中级微观经济学 19_利润最大化

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范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》配套题库【课后习题】(利润最大化)【圣才出品】

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》配套题库【课后习题】(利润最大化)【圣才出品】

第19章利润最大化1.在短期内,如果不变生产要素的价格提高,利润会发生什么变化?答:在短期内,如果不变生产要素的价格提高,利润会降低。

厂商利润,其中和分别是固定要素的数量和价格。

特别地,短期内固定不变,所以和会以参数的形式出现在利润的表达式中。

所以,的提高会引起利润的下降。

2.如果某企业的生产技术能做到对于任何产量水平都是规模报酬递增的,在价格保持不变并且经营规模扩大一倍的情况下,它的利润会发生什么变化?答:它的利润会扩大到原来的两倍以上。

这是因为:对于一个处处规模报酬递增的企业,其生产函数满足,其中。

对任意的产量,其利润为,所以当企业生产规模扩大一倍后,其利润是,因此其利润是原来的两倍以上。

3.如果一个企业在各种产出水平上都显示规模报酬递减,那么,把这个企业划分为两个相等规模的较小企业,它的总利润会发生什么变化?答:通过把一个企业分拆为规模更小的企业可以提高其总利润。

这是因为:对于一个处于规模报酬递减的企业,其生产函数满足,其中。

该企业的利润为:,其中是最优要素投入量。

若把该企业分成两个规模相等的小企业,则这两个小企业的总利润为:分拆后的总利润大于原来一个企业的利润,所以通过把一个企业分拆为规模更小的企业有利于提高其利润,而且分拆后的规模越小,则这些小企业的总利润就越高(比如在本题中,把企业分拆后的两个小企业再次按同样的方法分拆)。

因此如果普遍的存在规模报酬递减,就不会存在大规模企业,这与事实不符,所以普遍存在规模报酬递减是一个不可信的论据。

4.一个园丁惊呼:“只投入1美元的种子,我就收获了价值20美元的产品!”除了大部分产品是西葫芦外,一个经济学家会对这种情况做出何种评论?答:经济学家会告诉园丁他忽略了机会成本。

事实上,为了准确地计算实际成本,园丁必须把他自己用来生产庄稼的时间成本计算进去,或者说就是他自己不劳动,而是雇佣劳动力替他种庄稼时付给劳动力的工资。

如果将机会成本计入成本,则他的投入产出比远小于20:1。

课程大纲:中级微观经济学

课程大纲:中级微观经济学

课程大纲:中级微观经济学【挂牌课版】说明:本大纲适用于挂牌课《中级微观经济学》课程。

授课教师办公室:答疑时间:电子邮件:助教:办公室:答疑时间:电子邮件:课程介绍:这门课程共3学分。

微观经济学以消费者和生产者的决策行为为研究重点,探讨在不同的市场结构下生产者的决策和市场均衡等问题。

其内容主要包括消费者的效用最大化问题,生产者的成本最小化和利润最大化问题,厂商均衡理论、局部均衡和一般均衡理论等。

本课程的学习有助于学生理解现实生活中的一些经济现象、掌握微观经济学的基本分析方法,并运用这些方法分析现实中的一些经济问题。

预备知识:初级经济学知识,微积分。

指定教材:“Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach”, Eighth Edition by Hal R. Varian, 2009.其他参考教材:1.(美)伯格斯特龙、(美)范里安,2009:《微观经济学:现代观点练习册》(第七版),格致出版社。

(可选)2.(美)曼昆,2009:《经济学原理:微观经济学分册》(第五版),清华大学出版社。

(可选)3.“Microeconomics” by Robert S. Pindyck, Daniel L. Rubinfeld, SixEdition, Tsinghua University Press, 2005.4.“Microeconomics Analysis,”by Hal Varian, W.W.Norton & Co.课程考核:课程考核分为:课堂参与和随堂表现、作业、期中考试和期末考试等四部分。

