performance relationship. The IV estimate shows a higher effect of corporate governance on firm performance.Abdul-Wahab (2010) provides a result that differs from the findings of Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dhamarpala (2009), and Chen, Chen, Chen and Shelvin. Abdul-Wahab's (2010) study sought to establish a relationship between tax planning savings of firms and their value. The study simultaneously investigates the moderating influence of corporate governance. Abdul-Wahab's study employed 240 firms listed on the London stock exchange from 2005 to 2007. Tax planning was proxied by the difference between the effective tax rate of the entities and the applicable statutory tax rates. Self-constructed governance indexwas constructed using corporate governance mechanisms. Firms' value was represented by the Tobin's Q. The data was analysed using panel regression analysis model. As a check, the OLS model was also used.The results indicate a negative relationship between firm value and tax planning activities. Abdul-Wahab (2010) explains the relationship with reference to tax planning cost and risk. The study suggested that tax planning cost and risks associated with tax planning have the potential of derailing the benefits that should have accrued to shareholders. The researcher maintains that as tax planning activities increase, the tax costs and risks outweighs the benefits.Due to the diversity of the relationships found between tax planning and firms' market performance, it is right to develop a null hypothesis as:H1: There is an association between tax planning and firms' market performance.It is unreasonable to suggest that tax planning is the only determinants of firm performance. Baring the existence of multicollinearity between (among) the explanatory variables, sales growth, financial leverage, firm size and age of the firms will be introduced into the regression models. Several studies, including Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dharmaphala (2007), Abdul-Wahab (2010) reported positive association between firm performance and sales growth, firm size and financial leverage. It is thus clear to develop the null hypothesis that:H2: Firm performance and sales growth and firm size are positively associated.Firms' age, according to Desai and Dharmapala (2007) and Abdul-Wahab (2010) has a negative association with marketperformance of firms. This gives rise to the third null hypothesis that:H3: Firms age and financial leverage are negatively associated with firms' market performance. 3. Methodology Longitudinal correlative design is adopted for the study. Longitudinal design is essential if the same research entities sampled in a cross section are then re-sampled at different times (Creswell, 2009; De Vaus, 2001). According to the authors, the design helps overcome limitations associated with the "snap shot" approach of cross sectional designs.The study population comprises all non-financial firms listed on the Ghana stock exchange. As of June 2013, twenty-three (23) out of thirty-five (35) firms listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange were non-financial companies. Financial companies are excluded from the population. Previous researchers posit that the financial sector is a highly regulated sector and as such regulations blur the relationship that exist among the variables to be studied (O'Hamon & Taylor, 2007; Desai & Dharmapala, 2009; Abdul-Wahab, 2010).The study uses a panel data for twelve-year period, from 2000 to 2011. Data for the study is collected from the database of the Ghana Stock Exchange. Panel regression model is adopted fordata analysis and the Ordinary least square (OLS) been the method of regression.The regression model is summarized as:(1)α = (alpha) shows the constant affecting net profit margin on corporate tax.Tobin's q (market performance) = (market capitalization ofentity) ÷ (book va lue of shareholders fund).Tax savings = Statutory tax rate -Effective tax rate.Statutory tax rate = flat rate as mandated by the Ghana Revenue Authority.Effective tax rate = Corporate income tax expense/profit before tax.Sgrowth (sales growth) = (Previous Sales revenue -Current sales revenue) ÷Previous sales revenue.Fsize (firm size) = Natural log of firm's total assets.fLev (Financial leverage ) = Long term debt/shareholders fund.Age (Age of firms) = log(the difference between the year of establishment and years of observation).4. Results and DiscussionFigure 1 and Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for two key variables, namely tax planning of firms and market performance over the twelve year period.Like the statutory rate, tax savings of firms show a decreasing trend. As tax authorities take steps to reduce the tax burden on firms, the leakages in tax revenue due to firms tax planning activities reduce. From figure 1, the statutory tax rate reduced from about 32% to 25%. Tax savings of firms reduced also from 15% to 8% by 2011. That is to say each percentage point decrease in the statutory rate leads to a corresponding decrease in firms' tax planning savings.The policy implication of this finding is two-fold. Firstly, the notion of increasing tax rate in order to rake in more tax revenue may not hold. As tax rates increased, the motivation of firms to deny the state of revenue through intensified tax planning machinery is enhanced. Secondly, as the tax rate is decreased, thenet benefit of planning tax is derailed. The way forward for tax revenue optimisation is to maintain lower tax rates and drag more firms into the tax net.Table 1 provides the market performance of the firms over the twelve year period.The farther the Tobin's Q is from unity, the better the company performance. From Table 1, all the company groups recorded an average score higher than 1.00. The overall average score is 1.78 (the median represents the average as skewness is negative). The high average market performance by the firms is driven by only the mining sector and the manufacturing companies. All the remaining classes of companies recorded lower than the average score.This finding confirms the observation of business persons in Ghana that business climate in Ghana gives unmatched advantage to the mining sector. The service sector records the lowest market performance. This raises a major concern as the sector is the major contributor to gross domestic product (GDP) in Ghana. Another sector to watch out for is the oil and gas. This sector has the most recent history. It was expected that the high hopes of investors in the sector after the discovery of oil in commercial quantities in Ghana would have positive influence on the performance. It is expected that the sector will be one of the major drivers of firms' market performance in the future.Table 2 provides correlation results on the variables. This result is essential for at least two reasons. Firstly, it shows basic association between the dependent variable (market performance) and theindependent variable. Secondly, it shows if the "so-called" independent variables are indeed independent. In other words, ittests the multicollinearity status of the independent variables. From Table 2, the correlation co-efficient between tax savings and Tobin's Q is 0.112. This is however significant at 0.097. This significant level is compared with the default alpha of 0.05. As rule of thumb, we reject the null hypothesis if the actual significant level is higher than the expected alpha and do not reject if the actual significant is less than the expected alpha. In this instance p-value of 0.097 is greater than the expected alpha of 0.05. The null hypothesis that:H1: There is an association between tax planning and firms' market performance is rejected.The correlation results do not suggest causation but gives an indication of association between the variables. The "no relationship" finding between tax planning and firms' market performance supports the reports of Desai and Dharmapala (2007) but differ from the findings of Desai and Hines (2002) and Abdul-Wahab (2010). The findings suggest that although savings from tax planning reflect in higher profit after tax, it does not necessarily reflect in the pocket of shareholders. This finding ignites studies aimed at uncovering factors that mediate the tax planning-firm performance relationship. Indeed, it might be the reasons behind the works of Desai and Dharmapala (2007), Desai and Dharmapala (2009) and Abdul Wahab (2010).Another finding in table 3 is the relationship between market performance (proxied by tobin's Q) and the firm specific variables. Sales growth and firm size shows positive and significant association with firms' market performance. On the other hand financial leverage and age of the firms shows a negative association with firm performance. The findingsWe do not reject the null hypotheses (H2 and H3) stated asH2: Firm performance and sales growth and firm size are positively associatedH3: Firms age and financial leverage are negatively associated with firms' market performance. Further Table 3 gives an indication that multicollinearity among the independent variables does not exist. The rule of thumb is that if the correlation coefficients between any two of the variables is above 0.50 (either positive or negative), those two variables are multi-correlated and should not be simultaneously included in the regression model. From Table 3, this condition does not exist. The variables can be regressed against the dependent variables.Table 3 shows the regression of Tobin's Q (proxy of firms' market performance) and all the independent variables.The adjusted R2 connotes that the five independent variables explain 55.3% of the variations in the dependent variable. The model is significant at 0.0001. This is a strong indicator that the variables used in the model have sufficiently explained the firms' market performance.The regression results found a relationship that is largely consistent with the correlation results shown in table 3. The results affirm that tax planning plays an insignificant role in the determination of firms' market performance. Again this supports the agency theory's argument that it not all actions of management that help achieve the wealth maximisation objective of management. From the results sales growth and the financial leverage are the two most influential variables. Firms should maintain low financial leverage ratio and pursue sales growth strategies in order to boost their market performance.5. ConclusionsThe study sought to ascertain the level of tax planning offirms and to explore the relationship between tax planning and firms' market performance. The study used 22 non-financial companies over a twelve year period from 2000. The longitudinal correlative designed was used. Thefollowing conclusions are reached.Firstly firms' tax savings decrease as tax authorities reduce the statutory corporate income tax rates. This indicates that leakages in tax revenue as a result of intensive tax planning of firms reduce when tax authorities maintain low corporate income tax rates.Secondly, tax planning has a neutral influence on firms' performance. This finding challenges the general perception that every cedi of tax savings from tax planning reflect in the pocket of investors. Agency problem is much present in the issue of tax planning. The efforts of management to reduce tax burden of firms benefit other stakeholders rather than shareholders. There may be other factors that could ensure that substantial benefits of tax planning accrue to shareholders. Some researchers arguably, root for good corporate governance. This falls outside the scope of this study.Finally, sales growth, firm size, age of firms, financial leverage and tax planning simultaneously play a major role in determining firms' market performance. These variables explain 55.3% of the variations in firms' market performance. Sales growth and financial leverage are the two most influential variables that determine firm market performance.References二、文献综述企业纳税筹划文献综述摘要:20 世纪以来并购已经成为企业快速扩张和整合的重要手段之一。

