1.《语言学教程》第 2 讲 (1.1,1.2,1.3)
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英汉翻译
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汉英翻译
汉英翻译是更高层次 的学习，是语言的深 层次加工和有限创造； 它的质量取决于语言 输入的质量，又决定 着语言输出的质量。
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口 语 写 作 英美文化与社会
“英语学习羊皮卷”
1. 好的英语句子不是用我们学过的词汇和语法把 内心要表达的意思翻译出来即可；因为我们在心 里构思的那个意思是用汉语组织的，它反映的自 然就是汉语的表达习惯。好的句子是英美人在类 似情景中对这个意思的习惯表达。 2. 立足英汉对比，掌握英汉语言对比规律，实现 两种语言在结构上的高水平转换。 3. 多做严格深入的语法分析，对英汉语的结构了 然于胸。 4. 抓好预习、听讲和作业三个环节，有问题及时 解决。
The linguistic sign is a two-sided psychological entity that can be represented by the drawing:
[接上页] The two elements are intimately united and each recalls the other. Saussure calls the combination of a concept and a sound-image a linguistic sign, but in current usage the term usually designates a sound-image. In this case, Saussure proposes to retain the word sign to designate the whole and replace sound-image and concept respectively by the signifier and the signified.
第 1 学期 第2讲 第 1 章 走进语言学（1）
（Invitations to Linguistics）
1.1 为什么要研究语言？ 1.2 什么是语言？ 1.3 语言的定义特征/基本属性（上）
我的课程表
周一 1-2 3--4 5--6
高级 英语 语言学 5-404 语言学 2-204 语言学 5-404 语言学 5-404
语言是一种多维的现象，不同学者或学派从 各自角度出发，对语言的定义有不同甚至大相径 庭的看法。纵观语言学史，语言的定义林林总总， 不一而足。下列任何一项关于语言定义的论述， 都指出了语言的一个或多个特征；这些论述都是 出自于著名语言学家的经典著作。
① Edward Sapir在《语言论：言语研究导论》 （1921：8）中认为：“语言完全是属于人类的， 非本能的，凭借自觉地制造出来的符号系统来表 达观念、情绪和欲望的方式”。 ② Bloch和Trager在《语言分析纲要》（Outline of Linguistic Analysis）（1942：5）中指出：“语言 是一个社会群体进行合作时所使用的任意性口头 符号系统”。 ③ Hall在其《语言论》（Essay on Language） （1968：158）中指出：“语言是一种制度，籍此 人们通过习惯性使用的任意性口头——听觉符号 彼此进行交流和互动”。
文字的持久和稳定
在1949年9月2日的日本投降仪式上，麦克阿瑟用5支派克金笔
签字。他用第一支笔签了“Doug”，然后送给温赖特将军； 用第二支笔写了“las”，然后送给英军司令珀西瓦尔将军； 用第三支写了“MacArthur”，然后送给美国国家档案馆； 用第四支笔签了自己的职务“Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers”，然后送给美国西点军校；用第五支笔签了 “Sep.2nd, 1945”后，送给自己的妻子琼妮。
周二
周三
高级 英语
周四
周五
语言学 403
语言学 5-404
英语专业课程关系图
（按“语言输入与输入理论”制定）
精读 泛读 语法 听力 文学 语言 英美 英语 学 概况 语音
英汉翻译既是学习的 目标，有自身的价值， 又是学好上述“输入 性语言课程”的手段； 它还为汉英翻译的学 习做好准备，因为翻 译本质上是英汉两种 语言的科学和艺术， 涉及方方面面。
2.文学语言更增强了文字原本不该有的重要性。 文学语言有自己的词典和语法。人们在学校里按 照书本和通过书本来进行学习，语言和文字都显 然要受到规则的严格支配，给人一种极其庄重和 严肃的感觉，因此，文字慢慢就成了头等重要的， 它使得人们最终忘记了自己学会说话是先于学会 书写的这一基本事实，以至于最后说话和书写之 间的自然顺序被颠倒了。
用the signifier 和 the signified这两个术语的好处 在于：既可以表示它们彼此之间的对立，还可以 表明它们和它们所从属的整体之间的对立。
索绪尔的语言符号（linguistic sign）任意性理论 语言符号是音响形象和概念的结合，即能指和所 指的结合，按通俗叫法，就是形式和意义的结合。 音响形象与概念，或，能指与所指，或，形式与 意义的关系是既彼此分离，相互对立，又互为条 件，相互依存，二者共同构成语言符号。 语言符号的这种不可分割的二元性是语言研究的 基础。语言符号的任意性：语言符号的两个方面， 即概念与音响形象之间不存在任何实质性的因果 关联；它们之间的关系是任意的，无法解释的， 其中任何一方不取决于另一方，语言符号本身没 有固定的价值。 证明语言符号任意性原则的一个最普遍的例子就 是同一个概念在不同语言中有不同的发音。
上文关于语言定义的表述揭示了语言的若干本质 特征：大多数语言学家认为语言是人类出于交际 需要而设计的一种符号系统；这也是自索绪尔 （Saussure）以来的现代语言学对语言所持的基本 观点。 依据上述阐述，中国学者也提出了语言的定义： 语言是用于人类交流的具有任意性特征的口 头符号系统。 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal signs used for human communication.
