语言学chapter eight part3
语言学导论第八章
Chapter 8 Language and Society
sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society
Preliminaries: 1.Find out the differences between male and female languages. 2.Try to discover the distinctions between the language of the younger generation and that of the older generation in China. 3.Think of some examples of code-mixing in the speech of Cantonese.
nguage and age c.jargon: doctor’s language lawyer’s language computational language (Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor) … The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don’t know what plaintiff means? … The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don’t know where abaft the binnacle is?
speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
语言学第九单元和第八单元
Chapter 8 Language and societySociolinguistics ---- aν sub-field of linguists that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.The relatedness between language and society----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships.ν (e.g. greeting)The use of language is in part determined by the user’sν social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both theν physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)Asνa social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).Speech community and speech varietySpeechνcommunity---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.Speech variety orνlanguage variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesMacro sociolinguistics, i.e. aνbird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;Micro sociolinguistics,νi.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.Varieties of languageDialectal varietiesνRegisterνDegree of formalityνDialectal varietiesRegional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). Sociolect is a linguisticν variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation) Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon)νν Language and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----boombox)Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individualν speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemingway, Luxun).Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of aν language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).RegisterRegister, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety ofνlanguage related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according toνHalliday, “languag e varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three socialνvariables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variablesField of discourse: whatν is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)Tenor of discourse: the role ofνrelationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)Mode of discourse: theν means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)Degree of formality----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)Intimate: Up you go, chaps!νCasual: Time youν all went upstairs now.Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs rightν away, please?Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs atν once.Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor byν way of the staircase.----Note: Different styles of the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).Standard dialectThe standard variety is aν superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Pidgin and CreoleA pidginνis a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speechν community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.Bilingualism and DiglossiaIn some speech communities, two languages are used side by sideν with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguisticν situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a lan guage exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter 9 Language and cultureWhat is culture?Inν a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the lifeof the human community.In a narrow sense,ν culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.νThe relationship between language and cultureThe same word may stir upν different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’sνattitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.The culture both emancipates andν constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.Culture alsoνaffects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.On the one hand, language as anν integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.Sapir-Whorf hypothesisEdward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structureν of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’sνperception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.Strong version & weak versionStrong version believes that the language patternsν determine people’s thinking and behavior;Weak version holds that theν former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:There is nowadays a recognition thatν language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize howνimportant context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesDenotativeν meaning ---- a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.Connotativeν meaning ---- a meaning or idea suggested by a word or thing in addition to the formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.Iconic meaning ---- theν image or icon invoked in mind by a word.For exam ple, “rose”.νSome cultural differences in language useGrThanks and complimentsColor wordsPrivacy and taboosRounding off numbersWords and cultural-specific connotationsCultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphorThe significance of cultural teaching and learningLearning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture.We need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well.Cultural overlapCultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as“Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”Cultural diffusionThrough communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion.One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)Intercultural communicationIntercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.。
英语语言学8.3.3
• Heuristic 2: I-Heuristic related directly to Grice’s second Maxim of Quantity. The underlying idea is that one need not say what can be taken for granted”.
– John came in and the man laughed.
There is still a long way to go before we find a solution to all the problems we have in the study of language in use, and there are new attempts to improve on all these principles.
5
• Heuristic 1: Q-Heuristic “more or less transparently related to Grice’s first Maxim of Quantity” responsible for two types of implicatures: scalar implicatures and clausal implicatures
1.(a) If you mow the lawn, I'll give you $5. (b) If and only if you mow the lawn, I'll give you $5.
2.(a) John said “Hello” to the secretary and then he smiled. (b) John said “Hello” to the female secretary and then John smiled.