文献综述--税收筹划在中小企业财务管理中的应用研究

文献综述--税收筹划在中小企业财务管理中的应用研究

毕业论文(设计)文献综述题目:税收筹划在中小企业财务管理中的应用研究一、前言部分在市场经济条件下,企业面临着激烈的市场竞争。

近年来,我国中小企业发展势头强劲,成为未来经济增长热点的趋势日益明显,促进中小企业发展,是我国的一项重要经济政策。

在中小企业的发展过程中,税收,作为一项无可逃避的法定义务,必然对中小企业的经营决策和经营成果都产生重要影响,制约着企业财务管理目标的实现。

良好的税收筹划,可以有效地减轻税收负担,增加财务收益,使中小企业的经济利益合法地最大化,从而更好地解决目前在中小企业中普遍存在的资金瓶颈问题,引导和促进中小企业的健康发展。

税收筹划是指纳税人在符合国家法律及税收法规的前提下,按照税收政策法规的导向,事前选择税收利益最大化的纳税方案处理自己的生产、经营和投资、理财活动的一种企业筹划行为。

本文将对国内外关于中小企业的税收筹划研究进行综述,主要将围绕中小企业税收筹划的现状,企业进行税收筹划的必要性,中小企业在财务管理中的税收筹划策略几方面进行。

二、主题部分(一)国外关于中小企业融资问题的研究税收筹划在国外的发展税收筹划,又称节税、税务筹划(Tax Planning或Tax Saving),是指纳税人在实际纳税义务发生之前对纳税负担的低位选择。