每部分所占比例如下:课堂参与 5 %作业 20%期中考试 25%期末考试 50%课堂规则:如果不提供缺课证明,不允许无故缺课。

抄袭作业和延迟提交都是不允许的。

考试中抄袭将按学校规定受到严肃处分。

教学内容与课时安排:按每周4课时,每次课2课时,总共12周排课,本课程总课时为48课时。

微观经济学@利润最大化

微观经济学@利润最大化

y f ( x1 , x 2 )
max max py 1 x1 2 x2
x1 x1
p MP1 w 1 0
p MP2 w 2 0
MP w1 1 MP2 w2
( x , x2 )
* 1
*
x*1、 x*2各自价格的函数,即要素需求 函数。
例题
生产函数为 投入的价格分别为w1,w2,产出的价格为p 在短期x2不变,求企业实现最大利润时的x1和y。 求在长期企业实现最大利润的投入和产出。
13
利润最大化
利润 短期利润最大化 长期利润最大化
13.1
利润
在n维条件下:假定厂商使用n种投入(x1, x2,……xn),生产n种产品(y1,y2,……,yn), 其价格为(p1,p2,……,pn),要素投入的价格为 (w1,w2,……,wn),则利润函数π 可写作:
pi yi wi xi
* 1
* 2
*
p y 3w 1
1/ 2
1/ 3 1/ 3 y x1 x2
短期
* p x1 3w 1
*
长期
3/ 2
~ 1/ 2 x 2
1/ 2 ~ x2
(x , x , y ) p p p , , 2 2 27 w w 27 w w 9 w w 1 2 1 2 1 2
3 3 2
y
W2提高?


~ ) y f ( x1 , x 2
W1提高, 曲线变的陡峭, x1投入量下 降,要素的需求曲线向下倾斜。 p下降,。 x1投入量下降,供给曲线向 上倾斜。
w1 Slopes p

钟根元《中级微观经济学学习指南》练习题详解(利润最大化)【圣才出品】

钟根元《中级微观经济学学习指南》练习题详解(利润最大化)【圣才出品】

第19章利润最大化一、判断题1.利润最大化行为弱公理是指厂商只有较弱的利润最大化动机。

()【答案】F【解析】利润最大化行为弱公理是指竞争性厂商的供给量是产品价格的增函数,每种要素的需求函数是该要素价格的减函数。

弱公理也是利润最大化条件推导得出的,因此不能说厂商具有较弱的利润最大化动机。

2.不变要素就是在使用过程中与产量水平成固定比例的生产要素。

()【答案】F【解析】不变要素是指其数量不受产量水平影响的要素,是企业固定数量的生产要素,即使企业的产量为零,企业仍然要为此要素支付成本;可变要素是指其数量随产量水平变化而变化的要素。

3.某要素边际产量等于在其他要素投入量保持不变的条件下生产函数对该要素的偏导数。

()【答案】T【解析】要素的边际产量是在其他要素投入量保持不变的条件下,增加一单位要素所引起的产量增加量,即在其他要素投入量保持不变的条件下生产函数对该要素的偏导数。

