平狄克微观经济学(第八版)第八章
平狄克第八版课后答案
平狄克第八版课后答案【篇一：平狄克微观经济学课后习题答案-第7-8 章】> 1. 显性成本2. 她自己做其他事时会得到的最高收入3. 多用资本,少用工人4. 完全竞争价格给定, 即斜率不变5. 不意味6. 意味着递增7. avcac mc 递增mc=avc 最低点mc=ac 最低点1.1 形9 . 长期扩展线为把等产量线簇上斜率相同点连起来,此时它改变了斜率10 .规模经济基础是内在经济,针对一种产品范围经济基础是同时生产高度相关的产品.练习题1.avc=1000 ac=1000+1000/q非常大,最后为10002. 不对,除非工人只可以在这里找到工作3. 见书后4. 见书后5. 见书后6. 每个均衡点斜率更小7. 不同意,应按不同时段定价,如不可,则同意8. 见书后9.tc=120000+3000(q/40)+2000ac=75+122000/qmc=75ac 随q 减小2 个劳动组,1600 元1/4, 更大的生产能力11.190 万元53 元53 元19 元第七章附录练习题1 、我们考查规模报酬时可由f( ak，al)与af( k，l)之间的关系判断当f( ak，al) af( k，l),表明是规模报酬递增；当f( ak，al) =af( k，l),表明是规模报酬不变；当f( ak，al) af( k，l),表明是规模报酬递减；( a)规模报酬递增；( b)规模报酬不变；( c)规模报酬递增。
2 、根据已知条件，资本价格r=30 ，设劳动价格为w，则成本函数c=30k+ wl联立(1) ，(2)，(3)可得k=(w/3) 1/2 ,l=(300/w) 1/2 ,此时成本最小，代入成本函数c=30k+ wl ，得c=2 ( 300w ) 1/2联立(1) ，(2)，(3)可得k/l=3/4 ,此时成本最小，即生产既定产出的成本最小化的资本和劳动的组合为资本/劳动=3/4。
4、( a)已知q=10k0.8(l-40)0.2 ,得mpl=2(k/ (l-40))0.8 , mpk=8( (l-40) / k)0.2 ,在最小成本点有：mpl/ mpk=w/r即2(k/ (l-40))0.8/8( (l-40) / k)0.2=w/r ，k/( l-40) =4 w/r ，l-40=kr/4w ，0.80.20.2q=10k(l-40)=10 k ( r/4w)，最小需求为:k=q/10(r/4w)0.2 ，l=40+ q (r/4w)0.8/10总成本函数为：tc=10q+kr+lw=10q+q/10((4w)0.2r0.8+(r/4)0.8w0.2)+40w( b)当r=64 ，w=32 时tc=10q+ (2*20.2+0.50.8)32 q/10+1280tc=1280+10q+91.84 q/10=1280+19.184q该技术呈现规模递减。
平狄克《微观经济学》(第8版)笔记和课后习题详解复习答案
平狄克《微观经济学》（第8版）笔记和课后习题详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料全国547所院校视频及题库全收集考研全套>视频资料>课后答案>往年真题>职称考试第1篇导论：市场和价格第1章绪论1.1复习笔记1.2课后复习题详解1.3课后练习题详解第2章供给和需求的基本原理2.1复习笔记2.2课后复习题详解2.3课后练习题详解第2篇生产者、消费者与竞争性市场第3章消费者行为3.1复习笔记3.2课后复习题详解3.3课后练习题详解第4章个人需求和市场需求4.1复习笔记4.2课后复习题详解4.3课后练习题详解第4章附录需求理论——一种数学的处理方法第5章不确定性与消费者行为5.1复习笔记5.2课后复习题详解5.3课后练习题详解第6章生产6.1复习笔记6.2课后复习题详解6.3课后练习题详解第7章生产成本7.1复习笔记7.2课后复习题详解7.3课后练习题详解第7章附录生产与成本理论——一种数学的处理方法第8章利润最大化与竞争性供给8.1复习笔记8.3课后练习题详解第9章竞争性市场分析9.1复习笔记9.2课后复习题详解9.3课后练习题详解第3篇市场结构与竞争策略第10章市场势力：垄断和买方垄断10.1复习笔记10.2课后复习题详解10.3课后练习题详解第11章有市场势力的定价11.1复习笔记11.2课后复习题详解11.3课后练习题详解第11章附录纵向联合厂商第12章垄断竞争和寡头垄断12.1复习笔记12.2课后复习题详解12.3课后练习题详解第13章博弈论与竞争策略13.1复习笔记13.2课后复习题详解13.3课后练习题详解第14章投入要素市场14.1复习笔记14.2课后复习题详解14.3课后练习题详解第15章投资、时间与资本市场15.1复习笔记15.2课后复习题详解15.3课后练习题详解第4篇信息、市场失灵与政府的角色第16章一般均衡与经济效率16.1复习笔记16.2课后复习题详解16.3课后练习题详解第17章信息不对称的市场17.1复习笔记17.2课后复习题详解17.3课后练习题详解第18章外部性和公共物品18.1复习笔记18.2课后复习题详解附录指定平狄克《微观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表。
平狄克微观经济学全学习教案
会计学
1
第一页，编辑于星期一：二十一点 二十一分。
第一篇 基础知识
第二讲 微观经济学的主要内容
市场：买者和卖者相互作用确定商品价格的系统
地理界限和产品范围
竞争性和非竞争性
价格：买卖商品或服务必须收付的一定量的货币
实际价格和名义价格
消费者价格指数（CPI）
市场价格由买卖双方的相互作用决定产业是提供同类商品的厂商； 套利是从一个地方低价买进而从另一个地方高价卖出；
ΔL）； 乘以边际劳动（
又因为劳动的边际产出（MPL）
Δ Q Δ ＝
消费者通过比较市场篮子来做出选 择
无差异曲线向下第13倾页/共8斜9页 且不与另一条 相交
第十四页，编辑于星期一：二十一点 二十一分 。
第二篇 生产者、
消费者及竞争性市场
第4章 个别需求和市场需求
预算线因价格变化发生偏转时， 可与不同的无差异曲线相切
价格—消费曲线说明了不同价格 条件下的效用最大化
需求曲线：显示其他因素不变时对
既定价格消费者第3页愿/共89页意购买的商品数
量，表示为Q = Q (P)，在图形上， D D