税收筹划在西方得到法律界和政府当局的认同,是在20世纪30年代后。

1935年,英国上议院议员汤姆林爵士针对“税务局长诉温斯特大公”一案,做了有关税收筹划的声明:“任何一个人都有权安排自己的事业,依据法律这样做可以少缴税。

为了保证从这些安排中得到利益……不能强迫缴税。

”此后,不少税务专家和学者对税收筹划有关理论的研究不断向深度和广度发展。

现在,发达国家税收筹划开展相当普遍,其理论研究也已相当成熟。

税收筹划已成为国外企业战略管理及日常财务管理的重要组成部分。

尤其一些跨国公司,其所面对的是不同国家和地区的税收政策以及复杂的国际税收环境,税收筹划方案是其管理层进行重大决策的重要依据。

纳税筹划文献综述及外文文献资料

纳税筹划文献综述及外文文献资料

本文档包括改专题的:外文文献、文献综述一、外文文献文献信息标题:Effect of Tax Planning on Firms Market Performance: Evidence from Listed Firms in Ghana 作者:Kawor, Seyram; Kportorgbi, Holy Kwabla期刊:International Journal of Economics and Finance第6卷,第3期,页码:162-168,2014年Effect of Tax Planning on Firms Market Performance: Evidence from Listed Firms in GhanaKawor, Seyram; Kportorgbi, Holy KwablaAbstractThe study sought to ascertain the level of tax planning of firms and to explore the relationship between tax planning and firms' market performance. The study used 22 non-financial companies listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange over a twelve year period from 2000. The longitudinal correlative designed was used. The results indicate that that firms' tendency to engage in intensive tax planning activities reduces when tax authorities maintain low corporate income tax rates. Secondly, tax planning has a neutral influence on firms' performance. This finding challenges the general perception that every cedi of tax savings from tax planning reflect in the pocket of investors. It is concluded that investors must institute systems to ensure tax planning benefits reflect significantly in their pockets.Keywords: Ghana stock exchange, tax planning, market performance, longitudinal correlative design, investors1. IntroductionOver the years and throughout the world, the history of taxation brings out one fact; that taxes are coercive in nature and therefore economic units which are assigned the tax liability never wholly intend to bear the actual tax burden (Commonwealth Association of Tax Administrators (CATA), 2007). Economic units, more specifically, corporate bodies are always adopting ways to minimise, postpone, or avoid entirely, the payment of tax. The attempts by the economic units to reduce, postpone or avoid tax payment can be legal or illegal. The legal means is called tax planning while the illegal means is called tax evasion. The dire consequence of tax evasion makes it an unattractive option for listed companies (Murphy, 2004).The practice of tax planning dates back to 1947 when learned judge Hand, in the case Commissioner v Newman, held that there is nothing sinister in arranging ones affairs so as to keep taxes as low as possible. Hoffman's (1961) tax planning theory supports this argument. According to Hoffman, it is a necessity for firms to understand the prevailing tax laws and apply the laws in a manner that ensures the firms minimise their tax exposure. Hoffman posits that it makes no economic sense to pay more tax than what the law demands. Scholes and Wolfson's (1992) tax planning framework also underscores the need for corporate bodies to engage in tax planning. According to Scholes and Wolfson, a successful company is the one that is properly attuned to its tax environment.International governmental organizations, such as CA TA (2009), suggest that corporate bodies in Ghana, especially the large entities, engage in complex tax planning activities. Research by civil society groups such as Christian Aid (2008), Action Aid (2011), and Dan Watch (2011), confirm this assertions made by the Domestic Revenue Division. The missing element in the findings is thequantitative expression of the tax planning activities of the firms.The traditional thinking is that firms that derive maximum benefit from tax planning perform better than those that do not plan their taxes (Murphy, 2007). From the empirical perspective, tax planning is positively associated with firms' performance. For instance, Desai and Hines (2002); Chen, Chen, Chen and Shelvin (2010) reported positive association between tax planning savings and firm performance. The argument is that tax represents cost of doing business, and any action that has the potential of minimising tax cost reflects in higher firm performance. This argument presupposes that tax planning cost and risk does not exceed the savings from the planning.Few studies in the UK dispel the traditional relationship between tax planning and firm performance. While admitting that tax planning has a positive association with accounting performance, Desai and Dharmaphala (2007) reported that tax planning has a neutral association with market performance. Indeed Abdul-Wahab (2010) found a negative association between tax planning and firm performance. Kportorgbi (2013) suggested that corporate governance strength plays a mediating factor in the tax planning-firm performance relationship.A study of the effect of tax planning savings on firms' market performance is crucial for all stakeholders in the emerging security markets such as the Ghana stock Exchange. In fact each possible relationship has a unique implication for the players. For instance, a positive association implies that tax planning produces a win-win situation for both management and shareholders (investors). A negative association connotes that tax planning benefits may not eventually trickle to the pocket of the shareholder. Indeed, a negative association may be an indicative of the existence of agency problem, where management is inclined to pursue tax planning to enhance their own lot rather than advancing the interest of the investor. Where a neutral association is established, it will invoke a follow up study on the possible factors that could influence the relationship either positively or negatively. Secondly, the study is necessary to inform tax planning agents and investors on the dynamics of tax planning1.1 Objective of the StudyThe primary objective of this study is to explore the relationship between tax planning savings of firms listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange and firm market performance. The study also seeks to examine the simultaneous influence of other firm specific variables on the tax planning-market performance relationship.1.2 Tax Planning Intensity of Firms in GhanaCommentators on tax behaviour of firms in Ghana paint a picture that suggests that large firms engage in tax planning activities. For instance CATA (2009) posits that Ghana Revenue Authority lost seventy-four million pounds between 2005 and 2007 to the European Union (EU) in tax revenue as a result of tax avoidance by several multinational companies. Murphy (2004) also reported that firms have complex gamut of arsenals to reduce their tax burden. The reports indicate that the tax avoiding mechanism of firms are largely allowed by the tax laws. There are also indications that the firms take advantage of the loopholes in the tax laws to derive unintended tax benefits. The avenues for tax planning usually revolve around locational reliefs, industry-specific concessions and capital allowance provitions. Others are time variables and entity variables.Most of the reports are not precise in their estimation of the benefits that firms achieve through tax planning. The lack of precision in measuring tax planning intensity is largely attributed to the insufficient reporting of issues of taxation by firms. Aside the mandatory disclosures to tax authorities, firms are reluctant in disclosing much on tax behaviours. This is due to the perceivedthin line that exist between tax planning and tax evasion. Listed companies, however, provide provide adequate information necessary to estimate the tax savings of the firms. This is made possible by virtue of the financial reporting guidelines provided by the security exchange commision.2. Review of Related LiteratureThis section is subdivided into theoretical review and empirical review. The