简明语言学第一章总结
新编简明英语语言学 第一章
What is linguistics?
---It is a scientific study because it is based on the systemetic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
> Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.
---Hall, 1968
语言是“人类利用约定俗成的任意性视听符号借以相互交流和影响的习惯体 系”。
---霍尔 ， 1968
What is language?
From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
synchronic and diachronic
>The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
对历史上某一时间点的语言状况 所作的研究是共时研究
>The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
简明语言学1-6章总结
Chapter 1 IntroductionIn this chapter,the main content is to explain what is linguistics and what is language.This chapter devide two parts.The first introduce somenting about linguistics,the second about language.I Linguistics1 Linguistics definition : Linguistics is scientific study landuage.2 The scope of linguistics:(1) Phonetisc----the study of speech sounds and how they are produced(2) Phonology----the speech sounds of a particular language,the study of these sounds.(3) Morphology----the form of words(4) Syntax---the way that words and phrases are put together to form sentences in a language(5) Semantics---the study of the meanings of words and phrases(6) Pragmatics----the study of the way in which language is used to express what sb really means in particular situations,especially when the actual words used may appear to mean sth diferrent3 Some important distinctions(1) Prescriptive vs. Descriptive(2) Synchronic vs. Disachronic(3) Speech vs. WritingAims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language The description of alanguage at some pointtime in historyThe description of a language as it changes through time Primary medium of human language;play a greater role;acquires his mother tongue; reveals more featureslater developed;information conveyed taught laterrevised record of speech(4) Langue vs. Parole(5) Competence vs. Performance(6) Traditional grammar vs. Modern linguisticsII Language1 Language definition: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2 Design features(1) Arbitrainess----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(2) Productivity----it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) Duality-----having two parts(4) Displacement---refer to things which are pensent or not present,real or imagines matters.(5) Cultural transmission--- beening tought and learned another language 3 Funtiondescriptive function; expressive function; social function.Abstract linguistics ;Set of conventions andrules;Abstract;Relatively stableRealization of langue; Concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; Concrete; varies Ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language The zctual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationDescriptive; Regard the spoken language as primary; Not force languages into Latin-based framework Prescriptive; Emphasize the written word; force languages into Latin-based frameworkIn this chapter,it mainly explains phonetics and phonology.They both belong to the speech sounds.Phonetics studies the speech sounds and how they are produced.And phonology studies speech sounds of a particular language and the study of these sounds.I Phonetics1 What is phonetics(articulatory phonetics)(acoustic phonetics)(auditory phonetics)2 Organs of speech(1)The pharyngeal cavity----the throat(2)The orall cavity--- -the mouth(the uvula,the velum ,the hard palate, the softpalate ,the teeth ridge,the teeth and the lips)(3)The nasal cavity---the nose3 Broad and narrow transcriptionsBroad transcription ----the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription---- the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics4 Classification of English speech soundsconsonants(1)maner: stops, fricatives, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides(2)place:bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glpttalvowels(1)front central back(2)close semi-close semi-open openII Phonology.1 Phone ,phoneme, and allophonePhone---unit or segmentPhoneme—phonological unitAllophone---reresent a phoneme in different phonetic environment2 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast3 Some rules in phonologySequential rule assimilation rule deletion rule4 Suprasegmental featuresStress tone intonationThis section present how words are formed in English and what speakers of English know about word formation,the morphology of their language. Morpholog----refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.1 Open class and closed class2 Morphemes—the minimal units of meaning(1)Free morpheme---a morpheme can be a wordBound morpheme--a morpheme must be attached another one(2)Allomorphs3 Analyzing word structures---roots and affixes4 Dervational and inflectional morphemsDervationa morphem---add prefixes or suffixe to n.adj.and v.Inflectional morphem---change in the form of a word,especially en ending5 Morphological rules of word formation--productive6 Derivation---an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its bases.7 CompoundsChapter 4 SyntaxIn this chapter it was concerned with the composition of sentences by introducing some of the most common categories of words and some simple rules that govern the organization of these categories into larger structural units. 1 Categories(1) Word-level categories ---words can be grounped together into a relatively small number of class.Three criteria are determined a word’s category: meaning,inflection, distribution (2) Ptrase categories and their structures ① NP VP AP PP②Phrases contain the following elements: head specifier complement 2 Phrase structure rule(1) (Det) + N+(PP)…e.g. those people(Qual) + V +(NP…e.g. always play games (Deg) + A +(PP)…e.g.very handsome (Deg) + P +(NP)…e.g.on the shelf(2) XP rule: XP----(specifier) X (complement) (3) Coordination rule X----X* Con X3 Phrase elements ---specifiers complements modifiers (1) Specifiers(2) Complements Items HeadsExamples Adjective afraid,awareI was afraid that nobody would believe me.Nouns fact, claim She can’t believe the fact that she would fail in the exam. Prepositions over,aboutThey argued over whether she had come to class.SpecifiersHeads ExamplesDeterminerNthe tree ,this bookQualifierValways fail, often drinkDegree wordAless interesting ,quite goodPalmost in , quite above(3)ModifiersModifiers Position Examples AP precedes a very careful girl PP fact, claim open with care Advp over,about read carefully The Expanded Xp rule:XP----(Spec) (Mod) X (Complent*) (Mod)4 Sentences ( The S Rule)The S Rule----NP VP5 Transformations(1)Auxiliary Movement(2)Do insertion(3)Deep structure and surface structure(4)Wh MovementChapter 5 Semantics1 Some view meaningThe naming theory The conceptualist view Contextualism Behaviorism 2 Lexical meaning(1)sense and referenceSense---inherent meaningReference—real ,physical word ,(2)Major sence relation①SynonymyDialectal synonyms , Stylistic synonyms , Collocational synonyms Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative menging,Semantically different synonyms②Polysemy③Homonymy④Hyponymy⑤AntonymyGradable antonymy Complementary antonymy Relational opposites 3 Sense relations between sentences(1)X is synonymous with Y(2)X is inconsistent with Y(3)X entails Y(4)X presupposes Y(5)X is contradiction(6)X is semantically anomalous4 Analysis of meaning(1)Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaningBoy:[+HUMAN, --ADULT,+ ANMATE, +MALE](2)Predication analysis---a wy to analyze sentence meaningIs the baby sleeping BABY (SLEEP)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1Some basic notions (1) DefinitionPragmatics:how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.pragmatics vs. semantics(2) Context: constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (3) Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Abstracc,decontextualized concrete,contextdependent 2 Speech act theory—an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. (1) Austin’s model of speech actsConstatives and performatives-------locutionary act,illocutionary act,perlocutionary act.(2) Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives,directives,commissives,expressives,declarations (3) Indirect speech acts 3 Principle of conversation (1) Conventional implicature(2) Particularized conversational implicature(3) The maxim of quantity eg. War is warThe maxim of quality eg.Would you like to join us? Cooperative Principle I’m afraid I have got a class The maxim of relation eg. How are you? I have a lunchThe maxim of manner eg. He took his book to hishome.The study of the intended meaning of a speakerThe study of the literal meaning of a sentence。