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
英语语言学笔记第八章
第八章语言的使用在语义那一章里，我们谈到"意义"一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。
但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。
假定有人对你说"You're a fool（你是个傻子）"，你一般都会反问："What do you mean?（你什么意思）"。
这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。
你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。
你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。
或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用"What do you mean（你什么意思）？"来反驳对方的说法。
你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。
这种意义有时称为"说话者意义"、"语句意义"或者"语境意义"。
这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。
总之就是取决于语境。
研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。
因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。
现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning - semantics（语用学意义= 意义- 语义学意义）。
8.1 言语行为理论这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J. L. Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。
奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。
1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。
语言学教程第八章知识点
Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。
语言学第八单元
The Cooperative Principle 合作原则） （合作原则）
1. 2. 3. 4. Maxim of Quantity 量的准则 Maxim of Quality 质的准则 Maxim of Relation 关联准则 Maxim of Manner 方式准则
Maxim of Quantity 质的准则
A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论） （行事行为理论）
1. Locutionary act（发话行为） 2. Illocutionary act（行事行为） 3. Perlocutionary act（取效行为）
A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论） （行事行为理论）
Chapter 8
Language in Use
speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, contextual meaning • Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. • It depends more on the context.
semantics VS atics
• Semantics: more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning • Pragmatics: more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or sth. extra. pragmatics=meaning-semantics
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
The presumption of its own optimal relevance The three definitions of relevance
An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in that context.当且仅当一个设想在一种语境中具有语 境效应时，这个设想 在这个语境中才具有关联 性。
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
The presumption of optimal relevance
a. The set of assumptions ｛I｝ which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressee’s while to process the ostensive stimulus.发话者意欲向听话者显现的这
Cooperative Principle and The Principle of Economy
Quantity: 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required . 2. Do not make you contribution more informative than is required. Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation: Be relevant Manner: Be perspicuous. 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be Brief. 4. Be orderly.
firstly
Extent conditions
Extent condition 1: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large. Extent condition 2: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.
On the other hand, the effort required will never be more than is needed to achieve these effects. In comparison to the effects achieved, the effort needed is always the smallest. 一方面，所要达到的效应永远不会小的不值得处理；
The R-principle (Speaker-based):
MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION NECESSARY (cf. Relation, Quantity2, Manner) SAY NO MORE THAN YOU MUST (given Q)
The hearer-based Qprinciple is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to provide. For example, (a) below implicates (b): (a) Some of my friends are linguists. (b) Not all of my friends are linguists. none < some < many < all
某个设想在某一时刻，在某人可及的一种或多种语境中具有关 联性时，这个设想才在当时与那个个体相关联。
thirdly
A phenomenon is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him.当且仅当某个现象显映的一个或多 个设想与某个体相关时，这个现象才与该 个体有联系。
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
1. Relevance theory
Proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986.
George has a big cat. George has a tiger, a lion, a jaguar, etc. George has a tiger. George has a tiger or a lion, I'm not sure which. George has a felid.
Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.每一个明示交
际行为,都传递一种假设：该行动本身 具备最佳关联性。
Principle of relevance
Chapter 8 Language in Use
能用来传递{I}的关联性最大的信号。
Summary:
Every utterance comes with a presumption of the best balance of effort against effect.每个话语都假定努力和 效应能取得最佳平衡。
On the one hand, the effects achievable will never be less than is needed to make it worth processing.
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. communication From the speaker’s side From the hearer’s side
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUng aim
Make the students know of post-Gricean development.
Teaching points
1. the relevance theory. 2. the Q-and R-principle. 3. the Q-,I- and M-principle.
个设想集{I}，具有足够的关联性， 值得受话者花时间去处理其明示性 刺激信号。
b. The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate ｛I｝.这一明示刺激信号，是发话者可
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
secondly
An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time.当且仅当
An ostensive act to make clear one’s intention to express something.
An inference act to infer the speaker’s intention.
Ostensive-inferential communication
The R-principle:
But the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.
The Q-principle (Hearer-based):
MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION SUFFICIENT (cf. Quantity1) SAY AS MUCH AS YOU CAN (given R)