theoritical review encapsultes the Hoffman's (1961) tax planning theory. Three main empirical studies are reviewed. They are Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dharmaphala (2009) and Abdul-Wahab (2010).2.1 Hoffman's Tax Planning TheoryAccording to Hoffman (1961) tax planning seeks to divert cash, which would ordinarily flow to tax authorities, to the corporate entities. Tax planning activities are desirable to the extent that they reduce taxable income to the barest minimum, without sacrificing accounting income. The theory is premised on the fact that firms tax liability is based on taxable income rather than accounting income. The idea is thus to intensify activities that reduce taxable income but has no indirect relationship on accounting profit. The theory thus recognised a positive association between firm tax planning activity and firm performance.Hoffman (1961) also recognised the role of tax cost in the tax planning activities. The theory thus provided that the positive association between tax planning and corporate performance is on a basic assumption that tax benefits from the tax planning exceed tax cost. The scope of the Hoffman's tax planning theory does not address the dynamics of tax planning and market performance. As capital markets develop and the separation of ownership and control of corporate bodies become well-spread, the need for a comprehensive tax planning theory is imperative. This need is rather addressed through the empirical perspective than through theoretical perspective (Inger, 2012).2.2 Empirical Review and Development of HypothesisDesai and Hines (2002) provide evidence on firm performance and tax planning behaviour of firms. Again, the study investigates the relationship between tightening of tax systems and market value of firms. The study was based on 850 listed US firms. The study sample was purposively selected to reflect the characteristics desired by the researchers. The study was cross sectional and the data relates to year 2000. Correlative-description design was adopted. Simple regression and t-tests were used to establish the relationships. Desai and Hines established that intensive tax planning is associated with higher firm performance. On the other hand, the study reported that tightening of the tax system is positively associated with higher market performance of firms. The findings of Desai and Hines (2002) are similar to that reported by Chen, Chen and Chen (2010). Desai and Dharmapala (2007) provided a comprehensive study that incorporates tax planning, corporate governance and firm performance. The study used 4,492 observations on 862 firms over the period 1993 to 2001. This panel data was drawn from the Compustat and Execucomp databases, merged with data on institutional ownership of firms from the CDA/Spectrum database. Firms' performance is measured using Tobin's q and governance quality is proxied by the level of institutional ownership. Tax planning is measured by inferring the difference between the income reported to capital markets and tax authorities (the book-tax-gap). Two analysis models were adopted-the OLS model and the IV estimation model. The OLS results shows that the average effect of tax planning on corporate performance is not significantly different from zero. In other words, there is no relationship between tax planning and firm performance. The study howeverreports a positive association between tax planning savings and performance for well-governed firms. Desai and Dharmapala (2007) thus concluded that corporate governance mediates the tax planning-firm performance relationship. The IV estimate shows a higher effect of corporate governance on firm performance.Abdul-Wahab (2010) provides a result that differs from the findings of Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dhamarpala (2009), and Chen, Chen, Chen and Shelvin. Abdul-Wahab's (2010) study sought to establish a relationship between tax planning savings of firms and their value. The study simultaneously investigates the moderating influence of corporate governance. Abdul-Wahab's study employed 240 firms listed on the London stock exchange from 2005 to 2007. Tax planning was proxied by the difference between the effective tax rate of the entities and the applicable statutory tax rates. Self-constructed governance index was constructed using corporate governance mechanisms. Firms' value was represented by the Tobin's Q. The data was analysed using panel regression analysis model. As a check, the OLS model was also used.The results indicate a negative relationship between firm value and tax planning activities. Abdul-Wahab (2010) explains the relationship with reference to tax planning cost and risk. The study suggested that tax planning cost and risks associated with tax planning have the potential of derailing the benefits that should have accrued to shareholders. The researcher maintains that as tax planning activities increase, the tax costs and risks outweighs the benefits.Due to the diversity of the relationships found between tax planning and firms' market performance, it is right to develop a null hypothesis as:H1: There is an association between tax planning and firms' market performance.It is unreasonable to suggest that tax planning is the only determinants of firm performance. Baring the existence of multicollinearity between (among) the explanatory variables, sales growth, financial leverage, firm size and age of the firms will be introduced into the regression models. Several studies, including Desai and Hines (2002), Desai and Dharmaphala (2007), Abdul-Wahab (2010) reported positive association between firm performance and sales growth, firm size and financial leverage. It is thus clear to develop the null hypothesis that:H2: Firm performance and sales growth and firm size are positively associated.Firms' age, according to Desai and Dharmapala (2007) and Abdul-Wahab (2010) has a negative association with market performance of firms. This gives rise to the third null hypothesis that:H3: Firms age and financial leverage are negatively associated with firms' market performance. 3. MethodologyLongitudinal correlative design is adopted for the study. Longitudinal design is essential if the same research entities sampled in a cross section are then re-sampled at different times (Creswell, 2009; De Vaus, 2001). According to the authors, the design helps overcome limitations associated with the "snap shot" approach of cross sectional designs.The study population comprises all non-financial firms listed on the Ghana stock exchange. As of June 2013, twenty-three (23) out of thirty-five (35) firms listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange were non-financial companies. Financial companies are excluded from the population. Previous researchers posit that the financial sector is a highly regulated sector and as such regulations blur the relationship that exist among the variables to be studied (O'Hamon & Taylor, 2007; Desai & Dharmapala, 2009; Abdul-Wahab, 2010).The study uses a panel data for twelve-year period, from 2000 to 2011. Data for the study is collected from the database of the Ghana Stock Exchange. Panel regression model is adopted fordata analysis and the Ordinary least square (OLS) been the method of regression.The regression model is summarized as: (1)α = (alpha) shows the constant affecting net profit margin on corporate tax.Tobin's q (market performance) = (market capitalization of entity) ÷ (book value of shareholders fund).Tax savings = Statutory tax rate -Effective tax rate.Statutory tax rate = flat rate as mandated by the Ghana Revenue Authority.Effective tax rate = Corporate income tax expense/profit before tax.Sgrowth (sales growth) = (Previous Sales revenue -Current sales revenue) ÷Previous sales revenue.Fsize (firm size) = Natural