语言学第一章概括
Summary of chapter oneChapter one mainly talks about linguistics and language.To begin with, linguistics does not refer to any particular language, but it is a general idea of language. It is defined as the scientific study of language.The study of languages which is often called general linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Phonetics refers to the study of sound used in linguistic communication. And phonology refers to how to put the sounds together and convey meaning in communication. Morphology refers to how to arrange and combine the sounds to form words. Syntax refers to making the words form in understandable sentences by rules. Semantics refers to study the meanings that words convey. Pragmatics refers to the context of language use. The study of language or general linguistics is not isolated from human society. That is to say, it is connected with other branches of social studies, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and applied linguistics. Sociolinguistics refers to studying all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form. Psycholinguistics refers to the study of language to psychology in linguistics. Applied linguistics refers to using the findings in linguistics studies to solve the practical problems.And next, language, I have mentioned above, is defined officially as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. And there are some important points that should be emphasized. First of all, language is a system and it has its rules suited for itself. Second, language is arbitrary. Different languages have different words for the same thing, which is arbitrary. Third the term vocal is primary medium for all the language. In an addition, words are symbols. They contain objects, actions, ideas and so on. And the last important term is human. Only human can communicate with each other by using language. Furthermore the animals’ sound is not a language at all.And to learn design features of language, we can better distinguish between human language and the nature of language. The features include arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission. Arbitrariness means there is nological connection between meanings and sounds. Productivity means to make possible construction and interpretation of new signals in language. Duality means language consists of two sets of structures: sounds and units. Displacement refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. The last one means each language system is not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.At last, language has three main functions: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function. The first one means to convey factual information. The second one supples information about the user’s feelings. The last one means to support the social relations between people.于野09301089。
语言学教程第一章总结
1115101044 李素萍Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted.Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.1.2 What Is Language?Language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression.(David Crystal, 1992)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Ronald Wardhaugh)To give the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication. In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.1.3 Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their sound and meaning. The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level. language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:Primary units …words‟ (meaningful) consist of secondary units …sounds‟ (meaningless).CreativityLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Information imparted by animals is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages, as birds, bees.Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Language is creative in another sense,that is, its potential to create endless sentences.DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole.In a word, intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe”bow-wow”, the” po oh-pooh” and the” yo-he-yo” theory1.5 Functions of LanguageLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.In conjunction with speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic (to establish communion with others)，metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Informative function(ideational function)信息功能Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.Language serves for the expression of content and give helps to determine our way of looking at things.Interpersonal Function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society， e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant.It is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation.Performative Function施维功能Language canbe used to do things, to perform action.It is primarily to change the social status of persons and is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an. Emotive Function感情功能It is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.Phatic Communion寒暄功能It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.Recreational Function娱乐功能The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulnessThe use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.Metalingual Function元语言功能Our language can be used to talk about itself, for example, I can use the word book to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “book” itself.1.6 What Is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the scientific study of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistics is a rich and exciting field.Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.1.7 Main Branches of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax 句法学Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in particular context. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.1.8 MacrolinguisticsOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structureof formerly unwritten languages.Computational Linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language(also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages).To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing)is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, andit may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time whereinTHE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis,namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existedlong long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or thatthe speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, giveslanguage new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carriedthrough space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carriedthrough time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby,so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly,oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional(causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encouragerepeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech,different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for??“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptivebecause many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammarswere based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should bedescribed in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy.These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizedlanguage, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to thespeaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always anaturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a massof confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguistought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make thanthe subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledgeof the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand anindefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of hisnative language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , thoughsimilar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a propertyof the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociologicalor sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issuespsychologically or psycholinguistically.。