④ R.H.Robins（1979a: 9-14）没有给语言制定出 一个正式定义，但是他正确地指出：如果语言的 定义不是以某种关于语言和语言分析的一般理论 为前提，那么这样的定义就是琐碎的，没有信息 价值的。 ⑤ Chomsky 在《句法结构》（Syntactic Structures） （1957：13）中指出：“从此以后，我认为语言 就是一组（有定或无定的）句子，每个句子的长 度有限，并且由一组有限的成分构成”。
例如： 奶酪(中文)---fromage(法语)---cheese(英语)
要正确理解语言符号的任意性。 不能把语言符号的任意性理解为符号的能指取决 于说话者的自由选择；实际上一个语言符号一旦 在语言群体中得到确认，个人便无权对它加以任 何改变。 能指与所指之间的关系是任意性的,不可解释的， 但这种关系并不是任何个人能随意自行决定的,它 需要得到大多数人的认可,并经过时间的检验而得
“ 现代语言学之父 ” ——结构主义的奠基人、创始人
费迪南 . 德 . 索绪尔 ( 1857-1913 )（瑞士）
索绪尔著作的若干版本
1.1 Why Study Language? 1.1 为什么要研究语言？
本节不是重点，不予补充新内容，只关注教材本 身即可。 把教材简明扼要地讲一下
1.2 What Is Language? 1.2 什么是语言？
interests, hobbies, or lifestyles, or even just groups of friends. Speech communities may share both particular sets of vocabulary and grammatical conventions, as well as speech styles and genres, and also norms for how and when to speak in particular ways.
到固定。如果有人认为需要使用新的能指来表示 新的所指,或需要使用新的能指来表示本来已有的 所指,或需要使用原有的能指来表示新的所指,这 也必须得到大多数人的认可和支持,并在使用过程 中得到进一步的确认。 注意：这里所讲的是Saussure界定的语言学意义上 的任意性，它与现实日常生活中所“任意、随心 所欲”等概念不同。
1.3.1 任意性（Arbitrariness）
In Course in General Linguistics, Saussure holds that language is a system of signs that express ideas. Linguistic signs unite not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound, or a purely physical thing, but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression that it makes on our senses. Both the terms involved in the linguistic signs are psychological and united in the brain by an associative bond. This point must be emphasized.
自然语言，作为一种符号系统，具有： 任意性、 双层性、 创造性 迁移性 特征。
《语言学教程》第 2 章 语音学与音位学1(课堂PPT)
7
Phonetics studies speech sounds,
made,
how speech sounds transmitted are actually
that
and received,
is,
speech sounds,
the description and classification of
words
and connected speech，
etc.
8
语音学研究的是语音，
发出、
传递 语音如何
和感知
即
语音
以及对
词 连续性语音
的描写 和分类。
9
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
的规则。
以及 音节的形式 音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
13
音位学的定义
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.” （Crystal, 1997: 162）
第 1 学期 第6 讲 第 2 章 语音学与音位学（1）
语言学教程第二章
5353目录Contents第一章引言....................................................................................................................... 错误！未定义书签。
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1研究问题...................................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。
Research questions1.1.1研究背景...........................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。
Research backgroud1.1.2研究对象...........................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。
Research object1.1.3研究问题...........................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。
Research questions1.2研究意义及目的 .....................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。
英语语言学教程Chapter 2 精品PPT课件
Its main principles were that
there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.
Questions for the students:
Do you know that human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system?
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Teaching aims: Let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.
Teaching difficulties: Manner of articulation ; (发音方法） Place of articulation ; （发音部位） The criteria of vowel description （元音的描述 ）; Broad and narrow transcription （宽式 / ; 窄式标音） allophone（音位变体）; minimal pairs（最小对立位）; assimilation（同化）
《语言学教程》Chapter-2-ics
语法
语法
语法是语言中词和句子的结构规律和 规则，是语言的组织原则。语法包括 词法和句法两部分。词法研究词的内 部结构和变化规律；句法研究短语和 句子的结构规律和规则。
语法的特点
语法具有抽象性、生成性、层次性和 系统性等特点。抽象性是指语法规则 是对语言中具体实例的抽象概括；生 成性是指语法能够生成无限多的合乎 语法的句子；层次性是指语法结构分 为若干层次，不同层次之间存在递归 关系；系统性是指语法规则相互联系 、相互制约，形成一个完整的系统。
新的词汇、表达方式和语法结构等可能会随着时间的推移而出 现，丰富和发展语言的表达和沟通功能。
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语言与社会文化的关系
语言与文化的关系
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化 传承和发展的载体。语言中蕴含着丰 富的文化信息，反映了特定民族的历 史、传统、信仰、价值观等。
语言与文化相互影响，语言使用中的 词汇、语法、表达方式等都受到文化 的影响，同时语言也影响了人们对世 界的认知和表达方式。
语音的生理属性
语音的生理属性包括发音机制和听觉机制。发音机制包括呼吸系统、声源系统、调制系统 和共鸣系统；听觉机制包括听觉接收器和大脑处理声音信息的过程。
词汇
词汇
词汇是语言中所有词的总和，是语言的建筑材料。词汇由词和固定词组构成，包括实词和虚词两大类。实词表示事物 、概念、动作等具体内容；虚词表示语法关系和语气等抽象内容。
语法的作用
语法在语言中起着非常重要的作用。 首先，语法保证语言的正确性和规范 性，使人们能够准确地表达思想、传 递信息。其次，语法使语言具有生成 性，能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句 子。最后，语法使语言具有开放性， 能够吸收外来文化和方言的影响，不 断丰富言演变的原因
《简明英语语言学教程》导学手册
《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。
本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。
本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。
２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。
３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。
二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。
《语言学教程》第 2 章 语音学与音位学1
语音学研究的是语音， 发出、
语音如何 即 以及对 传递 和感知
语音
词 连续性语音 的描写 和分类。
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Articulatory phonetics / 发音语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds.