log of firm's total assets.fLev (Financial leverage ) = Long term debt/shareholders fund.Age (Age of firms) = log(the difference between the year of establishment and years of observation).4. Results and DiscussionFigure 1 and Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for two key variables, namely tax planning of firms and market performance over the twelve year period.Like the statutory rate, tax savings of firms show a decreasing trend. As tax authorities take steps to reduce the tax burden on firms, the leakages in tax revenue due to firms tax planning activities reduce. From figure 1, the statutory tax rate reduced from about 32% to 25%. Tax savings of firms reduced also from 15% to 8% by 2011. That is to say each percentage point decrease in the statutory rate leads to a corresponding decrease in firms' tax planning savings.The policy implication of this finding is two-fold. Firstly, the notion of increasing tax rate in order to rake in more tax revenue may not hold. As tax rates increased, the motivation of firms to deny the state of revenue through intensified tax planning machinery is enhanced. Secondly, as the tax rate is decreased, the net benefit of planning tax is derailed. The way forward for tax revenue optimisation is to maintain lower tax rates and drag more firms into the tax net.Table 1 provides the market performance of the firms over the twelve year period.The farther the Tobin's Q is from unity, the better the company performance. From Table 1, all the company groups recorded an average score higher than 1.00. The overall average score is 1.78 (the median represents the average as skewness is negative). The high average market performance by the firms is driven by only the mining sector and the manufacturing companies. All the remaining classes of companies recorded lower than the average score.This finding confirms the observation of business persons in Ghana that business climate in Ghana gives unmatched advantage to the mining sector. The service sector records the lowest market performance. This raises a major concern as the sector is the major contributor to gross domestic product (GDP) in Ghana. Another sector to watch out for is the oil and gas. This sector has the most recent history. It was expected that the high hopes of investors in the sector after the discovery of oil in commercial quantities in Ghana would have positive influence on the performance. It is expected that the sector will be one of the major drivers of firms' market performance in the future.Table 2 provides correlation results on the variables. This result is essential for at least two reasons. Firstly, it shows basic association between the dependent variable (market performance) and theindependent variable. Secondly, it shows if the "so-called" independent variables are indeed independent. In other words, it tests the multicollinearity status of the independent variables. From Table 2, the correlation co-efficient between tax savings and Tobin's Q is 0.112. This is however significant at 0.097. This significant level is compared with the default alpha of 0.05. As rule of thumb, we reject the null hypothesis if the actual significant level is higher than the expected alpha and do not reject if the actual significant is less than the expected alpha. In this instance p-value of 0.097 is greater than the expected alpha of 0.05. The null hypothesis that:H1: There is an association between tax planning and firms' market performance is rejected.The correlation results do not suggest causation but gives an indication of association between the variables. The "no relationship" finding between tax planning and firms' market performance supports the reports of Desai and Dharmapala (2007) but differ from the findings of Desai and Hines (2002) and Abdul-Wahab (2010). The findings suggest that although savings from tax planning reflect in higher profit after tax, it does not necessarily reflect in the pocket of shareholders. This finding ignites studies aimed at uncovering factors that mediate the tax planning-firm performance relationship. Indeed, it might be the reasons behind the works of Desai and Dharmapala (2007), Desai and Dharmapala (2009) and Abdul Wahab (2010).Another finding in table 3 is the relationship between market performance (proxied by tobin's Q) and the firm specific variables. Sales growth and firm size shows positive and significant association with firms' market performance. On the other hand financial leverage and age of the firms shows a negative association with firm performance. The findingsWe do not reject the null hypotheses (H2 and H3) stated asH2: Firm performance and sales growth and firm size are positively associatedH3: Firms age and financial leverage are negatively associated with firms' market performance. Further Table 3 gives an indication that multicollinearity among the independent variables does not exist. The rule of thumb is that if the correlation coefficients between any two of the variables is above 0.50 (either positive or negative), those two variables are multi-correlated and should not be simultaneously included in the regression model. From Table 3, this condition does not exist. The variables can be regressed against the dependent variables.Table 3 shows the regression of Tobin's Q (proxy of firms' market performance) and all the independent variables.The adjusted R2 connotes that the five independent variables explain 55.3% of the variations in the dependent variable. The model is significant at 0.0001. This is a strong indicator that the variables used in the model have sufficiently explained the firms' market performance.The regression results found a relationship that is largely consistent with the correlation results shown in table 3. The results affirm that tax planning plays an insignificant role in the determination of firms' market performance. Again this supports the agency theory's argument that it not all actions of management that help achieve the wealth maximisation objective of management. From the results sales growth and the financial leverage are the two most influential variables. Firms should maintain low financial leverage ratio and pursue sales growth strategies in order to boost their market performance.5. ConclusionsThe study sought to ascertain the level of tax planning of firms and to explore the relationship between tax planning and firms' market performance. The study used 22 non-financial companies over a twelve year period from 2000. The longitudinal correlative designed was used. Thefollowing conclusions are reached.Firstly firms' tax savings decrease as tax authorities reduce the statutory corporate income tax rates. This indicates that leakages in tax revenue as a result of intensive tax planning of firms reduce when tax authorities maintain low corporate income tax rates.Secondly, tax planning has a neutral influence on firms' performance. This finding challenges the general perception that every cedi of tax savings from tax planning reflect in the pocket of investors. Agency problem is much present in the issue of tax planning. The efforts of management to reduce tax burden of firms benefit other stakeholders rather than shareholders. There may be other factors that could ensure that substantial benefits of tax planning accrue to shareholders. Some researchers arguably, root for good corporate governance. This falls outside the scope of this study.Finally, sales growth, firm size, age of firms, financial leverage and tax planning simultaneously play a major role in determining firms' market performance. These variables explain 55.3% of the variations in firms' market performance. Sales growth and financial leverage are the two most influential variables that determine firm market performance.References二、文献综述企业纳税筹划文献综述摘要:20 世纪以来并购已经成为企业快速扩张和整合的重要手段之一。