4.若初始阶段要素x的边际产品价值随要素x投入的增加而上升,那么此时要素x边际产品价值等于要素价格也是厂商利润最大化条件。

()【答案】F【解析】厂商要素投入在边际产量递增阶段,不能直接套用利润最大化的一阶条件。

当边际产量递增时,企业应该增加要素使用量。

5.若追求利润最大化的竞争性厂商面临产品价格提高,而且所有其他价格保持不变,那么厂商的产量不可能下降的。

()【答案】T【解析】由利润最大化的弱公理∆p∆y≥0,由于∆p>0,∆y≥0是必然成立的。

6.若某竞争性行业中厂商生产函数均呈规模报酬不变的特点,那么他们的长期利润水平一定为零。

()【答案】T【解析】对于在所有产量水平上都具有不变的规模报酬的一家竞争企业而言,惟一可能的长期利润水平是零。

假设长期均衡时,厂商实现了利润最大化,且长期利润水平为正。

此时,若要素投入量增加一倍,产量将增加一倍,利润也将翻番,这与初始的长期均衡状态相矛盾,所以长期利润水平一定为零。

7.与消费理论对应,厂商利润最大化下也可能存在“吉芬要素”,这类要素价格下降反而引起对其需求的下降。

微观经济学:平狄克:利润最大化

微观经济学:平狄克:利润最大化

未来发展:随着市场环境的变化,平狄克利润最大化理论仍需不断发展和完善,以更好地指导企业的经营实践。
平狄克利润最大化理论的未来发展方向和前景
持续优化和改进模型:随着经济环境和市场条件的变化,平狄克利润最大化理论将不断被优化和改进,以更好地解释和预测企业的经济行为。
拓展应用领域:该理论不仅适用于传统产业,还将逐渐拓展到新兴领域,如数字经济、绿色经济等,为企业制定战略和决策提供更有力的支持。
利润最大化的意义在于,它为企业决策提供了重要的参考依据,使得企业在市场竞争中能够更好地应对风险和不确定性。
利润最大化也有助于实现社会资源的有效配置,提高整个社会的经济效益。
平狄克利润最大化理论的基本思想
生产可能性边界:企业在生产可能性边界上选择最优的生产组合
市场结构:企业在不同的市场结构中采取不同的策略来最大化利润
融合其他经济学理论:平狄克利润最大化理论将与其他经济学理论相互融合,形成更加综合和系统的理论体系,以更好地解释企业经济行为背后的深层次原因。
跨学科研究:未来将有更多的跨学科研究,如经济学、管理学、心理学等,从不同角度探讨平狄克利润最大化理论的应用和发展,为企业提供更加全面和深入的指导。
感谢您的观看
理论改进和完善:随着实践的发展和理论的深入,利润最大化理论也需要不断地改进和完善,以更好地指导企业的经营实践。
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平狄克利润最大化理论对微观经济学的贡献
揭示了企业如何通过生产成本、市场需求和产品定价来实现利润最大化
对理解市场经济运行和企业决策具有重要指导意义
提供了对市场价格和企业决策的微观经济学分析框架
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平狄克利润最大化理论在企业管理中的应用
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微观经济学:平狄克:利润最大化

微观经济学:平狄克:利润最大化

第三节 利润最大化和竞争型供给3。

1利润最大化 利润最大化假说经理一定会考虑股东的利益最大化吗?考虑长期的经理和考虑短期的经理行为的差异,为什么给经理期权等长期才兑现的目标,即经理也变成持股票者,可以消除一部分经理和股东利益的差别? 3.2边际收益、边际成本和利润最大化 厂商的利润为:()()()q R q C q π=-当()()()[()()]()()0MR q MC q d q d R q C q dR q dC q dq dq dq dqπ-==-= 厂商获得最大利润,也即()()MR q MC q =3。

2。

1竞争性厂商的需求和边际收益第三节 利润最大化和竞争型供给(1)竞争型厂商的需求线是一条水平线,需求弹性是多大呢? (2)边际收益呢?(),R q Pq MR P == 3。

2。

1竞争性厂商的需求和边际收益 在完全竞争下()0()d q P MC q dqπ=⇔= 实际上()()()()(())0()'()()()'()1()(1)()()(1)()()||MR q MR q MR q d q d P q q MC q P q q P q MC q dq dq P q q P q MC q P q MC q P q πε=⇔==⇔+=+=⇔-=3.3选择短期产量1()()P MC q q MC P -=⇒=图2.a 竞争性厂商的需求 图2.b 行业面临的需求微观经济学讲义 第三章 厂商理论 第三节 利润最大化和竞争型供给3.4竞争性厂商的短期供给曲线如图4中边际成本线,保本点以上的部分,即黑粗线所示部分。

1(),()c q MC P P MC q -=>Q图4 竞争性厂商的定价:亏损状态c q*2qQ图3 竞争性厂商的定价:盈利状态*1q3。

4.1厂商对投入品价格的反应3.4.1短期市场供给曲线逻辑:假定市场存在n 个厂商,市场总供给为1()()()ni i Q P q P D P ===∑,即每个厂商将价格是为给定,然后所有的厂商的供给构成市场的供给,市场供给和总需求共同决定这个P ,然后给定市场均衡的P ,每个厂商提供具体P 下的供给。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》【教材精讲+考研真题解析】第19章 利润最大化 【圣才出品】

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》【教材精讲+考研真题解析】第19章 利润最大化 【圣才出品】

第19章利润最大化19.1本章要点●短期利润●长期利润●显示盈利的能力19.2重难点解读一、利润1.利润的表示方法利润可以被简单地定义为总收益与总成本之差(Profits are defined as revenues minus cost)。

假定一个厂商生产几种产品()1,...,n y y 和使用m 种投入品()1,...,m x x 。

令产品的价格为()1,...,n p p ,投入品的价格分别为()1,...,m w w ,则厂商的利润π可表示为:11i i i i i i p y w x π===-∑∑其中前一项为厂商的总收益,后一项为总成本。