①SPEECH ORGANS, also knows as VOCAL ORGANS， are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. ②It is striking to see how much of the human body is involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
3 and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.
In this chapter, we will introduce and discuss some of the basic ideas of articulatory phonetics and phonological analysis.
的规则。
音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
(完整word版)胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照
语言学教程chapter1-31.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。
如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。
2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functionsinclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。
语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。
3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith orintuition alone.位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。
语言学教程第二章ppt课件
The categories of consonant, therefore, are
established on the basis of several factors.
.
a. the actual relationship between the
tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture
and then striking the roof of the mouth in the
post-alveolar region as it returns to its position
behind the lower front teeth. In some forms of
humans, meaningful in human
communication and with which linguists
are concerned.
.
.
Phonetics and ittics is the science
which studies the characteristics of
vocal organs(发音器官).
The articulatory apparatus of a
human being are contained in
three important areas: (1) the
pharyngeal cavity(咽腔) – the
throat
(2) the oral cavity(口腔) – the
through easily and the sound produced
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学教程胡壮麟
An Introduction to Linguistics语言学导论胡壮麟主编《语言学教程》（修订版）北京：北京大学出版社2001年Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1Why study language?●Languages are the best mirror of the human mind. --Leibniz(莱布尼兹1646-1716)psychology mind/brain pedagogy cognitive science●The three basic questions that concern Chomsky are:(i) What constitutes knowledge of language?(ii) How is knowledge of language acquired?(iii) How is knowledge of language put to use?Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm(1646-1716) German rationalist philosopher, mathematician, and logician. He spent his life in the diplomatic and political service and in 1700 was appointed first president of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Leibniz is chiefly known as an exponent of optimism; he believed that the world is fundamentally harmonious and good, being composed of single units (monads), each of which is self-contained but acts in harmony with every other; these form an ascending hierarchy culminating in God. Their harmony is ordained by God, who never acts except for a reason that requires it, and so this world is the best of all possible worlds (a view satirized in Voltaire's Candide). Leibniz made the important distinction between necessary (logical) truths and contingent (factual) truths, and proposed a universal logical language that would eliminate ambiguity. He also devised a method of calculus independently of Newton.Chomsky, (Avram) Noam(1928-–) US theoretical linguist and political activist. His theory of transformational grammar is set out in Syntactic Structures (1957). A distinction is made between a speaker's linguistic competence, which is idealized, and actual performance; the theory sets out to account only for the former. Chomsky has revised the theory since 1957.1.2What is language?●Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. – Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939)●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.-- Wardhaugh（沃道）● A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length andconstructed out of a finite set of elements. – Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928 -）● A language is a system for meanings. – Halliday（韩礼德1925 -）We shall define lang uage as “meaning potential”: that is, as sets of options, or alternatives, in meaning, that are available to the speaker-hearer. – Halliday Sapir, Edward(1884-1939) German-born US linguistics scholar and anthropologist. One of the founders of American structural linguistics, he carried out important work on American Indianlanguages and linguistic theory. His book Language (1921) presents his thesis that language should be studied within its social and cultural context. According to theSapir-Whorf hypothesis, in which Sapir collaborated with his pupil Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941), a culture's language embodies the way in which it understands the world and dictates how those who use that language think about the world. This may be due to structural factors, such as the way time is expressed in verb tenses, as well as to more superficially obvious features such as vocabulary.1.3Design features of language●Design features Concept introduced by C. F. Hockett in the 1960s of a set of key properties of language not shared or not known to be shared, as a set, with systems of communication in any other species. Their number and names vary from one account to another; but all include, as among the most important, the properties of duality, arbitrariness, and productivity.1.3.1Arbitrariness任意性: The property of language by which there is in general nonatural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and itsmeaning. 书book livre rose motivated 理据sheep cow moo moo quackoink bedroomWhat’s in a name? that which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet. – Shakespeare(莎士比亚1564-1616)名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。