《企业并购中的税务筹划研究国内外文献综述2000字》

《企业并购中的税务筹划研究国内外文献综述2000字》

企业并购中的税务筹划研究国内外文献综述1.国外研究现状近年来,随着政治、经济、技术等因素,在企业财务规划包括企业财务行为在内的公共利益增长中,促进税务机关对企业纳税活动的进一步沟通,并在国家报告标准中指出税收的不确定性,财务会计准则的建立决定了财务报告与税收优惠之间的权衡之后,国家权利团体反对企业税收筹划的声音,以及媒体决定了企业决策对税收的关注,本文的主要内容和要求是进一步分析税收主动性、决定性因素,许多初步工作集中于各种避税的定义和评价。

Anlon(2013)和McGill(2014)在利用财务报告数据估计或纳税时遇到了困难。

由于公司没有指明税务筹划策略,财务报表中的其他文件会找到开始证明公司税务结构的线索或指纹。

其中一些文件采取步骤来确定逃税活动的法律纠纷(例如,Wilson, 2009)。

2010年Lisowki;brown,2011)。

其他文件关注的是利用账户缺口的激进避税措施。

Desai(2016,2009)制定了针对避税的非正常会计平衡措施。

Frenk, Lynch和Rego(2009)定义了永久性的可自由支配的避税措施来检验逃税意图,战争后研究者也开始使用不确定的利益或税收模式来预测不确定的税收利益。

例如,Leggo 和Wilson在未来的研究中,作为财务规划的代理人,使用避税或其他激进的避税形式。

Hanon(2010)在优秀的税务调查中提供了对这项工作的宝贵整理,其中各种避税措施是恼人的。

Dyreng Hanlon,Maydew(2008)是这方面需要关注的研究。

他们制定长期税率来避税。

与公司财务报告中传统GAAP的有效税率相比,它不影响利润的计算,这是一种有趣的评价方法。

同样重要的是,黄金的有效税率反映了各种形式的避税。

这一措施反映了合法的财政规划,以及更激进、更可疑的财政战略。

长期和暂时的财政储蓄。

扩大税收措施有趣的是,研究人员记录的所得税税负的变化并不局限于税收交易(或法律问题)。

税收筹划的文献综述

税收筹划的文献综述

对税收筹划定义的文献综述文/张昆邹晓宇摘要:长期以来,税收筹划的定义就在理论界和实务领域争论不休。

许多专家和研究人员从不同视角和不同的思维方式对税收筹划的概念进行了思考,然而,对于税收筹划究竟是什么还没有定论。

本文简要记录了理论界和实务界的诸多论文和著作中涉及对税收筹划定义的思考和论述,并加以简要说明。

关键词:税收筹划;节税;税收优惠;合法节税中图分类号:F014 文献标识码:A从税收筹划产生以来,理论界和实务界的不同人士从各个角度对税收筹划做出了界定,国内外众多学者关于税收筹划也形成了许多观点。

本文着重介绍近代形成的比较有影响的观点。

早期的税收筹划,主要注重了纳税操作和节税的效果,并没有深入探究税收筹划的其他领域。

荷兰国际财政文献局(IBFD)认为:“税收筹划是指纳税人通过对经营活动或个人事务活动的安排,以达到缴纳最低税收的目的”[1]。

张中秀在认为,“所谓纳税筹划,是指通过对纳税业务进行筹划,制定一套完整的纳税操作方案,从而达到节税的目的”[2]。

在税收筹划的发展中,人们逐渐意识到税收优惠带来的节税效果,税收筹划也开始注重对税收优惠政策的充分利用。

印度税务专家家N.J.雅萨斯威认为:“税收筹划是纳税人通过对财务活动的安排,充分利用税务法规提供的包括减免在内的一切优惠,从而享得最大的税收优惠”[3]。

税收筹划的直接目的是节税,是一种对税收负担的地位选择。

在对税收负担进行选择时,要求纳税人事先进行安排筹划。

蔡昌认为,“税收筹划在微观上是指纳税人在实际纳税义务发生之前对纳税负担的低位选择,即纳税人在法律许可的范围内,通过对经营、投资、理财等事的事先安排和筹划,以充分利用税法所提供的包括减免税在内的一切优惠政策,从而获得最大的税收利益;税收筹划在宏观上是指经济实体在税收法规许可的范围内,通过对经营和财务活动的合理筹划和安排,达到减轻税收负担目的的行为。

就目的和结果而言,税收筹划常被称为节税”[4]。

新企业所得税下纳税筹划及风险研究[文献综述]

新企业所得税下纳税筹划及风险研究[文献综述]