2.不同的利润概念经济学上的利润指的是经济利润或称超额利润,等于总收益减总成本(含显性成本和隐性成本)。

经济学上指的正常利润是指厂商对自己所提供的企业家才能的报酬的支付,已经包含在隐性成本里了。

隐性成本是指厂商再生产过程中使用自身所拥有的那些生产要素所支付的实际费用。

会计利润是指厂商的总收益减去所有的显性成本以后的余额。

显性成本是指厂商为获得生产所需要的各种生产要素而发生的实际支出。

3.各利润概念之间的关系会计利润=总收益-会计成本经济利润=总收益-总成本=总收益-(显成本+隐成本)图19-1相关关系二、短期利润最大化1.短期利润最大化的必要条件在完全竞争市场下,假定要素2的投入水平2x 保持不变。

令厂商的生产函数为()12,f x x ,产出的价格为p ,两种投入品的价格为1w 和2w 。

厂商的利润最大化问题可表示为:()1121122max ,x pf x x w x w x --如果*1x 是要素1实现利润最大化的数量,由数理方法可得生产要素的边际产品价值(额外增加一个单位的要素投入而增加的产品的价值,强调价值的增加)应该等于它的价格:()1121,pMP x x w *=2.利用图形分析短期利润最大化令y 表示厂商的产出量,利润可表示为:1122py x x πωω=--整理得等利润线:2121w w y x x p p pπ=++等利润线表示产生固定利润水平的投入品和产出品的所有组合,如图19-2所示,斜率为1w p ,纵截距为22w x p pπ+。

《微观经济学:利润最大化与竞争性供给》问答与练习(英文版含答案)

《微观经济学:利润最大化与竞争性供给》问答与练习(英文版含答案)