语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)
语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学（一）语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言，这种说法（不正确）2.一般而言，一个民族使用同一种语言，语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言，不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。
语言不是识别民族的可靠标志（二）语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言，可以建立语言的（谱系分类）2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是（德语），都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化，可以分为分析性语言即（孤立语）和形态语即（屈折语、黏着语）4.汉语属于（分析性语言/孤立语），没有丰富的形态变化，主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的（屈折语），日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于（黏着语）（三）“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是（明确语言学的研究对象）2.（语言）是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统，是社会的，如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.（言语）是具体的、无限的、个人的，如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”（四）“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式，它是书面语产生的基础。
2.书面语：是用文字记录的语言形式，是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。
3.书面语与口语基本一致，但不是口语绝对忠实的记录，也不是口语的机械记录和重复。
（五）“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是（语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语）2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为（能指），符号所指的意义内容是（所指）3.语言符号的能指是（语音），语言符号的所指是（意义）4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是（索绪尔）5.能指和所指的关系是（不可分割）的，一旦分开，语言符号就不存在了。
（六）“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思，红灯和“停”之间的关系是（约定的）2.语言符号的任意性是指（语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系），即：声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系，在语言符号产生之初，它的声音和意义的结合是任意的，是由社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（任意性）4.语言符号的强制性是指（个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号）（七）“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征：语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。
简明语言学整理笔记
第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2．The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <parole 语言&言语Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征CharlesHockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users③Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.. ④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。
语言学---第一章知识框架
Chapter 1Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?1.Some myths about language2.Some fundamental views about language3.Some concrete demonstrations to show Linguistics’importance1.2 What is Language?1. Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916) 2. “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”--Edward Sapir (1884-1939): Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)3. “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)4. “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)5. “From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)6. Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)7.“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)8. “Language is a means of verbal communication.”—It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.—It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006)9. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design Features of LanguageLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.Human language is ‘unique’1. Arbitrariness①Definition②Different levels of arbitrarinessa.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaningb.Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelc.Arbitrariness and convention2. Duality①Definition②Two levels of structures in languageThe secondary level (sounds, meaningless)The primary level (words, meaningful)③Hierarchy of language3. Creativity①Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can useit to create new meanings.②The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinitenumber of sentences. For instance:---He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who ..4. Displacement①Definition②Two examples③The advantage of displacement1.4 Origin of language1.The “bow-wow”theory2.The “pooh-pooh”theory3.The “yo-he-ho”theory1.5 Functions of language1.Jakobson’s classificationContextREFERENTIALAddresser EMOTIVE(e.g. intonation showing anger)MessagePOETIC(e.g. poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g. imperatives andvocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g. Good morning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)2.Halliday’s classification①Three metafunctions of language②Seven categories of language functions by observing child languagedevelopment3.The author’s introduction①Informative②Interpersonal Function③Performative④Emotive Function⑤Phatic Communion⑥Recreational Function⑦Metalingual Function1.6 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.1.7 Main branches of Linguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.Semantics6.Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.Psycholinguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.Anthropological Linguisticsputational Linguistics1.9 Important distinctions in Linguistics1.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs. Diachronicngue & Parolepetence and Performance。
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
简明英语语言学知识点汇总Document number【AA80KGB-AA98YT-AAT8CB-2A6UT-A18GG】新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for,A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaningsuch as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher levelof system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arrangedand rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,thedetails of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animalcall system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学)声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity（鼻腔）Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsNarrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit] h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in]2.2.4 classification of English speech soundsMonophthongs：2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phoneticsStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1)the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify3)ContextualismJ.R Firth。
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Chapter 1
ⅠThe things that I have learnt
①Linguistics: the scientific study of language.
②The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,
pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics ect.
③Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic
vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.
④Traditional grammar: prescriptive; tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize
the importance of the written words; forced languages into a Latin-based framework.
⑤Several different definitions of language, e.g. Language is a purely human and
non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. (Sapir,1921)
⑥Generally accepted definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols
used for human communication.
⑦Design features of language (design features refer to the definition properties of
human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.) : arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission ect.
⑧Functions of language: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, perforrnative,
expressive and evocative.
⑨Saussure: the Swiss linguist in the early 20th century.
⑩Chomsky: the American linguist in the late 1950s.
ⅡThe things that I am interested in.
①The scope of linguistics, such as phonetics.
②The differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.
③Design features of language.
ⅢThe things that I am confused
①the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century; the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. How to understand the red parts (the underline parts)
②How to understand the following words
Synchronic, diachronic, langue and parole
③The functions of language. I still can’t understand each function means what exactaly.。