文献综述(20_ _届)新企业所得税下纳税筹划及风险研究由于近年来,纳税筹划在我国被越来越多的企业所重视,使其得到了很快的发展,各种形式的税收筹划活动也已在各地悄然兴起。

但是税收筹划是一项系统工程,该项活动在给企业带来节税收益的同时也蕴涵着风险,即风险与利益是并存的,如果无视这些风险,任其发生而不加以防范,势必有悖税收筹划的初衷,其结果可能是以节税目的为开始,却以遭受更大的损失而结束。

新税法的颁布和实施必定会对企业纳税筹划产生一定的影响并带来新的涉税风险,对这方面的研究将有利于企业调整纳税筹划方略,降低其风险。

1 新旧企业企业所得税主要对比2007年3月16日中华人民共和国第十届全国人民代表大会第五次会议通过了《中华人民共和国企业所得税法》,并从2008年1月1日起施行。

新税法取代了1991年4月9日公布的《外商投资企业和外国企业所得税法》和1993年12月13日公布的《企业和外国企业所得税暂行条例》。

蓝希华(2007)将新企业所得税法的特点归结为“统一”与“过渡”。

其中“统一”表现在(1)内资、外资企业都适应新的企业所得税法;(2)统一实行25%的税率;(3)统一税前扣除办法和标准;(4)统一税收优惠政策。

“过渡”表现在对老企业规定了一个五年的过渡期。

王海永、金菁(2008)通过表格和制图的方式清晰的展示了新旧企业所得税的主要不同之处,并且指出新企业所得税的制定和实施标志着新企业所得税制度更具有科学性、规范性和国际性,对推进我国社会主义市场经济建设,促进改革开放和社会主义和谐社会的建立都具有深远的意义。

由于中国经济的飞速发展,企业类型和企业体制与90年代相比已有了巨大的变化,旧税法在某些方面已不再适应,新税法的出台更加符合我国企业的现状,有利于与国际接轨。

2 纳税筹划理论2.1 纳税筹划产生及原因纳税筹划是历史发展到一定阶段的产物,该现象的首次出现可以追溯1935年,英国上议院议员汤姆林爵士对“税务局长诉温斯特大公”一案,作了有关纳税筹划的声明:“任何一个人都有权安排自己的事业,依据法鲁这样可以少缴税”。

《企业纳税筹划问题浅析文献综述开题报告》

《企业纳税筹划问题浅析文献综述开题报告》

《企业纳税筹划问题浅析文献综述开题报告》一、研究背景及意义随着市场经济的发展,企业的经济活动日益频繁,税收作为企业经营成本的重要组成部分,对企业财务状况和经营成果具有重要影响。

因此如何合理进行纳税筹划,降低企业税负,成为企业关注的焦点。

本文旨在通过对现有文献的综述,探讨企业纳税筹划的基本概念、方法、存在的问题及其成因,并提出相应的对策建议,以期为企业提供有益的参考。

二、研究目的与任务本研究的主要目的是全面了解企业纳税筹划的研究现状,分析存在的问题及其成因,提出针对性的对策建议,为企业提供合理的纳税筹划方案。

具体任务包括:1. 搜集并整理国内外关于企业纳税筹划的研究文献,形成系统的理论体系。

2. 分析企业纳税筹划的基本概念、方法和策略,归纳总结企业纳税筹划的关键环节。

3. 阐述企业纳税筹划中存在的问题及其成因,如税收政策的不完善、征管漏洞等。

4. 提出针对企业纳税筹划问题的解决方案和建议,促进企业合法合规地降低税负。

三、研究内容与方法本研究将采用文献综述法、比较分析法、案例分析法等多种研究方法,具体内容包括:1. 搜集并整理国内外关于企业纳税筹划的研究文献,形成系统的理论体系。

2. 分析企业纳税筹划的基本概念、方法和策略,归纳总结企业纳税筹划的关键环节。

3. 阐述企业纳税筹划中存在的问题及其成因,如税收政策的不完善、征管漏洞等。

4. 提出针对企业纳税筹划问题的解决方案和建议,促进企业合法合规地降低税负。

四、预期成果通过本研究,预期能够得出以下成果:1. 形成系统完整的企业纳税筹划理论体系,为后续研究提供理论支撑。

2. 分析企业纳税筹划中存在的问题及其成因,为企业提供针对性的改进建议。

3. 提出具体的企业纳税筹划策略和方法,帮助企业降低税负,提高经营效益。

五、研究计划与安排本研究计划分为四个阶段进行。

同时将根据研究进度适时召开研讨会,邀请相关领域专家学者进行交流和指导。

六、参考文献七、结语企业纳税筹划是企业在市场经济活动中依法合规地降低税负、提高经营效益的重要手段。

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企业纳税筹划文献综述
纳税筹划,有时也被称为税收筹划或税务筹划。

在19世纪中期的意大利就己经出现了纳税筹划。

但是,纳税筹划是在20世纪30年代得到社会上的关注和法律上的认可。

在1935年,英国上议院议员汤姆林爵士(Tom Lin Sir)在“税务局长诉温斯特大公一案”中声明:“任何个人都有合法行使纳税筹划的权利,依据法律这样做可以少缴纳税款。

为了确保可以从这些行为中得到利益,不能强迫他人多缴纳税款。

”Tom Lin Sir的观点最终赢得了法律界的认可,这也是第一次对纳税筹划做出了法律上的认可,在此之后,这一税收的审判原则也经常会被其它欧洲的国家所引用。

在20世纪50年代,纳税筹划真正形成了一套较为完整的理论和实务体系:其标志是1959年在欧洲成立的由包括英国、法国、比利时等20多个欧洲国家从事税务咨询业务的专业人士和团体组合而成的税务联合会,其明确提出了税务专家是以税务咨询为中心而展开的税务服务,并且从事于那些现代意义上的税务代理活动。