《微观经济学:利润最大化与竞争性供给》问答与练习(英文版含答案)PROFIT MAXIMIZATION AND COMPETITIVE SUPPLY1. Why would a firm that incurs losses choose to produce rather than shut down?Losses occur when revenues do not cover total costs. Revenues could still be greater thanvariable costs, but not fixed costs. If a firm is incurring a loss, it will seek to minimizethat loss. In the short run, losses will be minimized as long as the firm covers its variablecosts. In the long run, all costs are variable. Thus, all costs must be covered if the firmis to remain in business.2. The supply curve for a firm in the short run is the short-run marginal cost curve (above the point of minimum average variable cost). Why is the supply curve in the long run not the long-run marginal cost curve (above the point of minimum average total cost)?In the short run, a change in the market price induces the profit-maximizing firm tochange its optimal level of output. This optimal output occurs when price is equal tomarginal cost, as long as marginal cost exceeds average variable cost. Therefore, thesupply curve of the firm is its marginal cost curve, above average variable cost. (Whenthe price falls below average variable cost, the firm will shut down.)In the long run, the firm adjusts its inputs so that its long-run marginal cost is equal tothe market price. At this level of output, it is operating on a short-run marginal costcurve where short-run marginal cost is equal to price. As the long-run price changes,the firm gradually changes its mix of inputs to minimize cost. Thus, the long-run supplyresponse is this adjustment from one set of short-run marginal cost curves to another.3. In long-run equilibrium, all firms in the industry earn zero economic profit. Why is this true?The theory of perfect competition explicitly assumes that there are no entry or exitbarriers to new participants in an industry. With free entry, positive economic profitsinduce new entrants. As these firms enter, the supply curve shifts to the right, causinga fall in the equilibrium price of the product. Entry will stop, and equilibrium will beachieved, when economic profits have fallen to zero.4. What is the difference between economic profit and producer surplus?While economic profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost, producersurplus is the difference between total revenue and total variable cost. The differencebetween economic profit and producer surplus is the fixed cost of production.5. Why do firms enter an industry when they know that in the long run economic profit will be zero?Firms enter an industry when they expect to earn economic profit. These short-runprofits are enough to encourage entry. Zero economic profits in the long run implynormal returns to the factors of production, including the labor and capital of the ownersof firms. For example, the owner of a small business might experience positiveaccounting profits before the foregone wages from running the business are subtractedfrom these profits. If the revenue minus other costs is just equal to what could be earnedelsewhere, then the owner is indifferent to staying in business or exiting.6. At the beginning of the twentieth century, there were many small American automobile manufacturers. At the end of the century, there are only three large ones. Suppose that this situation is not the result of lax federal enforcement of antimonopoly laws. How do you explain the decrease in the number of manufacturers? (Hint: What is the inherent cost structure of the automobile industry?) Automobile plants are highly capital-intensive. Assuming there have been noimpediments to competition, increasing returns to scale can reduce the number of firmsin the long run. As firms grow, their costs decrease with increasing returns to scale.Larger firms are able to sell their product for a lower price and push out smaller firms inthe long run. Increasing returns may cease at some level of output, leaving more thanone firm in the industry.7. Industry X is characterized by perfect competition, so every firm in the industry is earning zero economic profit. If the product price falls, no firms can survive. Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.Disagree. As the market price falls, firms cut their production. If price falls belowaverage total cost, firms continue to produce in the short run and cease production in thelong run. If price falls below average variable costs, firms cease production in the shortrun. Therefore, with a small decrease in price, i.e., less than the difference between theprice and average variable cost, firms can survive. With larger price decrease,i.e.,greater than the difference between price and minimum average cost, no firms survive.8. An increase in the demand for video films also increases the salaries of actors and actresses. Is the long-run supply curve for films likely to be horizontal or upward sloping? Explain.The long-run supply curve depends on the cost structure of the industry. If there is a fixedsupply of actors and actresses, as more films are produced, higher salaries must be offered.Therefore, the industry experiences increasing costs. In an increasing-cost industry, thelong-run supply curve is upward sloping. Thus, the supply curve for videos would beupward sloping.9. True or false: A firm should always produce at an output at which long-run average cost is minimized. Explain.False. In the long run, under perfect competition, firms should produce where averagecosts are minimized. The long-run average cost curve is formed by determining theminimum cost at every level of output. In the short run, however, the firm might not beproducing the optimal long-run output. Thus, if there are any fixed factors of production,the firm does not always produce where long-run average cost is minimized.10. Can there be constant returns to scale in an industry with an upward-sloping supply curve? Explain.Constant returns to scale imply that proportional increases in all inputs yield the sameproportional increase in output. Proportional increases in inputs can induce higherprices if the supply curves for these inputs are upward sloping. Therefore, constantreturns to scale does not always imply long-run horizontal supply curves.11. What assumptions are necessary for a market to be perfectly competitive? In light of what you have learned in this chapter, why is each of these assumptions important?The two primary assumptions of perfect competition are (1) all firms in the industry areprice takers, and (2) there is free entry and exit of firms from the market. This chapterdiscusses how competitive equilibrium is achieved under these assumptions. In particular,we have seen that in a competitive equilibrium, price is equal to marginal cost. Bothassumptions insure this equilibrium condition in the long run. In the short run, pricecould be greater than average cost, implying positive economic profits. With free entryand exit, positive economic profits would encourage other firms to enter. This entryexerts downward pressure on price until price is equal to both marginal cost andminimum average cost.12. Suppose a competitive industry faces an increase in demand (i.e., the curve shifts upward). What are the steps by which a competitive market insures increased output? Does your answer change if the government imposes a price ceiling?If demand increases with fixed supply, price and profits increase. The price