语义学汇总

一、语义学视角下语义的表现（一）王寅教授的分析(1)说话人意义（speaker‟s meaning）, 受话人的意义（hearer‟s meaning）[语言交际过程中参与者的角色分析](2)自然意义（natural meaning）和非自然意义（unnatural meaning）(3)词素义（morpheme meaning）, 词义（word meaning）, 句义（sentence meaning）, 话词义（utterance meaning）, 语篇义（discourse meaning）(4)内涵义（intensional meaning ）与外延义（extentional meaning）[从哲学和逻辑学角度](5)概念意义和附加意义（conceptual meaning and added meaning）（二）、Leech 对意义的区分七种Leech recognizes seven types of meaning in his Semantics1)Conceptual meaning :logical, cognitive, or denotative content2)Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to3)Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use4)Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer5)Reflected meaning : What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression6)Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment ofanother word7)Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order andemphasis.以下为对上述的解释1、自然意义，非自然意义Natural meaning and non-natural meaningNatural meaning and nonnatural meaning is put forward by Grice in his famous article “Meaning”.As for natural meaning, there is the evidential relationship between a cause and its effect. An example of natural meaning is “Those spots mean measles.” “x means y” is related to “x shows that y,” “x is a symptom of y” and “x lawfully correlates with y”. Those spots on little Jimmy do not really mean measles in natural meaning, if Jimmy does not have measles, even if the spots typically correlate with measles.Nonnatural meaning pertains to language and communication. It means words and speakers. On nonnatural s ense, “x means y” is closer to “x says/asserts that y”, “x expresses y”. And when “x means y” is the case, it will usually be true that someone, or some group, means something by x. In nonnatural sense, it can be true that “x means y” even though x obtains when y is not the case. Thus our speaker might indeed have meant that you should bring more whisky, when in reality you should not: his meaning it, in nonnatural sense, does not make it so.In Grice‟s opinion, nonnatural meaning is used to induce some bel ief in hearer. More than that, it is used to induce the belief by getting the addressee to recognize the intention to induce a belief: in meaning something, then speaker does not merely cause the hearer to have a belief, he/she overtly gives the speaker a reason to believe, the reason being that he/she wants the speaker to believe. Thus what a person means, in the nonnatural sense, comes down to his/her complex mental states, especially intentions.2、关于听话人，说话人The Speaker and the ListenerTo ensure smooth communication between the speaker and the listener, it is important to nail down the role of them and the interaction between them. Some basic linguistics theory, such as Speech Act Theory, the Cooperative Principle, Conversational Implicatures, the Politeness Principle, atc. will help learners to well understand the role of the speaker andthe listener.Speech act is actions performed via utterances. In English, it is commonly given more specific labels, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request. These descriptive terms for different kinds of speech acts apply to the speaker's communicative intention in producing an utterance. The speaker normally expects that his or her communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer. Both speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the utterance.We know that quite often a speaker can mean a lot more than what is said. The problem is to explain how the speaker can manage to convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speaker‟s meaning. H. P. Grice believes that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the Cooperative Principle (CP).According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxims, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observance and non-observance of the maxims. The least interesting case is when speakers directly observe the maxims so as to generate conversational implicatures. If the hearer wants to accurately export the conversational implicatures, he or she should know something about the the following aspects: 1）conventionality implicatures of the utterance; 2）cooperative principle and criteria; 3）the context of the utterance; 4）some common background knowledge of the speaker and the listener.In most cases, the indirectness is motivated by considerations of politeness. Politeness is usually regarded by most pragmatists as a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation, thus to promote better communication between the speaker and the listener.3、句义，词义，话语意义，命题意义，篇章意义从哲学方面以及语言学方面对其进行分析；它们在不同语境中状态；结合法律举例1) Word meaningWord is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form: it is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. A very good example is the two expressions “morning star” and “evening star”. These two differ in sense but as a matter of fact, what they refer to is the same: the very same star that we see in the sky.According to Wittegenstein, words like tools, the meaning of word depends on the usage of the word. In another word, the meaning of word depends on the function of the word. The meaning of a word rests with the usage of the word in a language. Words are different tools in language. These tools are characterized by their usage. Sometimes, he did not see words as tools, however, he said directly: languages are tools. The different concepts in language are different tools.2) Sentence Meaning:(句子意义是构成句子的词汇意义和结构意义共同作用的结果)The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. It is obvious that the sentence meaning is connected with the meaning of the words which constitute the sentence; but it is still clear that the sentence meaning is not the totality of the meanings of the component words because the syntactical structure of the sentence also plays a role in determining the sentence meaning. That is to say, the meaning of a sentence is a product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. Lexical meaning is the de-contextual denotation of the words which is defined in the dictionary, while the grammatical meaning is abstract meaning represented by the grammatical structures of the words. Semantic relations:(句子之间的关系：同义，反义，蕴含)Synonymy: the sameness in meaning between sentences.Antonymy: the oppositeness in meaning between sentences.eg: “Overruled.” “反对无效。