随之以纳税筹划为核心的研究也开始逐渐深化,相关的研究书刊和文章也如雨后春笋般不断的涌现。

有关与中小企业纳税筹划的研究也在这样的背景下逐渐开始发展起来的。

通过借鉴国外中小企业纳税筹划的研究,本文认为其对中国的中小企业纳税筹划的研究有很强的指导和借鉴意义。

迈伦·斯科维尔在其编著的《Tax and enterprise strategic planning methods》(纳税与企业战略筹划方法)中提出了如何有效进行纳税筹划的理论,并对其进行了深入的分析,他认为有效的纳税筹划会在实现利益最大化的决策过程中要考虑到纳税的作用。

当社会交易成本较为昂贵时,实施税负最小化的策略,有可能会因为非税因素导致成本大量的增加,使得有效纳税筹划同税负最小化相偏离。

另外,书中还提到由于每个组织的形式、规模、产权结构及管理水平存在差异,开展纳税筹划的具体方法也是不同的,具体情况具体分析。

由于各种原因,中国对中小企业纳税筹划的研究相对于西方国家来说起步比较晚,但是它的发展速度比较快。

纵观近年来中国关于中小企业纳税筹划的研究来看,其中比较有特点的有:
林丽清在《中小企业纳税筹划的现状分析》中指出,目前中国税收法律体系不够健全。

有中国立法级次不高,税收法律体系的科学性、权威性和规范性不够,透明度不高,可操作性差。

有的条款太原则,需要细化;有的事过境迁,需要重新规定。

财政部门和归家税务总局经常要以文件的形式对税制运行中的某些政策性问题作出规定和解释,这样对税务机关和纳税人造成了许多不便。

法规的“打补丁”过多,纳税人无法账务税法的全貌和调整情况,令纳税人感到困惑,中小企业更是无法进行相应的纳税筹划。

这要求中小企业要采用适应外部的宏观环境的纳税方法。

刘军徽在《关于对中小企业税收筹划问题的思考》中提出,当前随着中国税收的征管水平提高和税法建设步伐加快的同时,企业要想达到自身利益最大化的同时应当对资金的投资、筹资、运营过程进行全方位的纳税筹划,不要只拘泥在一个方面。

张丽芳在《企业财务管理中的纳税筹划应用问题研究》中提出,企业在追求财务管理目标的过程中总是会受到纳税成本的约束,企业管理层应该考虑到收益和成本的关系,学会如何有效的进行纳税筹划才可以实现企业价值最大化的最终目的。

邵燕翔在《中小企业纳税筹划问题的探讨》中提出纳税筹划是中小企业维护自己权益的一个复杂的过程,在选择最优纳税的方案中要考虑到政府和税务机关,才能制定出一个切实可行的纳税筹划方案。

李宝峰在《中小企业纳税筹划实务分析》中认为经营过程中的纳税筹划是依照国家制定的财务政策所允许的收入确定原则、成本核算方法、计算程序、费用分摊、利润分配等一系列规定进行的内部核算活动。

通过有效的纳税筹划,使收入、成本、费用和利润达到最佳值,实现减轻税负的目的。

但是,企业财务政策一旦确定,不得随意变更,故在选择财务政策上要有前瞻性(1)收入结算方式的选额与纳税筹划。

只要是通过对取得收入的方式、时间、计算方法的选择、控制,以达到节税的目的。

(2)存货计价方法的选择与纳税筹划。

存货计价方法不同,企业营业成本就不同,从而影响应税利润,金额影响所得税。

(3)固定资产折旧方法的选择与纳税筹划。

由于折旧要记入产品成本或期间费用,直接关系到企业当期成本、费用的大小,利润的高低和应纳所得税的多少。

因此,折旧方法的选择、折旧的计算就显得尤为重要。

固定资产折旧方法有平均年限法、工作量法、年数总和法和双倍余额递减法等,不同的折旧方法对纳税人产生不同的影响。

(4)成本列支、费用分摊的选择与纳税筹划。

对费用列支,纳税筹划的指导思想是在税负允许的范围内,尽可能地列支当期费用,预计可能发生的损失,减少应交所得税和合法递延纳税时间来获得税收利益。

线性财务会计制度规定,费用应当按照权责发生制原则在确定有关收入的期间予以确认,一般有三种方法:一是直接做为当期费用确认;而是按其与营业收入的关系加以确认;三是按一定的方法计算摊销额予以确认。

企业在计算成本时可用选择于己有利的方法。

同时已发生的费用应及时核销入账。

如已发生的坏账、呆账应及时列入费用,存货的盘亏及虽会应及时查明原因,属于正常损耗部分及时列入费用。

对于能够合理预计发生额的费用、损失,应采用预提方法计入费用,如业务宣传费、业务招待费等,应准确掌握其允许列支的限额,争取在限额以为的部分充分列支。

综上所述,尽管国外对中小企业纳税筹划的研究在一定程度为中国中小企业纳税筹划的研究奠定了基础,但是纳税筹划的特点决定了它具有自身的特性,所以进一步增强中国中小企业的纳税筹划研究对当前的发展来说显的尤为必要。

从中国对中小企业纳税筹划的研究成果来看,虽然中国对中小企业纳税筹划的研究无论是从筹划理论上还是从筹划实践上来看都有了很大程度的发展,但与目前发展状况相比较,中国中小企业的发展显然是落后的。

目前中国关于对中小企业纳税筹划的研究在理论上较为薄弱,纳税筹划研究的范围也是比较狭隘的,虽然大多数人都对中小企业的纳税筹划进行了研究,但是大部分的研究都只是在重复一些理论、概念和方法,严重缺乏创新性。

同时这也为以后中小企业进行纳税筹划的研究提供了研究的空间。

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