increaseinduces the firms in the industry to increase output. Also, with positive profit, firmsenter the industry, shifting the supply curve to the right. With an effective price ceiling,profit will be lower than without the ceiling, reducing the incentive for firms to enter theindustry. With zero economic profit, no firms enter and there is no shift in the supplycurve.13. The government passes a law that allows a substantial subsidy for every acre of land used to grow tobacco. How does this program affect the long-run supply curve for tobacco?A subsidy to tobacco pro duction decreases the firm’s costs of production. These costdecreases encourage other firms to enter tobacco production, and the supply curve for theindustry shifts out.1. From the data in Table 8.2, show what happens to the firm’s output ch oice and profit if the price of the product falls from $40 to $35.The table below shows the firm’s revenue and cost information when the price falls to $35.At a price of $35, the firm should produce seven units to maximize profits, because this isthe point closest to where price equals marginal cost without having marginal cost exceedprice.2. Again, from the data in Table 8.2, show what happens to the firm’s output choice and profit if the fixed cost of production increases from $50 to $100, and then to $150. What general conclusion can you reach about the effects of fixed costs on the firm’s output choice?The table below shows the firm’s revenue and cost information for Fixed Cost, FC of 50,100, and 150.With fixed costs of 100, the firm maximizes profit at 8 units of output. It also minimizeslosses with fixed costs of 150 at the same level. Fixed costs do not influence the optimalquantity, because they do not influence marginal cost.3. Suppose you are the manager of a watchmaking firm operating in a competitive market. Your cost of production is given by C = 100 + Q2, where Q is the level of output and C is total cost. (The marginal cost of production is 2Q. The fixed cost of production is $100.)a. If the price of watches is $60, how many watches should you produce to maximize profit?Profits are maximized where marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue. Here,marginal revenue is equal to $60; recall that price equals marginal revenue in acompetitive market:60 = 2Q, or Q = 30.b. What will the profit level be?Profit is equal to total revenue minus total cost:π = (60)(30) - (100 + 302) = $800.c. At what minimum price will the firm produce a positive output?A firm will produce in the short run if the revenues it receives are greater than its variablecosts. Remember that the firm’s short-run supply curve is its marginal cost curve abovethe minimum of average variable cost. Here, average variable cost is VCQQQQ ==2.Also, MC is equal to 2Q. So, MC is greater than AVC for any quantity greater than 0. This means that the firm produces in the short run as long as price is positive.4. Use the same information as in Exercise 1 to answer the following.a. Derive the firm’s short-run supply curve. (Hint: you may want to plot the appropriate costcurves.)The firm’s short-run supply curve is its marginal cost curve above average variable cost.The table below lists marginal cost, total cost, variable cost, fixed cost, and averagevariable cost.Q P TR TC MC TVC TFC AVC0 40 0 50 -50 ___ 0 50 ___1 40 40 100 -60 50 50 50 50.02 40 80 128 -48 28 78 50 39.03 40 120 148 -28 20 98 50 32.74 40 160 162 -2 14 112 50 28.05 40 200 180 20 18 130 50 26.06 40 240 200 40 20 150 50 25.07 40 280 222 58 22 172 50 24.68 40 320 260 60 38 210 50 26.3b. If 100 identical firms are in the market, what is the industry supply curve?For 100 firms with identical cost structures, the market supply curve is the horizontalsummation of each firm’s output at each price.Figure 8.4.b5. A sales tax of $1 per unit of output is placed on one firm whose product sells for $5 in a competitive industry.a. How will this tax affect the cost curves for the firm?With the imposition of a $1 tax on a single firm, all its cost curves shift up by $1.b. What will happen to the firm’s price, output, and profit in the short run?Since the firm is a price-taker in a competitive market, the imposition of the tax on onlyone firm does not change the market price. Since the firm’s short-run supply curve is itsmarginal cost curve above average variable cost and that marginal cost curve has shiftedup (inward), the firm supplies less to the market at every price. Profits are lower atevery quantity.c. What will happen in the long run?If the tax is placed on a single firm, that firm will go out of business.6. Suppose that a competitive firm’s marginal cost of producing output q is given byMC(q) = 3 + 2q. Assume that the market price of the firm’s product is $9:a. What level of output will the firm produce?To maximize profits, the firm should set marginal revenue equal to marginal cost. Giventhe fact that this firm is operating in a competitive market, the market price it faces isequal to marginal revenue. Thus, the firm should set the market price equal to marginalcost to maximize its profits:9 = 3 + 2q, or q = 3.Total revenue is price times quantity:TR = ($9)(3) = $27.Profit is total revenue minus total cost:= $27 - $21 = $6.Therefore, the firm is earning positive economic profits.8. A competitive industry is in long-run equilibrium. A sales tax is then placed on all firms in the industry. What do you expect to happen to the price of the product, the number of firms in the industry, and the output of each firm in the long run?With the imposition of a sales tax on all firms, the supply curve shifts up and a newequilibrium will result with a lower quantity and a higher price. This shift in supplyrepresents lower production for all firms.*9. A sales tax of 10 percent is placed on half the firms (the polluters) in a competitive industry. The revenue is paid to the remaining firms (the nonpolluters) as a 10 percent subsidy on the value of output sold.a. Assuming that all firms have identical constant long-run average costs before the sales tax-subsidy policy, what do you expect to happen to the price of the product, the output of each of the firms, and industry output, in the short run and the long run? (Hint: How does price relate to industry input?)The price of the product depends on the quantity produced by all firms in the industry.The immediate response to the sales-tax=subsidy policy is a reduction in quantity bypolluters and an increase in quantity by non-polluters. If a long-run competitiveequilibrium existed before the sales-tax=subsidy policy, price would have been equal tomarginal cost and long-run minimum average cost. For the polluters, the price after thesales tax is below long-run average cost; therefore, in the long run, they will exit theindustry. Furthermore, after the subsidy, the non-polluters earn economic profits thatwill encourage the entry of non-polluters. If this is a constant cost industry and the lossof the polluters’ output is compensated by an increase in the non-polluters’ output, theprice will remain constant.b. Can such a policy always be achieved with a balanced budget in which tax revenues are equal tosubsidy payments? Why? Explain.As the polluters exit and non-polluters enter the industry, revenues from pollutersdecrease and the subsidy to the non-polluters increases. This imbalance occurs whenthe first polluter leaves the industry and persist’s ever after.。

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利润已经最大化了,怎么还能增加K倍? 这说明什么?
如果生产函数显示的规模报酬不变,当投
入要素都增加K倍时,利润增加K倍。
利润已经最大化了,怎么还能增加K倍? 1 1 2 2 这说明什么?
py w x w x .
换句话说,什么情况下,可以得到要素增加K 倍,利润不变,还是最大化是的利润?

规模报酬与利润最大化
py w1 x1 w2 x2 .
当利润最大化时,可以得到要素最佳投入 量X*1,X*2和产量Y*。 如果生产函数显示的规模报酬不变,当投 入要素都增加K倍时,会出现什么情况?
如果生产函数显示的规模报酬不变,当投
入要素都增加K倍时,利润增加K倍。
py w1 x1 w2 x2 .
3/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 3 ~ p * px 2 ~ 1/ 2 . x1 x 2 3w 1 3w 1
生产要素1的最优投入量,即短 期需求函数
* p x1 3w 1
3/ 2
~ 1/ 2 x 2
最优产量:
* 1/ 3 ~ 1/ 3 p y ( x1 ) x 2 3w 1 * 1/ 2
= 1,…n p1,…,pn
y1,…,yn
产品的价格分别为
生产者获得的利润是
p1y1 pnyn w1x1 wmxm .
利润是收益和成本之差。 =TR-TC=PQ-
TC

相关因素:产品的价格、产品的产量、投
入要素的价格、投入要素的数量。

该利润是经济利润
上升, –产出水平下

~ ) y f ( x1 , x 2
y*
降,厂商供
给量减少;
w1 Slopes p
–可变投入要
素减少,厂 商对要素的 需求量减少 。
x* 1
x1
长期利润最大化
生产要素
x1 和 x2 都是可变的。
长期利润最大化选择的条件和短期基本相
同,把其中一个要素固定,对另一个要素 寻找它的利润最大化点(函数)。
结论:
对于在所有产量水平上都具有规模报酬
不变的生产函数的完全竞争企业,其长 期利润水平必然为零。
为什么完全竞争企业长期只能得到零利
润?
显示的盈利能力 Revealed Profitability
利润最大化弱公理
根据厂商对要素投入的选择,能否构造
出其生产技术,基于这样的技术所看到
的厂商的选择就是利润最大化选择。
x* 1
x1
w1 MP1 p
y
p MP1 w1
p MP1 生产要素1的边际产品价值MRP

y*
w1 MP 1 p
x* 1
x1
w1 MP1 p
p MP1 w1
p MP1 w1
生产要素边际产品的价值MRP等于生产要素的价格
生产要素边际产品价值大于要素的价格,增 加生产要素的投入,可以增加利润;
~ 1/ 2 . x 2
产品价格P变化对要素最优投入的影响
~ w1 w 2x 2 y x1 p p
如果产品价格上升,等利润线的斜率减少
y

利润最大化点
y*

~ ) y f ( x1 , x 2
w1 Slopes p
x* 1
x1
p * 2/ 3 ~ 1/ 3 MRP1 p MP1 ( x1 ) x 2 w1 . 3 3w 1 * 2/ 3 ( x1 ) . ~ 1/ 3 px
2
3w 1 * 2/ 3 ( x1 ) . 1/ 3 ~ px 2
~ 1/ 3 px 2/ 3 2 ( x* ) 1 3w 1
要素价格w变化对要素最优投入的影响
~ w1 w 2x 2 y x1 p p
要素2的价格W2上升, -- 要素2的投入量不改变,因为是固定不变的
-- 等利润线斜率不变,截距增加
要素1的价格W1上升,引起
--
等利润线斜率增加
y


~ ) y f ( x1 , x 2
x1
~ x x 在给定的 p, w1 和 2 2,
y
* ~ * ( x , x , y 利润最大化点: 1 2 ).

最优利润
y*
最 优 产 量
x* 1
最优投入量
x1
y
在利润最大化点,等利润线的斜率等于 生产函数的斜率,即MP1=W1/P

y*
w1 MP 1 p
在利润最大化点,等利润线的斜率等于生
产函数的斜率,即MP1=W1/P, MP2=W2/P
X*1 ,X*2 )=W1 P×MP2 ( X*1 ,X*2 )=W2
P×MP1(
上述二式是长期利润最大化的条件。 二式必须同时成立,得出的(X*1 ,X*2 )才 是利润最大化点。 任意一个式子不成立得出的生产要素投入束 也不是利润最大化点的投入束。
~ w1 w 2x 2 y x1 . p p
等利润线 iso-profit line
~ w1 w 2x 2 y x1 p p
w 等利润线的斜率为: 1 p
~ w 2x 2. 等利润线的纵截距为: p
~ w1 w 2x 2 y x1 p p
y
斜率
.
x* 2
p
3
27w 1w 2 2
into
* p x1 3w 1
3/ 2
~ 1/ 2 x 2
to get
* p x1 3w 1 3 / 2
p 2 27w1w 2
3
1/ 2

p
3
2 27w1 w2
.
x* 2
经济利润Economic Profit
经济利润与会计利润的区别在于成本的计算
的不同。
会计成本是历史成本,即生产要素最初购买
时的价格。
经济成本是考虑了机会成本的成本。如所有
者与经营者的工资,土地、设备的机会成本 等。
不变要素与可变要素
不变要素:企业数量固定的生产要素; 可变要素:可以改变数量的生产要素。
~ 1/ 2 . x 2
短期生产利润为:
~ py* w 1x* w x 1 2 2 p p 3w 1 p p 3w 1
1/ 2
p 1/ 2 ~ x 2 w1 3w 1
3/ 2
~ 1/ 2 w x ~ x 2 2 2
长期利润最大化
1/ 2 3 4p ~ 1/ 2 w x ~ . x 2 2 2 27w 1
1/ 2 3 1 4p ~ 1/ 2 w 0 ~ x 2 2 x 2 2 27w1
~ x* x 2 2
p3 27w 1w 2 2
违背上述不等式,就意味着厂商行为不是追求
利润最大化。

ptyt - wtxt ≥ ptys – wtxs
psys - wsxs ≥ psyt – wsxt
得 ptyt - wtxt ≥ ptys - wtxs
-psyt + wsxt ≥ -psys + wsxs
二项不等式相加:
(pt - ps)yt - (wt - ws)xt ≥ (pt - ps)ys - (wt - ws)xs (pt - ps)(yt - ys) - (wt - ws)(xt - xs) ≥ 0
p
3
27w 1w 2 2
p into y 3w 1
*
1/ 2
~ 1/ 2 x 2
to get
* p y 3w 1 1/ 2
2 27w 1w 2 p
3
1/ 2
p2 . 9 w 1w 2
1/3 1/3 y x1 x 2
y
~ . x2 x 2
~ ) y f ( x1 , x 2
x1
y


~ ) y f ( x1 , x 2
x1
利润最大化就是在生产函数曲线上寻找 一个与位置最高的等利润线相切的切点
y


y*
x* 1
利润水平越高的 等利润线,其纵 截距越大。 等利润线移动的 惟一因素是利润 w1 的变动。
p
x1
利润越大越好,利润是不是可以不断地
增加?
若不能,受到什么限制?
利润最大化不是无条件地能实现的,必须受
到生产条件的约束。
生产条件的约束就是生产函数。
1/ 2
1/ 2
p p 1/ 2 ~ x 2 w1 3w 1 3w 1 ~ 1/ 2 w x ~ x 2 2 2
~ w 2x 2
2p p 3 3w 1
1/ 2
1/ 2 3 4p ~ 1/ 2 w x ~ . x 2 2 2 27w 1
短期利润最大化
假设企业投入二种生产要素,其中要素2
是不变要素。
二种生产要素价格分别为w1,w2,产品价
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
格为P
~ x x 生产者处于短期生产环境 2 2. ~ ). y f ( x1 , x 短期生产函数为 2 ~ 固定成本为 FC w x
2 2
利润为
~ py w1x1 w 2x 2 .
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