第四页，编辑于星期一：二十一点 二十一分。
第一篇 基础知识
第五讲 市场机制
在使市场出清的均衡价格上供求曲 线相交
特点：Qd=Qs；无短缺；无过剩； 无变动倾向
存在过剩时，生产者降价， Qd增加 Qs减少
数量都是可变的，并且都呈现边际 报酬递减的趋势。
劳动—资本的边际技术替代率 （MRTS）是指在保持产出不变的前
提下，多投入一单位劳动而相应减 少的资本投入的量。
注意：在等产量曲线上边际技术替
代率递减
平狄克经济学8章
CHAPTER 8PROFIT MAXIMIZATION AND COMPETITIVE SUPPLYREVIEW QUESTIONS1. Why would a firm that incurs losses choose to produce rather than shut down?Losses occur when revenues do not cover total costs. If revenues are greater thanvariable costs, but not total costs, the firm is better off producing in the short run ratherthan shutting down, even though it is incurring a loss. The reason is that the firm willbe stuck will all its fixed cost and have no revenue if it shuts down, so its loss will equalits fixed cost. If it continues to produce, however, and revenue is greater than variablecosts, the firm can pay for some of its fixed cost, so its loss is less than it would be if itshut down. In the long run, all costs are variable, and thus all costs must be covered ifthe firm is to remain in business.2. Explain why the industry supply curve is not the longrun industry marginal cost curve.In the short run, a change in the market price induces the profitmaximizing firm tochange its optimal level of output. This optimal output occurs where price is equal tomarginal cost, as long as marginal cost exceeds average variable cost. Therefore, theshortrun supply curve of the firm is its marginal cost curve, above average variable cost.(When the price falls below average variable cost, the firm will shut down.)In the long run, a change in the market price induces entry into or exit from theindustry and may induce existing firms to change their optimal outputs as well. As aresult, the prices firms pay for inputs can change, and these will cause the firms’marginal costs to shift up or down. So longrun supply is not the sum of the existingfirms’ longrun marginal cost curves. The longrun supply curve depends on the numberof firms in the market and on how their costs change due to any changes in input costs.As a simple example, consider a constantcost industry where each firm has a UshapedLAC curve. Here the input prices do not change, only the number of firms changeswhen industry price changes. Each firm has an increasing LMC, but the industry longrun supply is horizontal because any change in industry output comes about by firmsentering or leaving the industry, not by existing firms moving up or down their LMCcurves.3. In longrun equilibrium, all firms in the industry earn zero economic profit. Why is this true?The theory of perfect competition explicitly assumes that there are no entry or exitbarriers to new participants in an industry. With free entry, positive economic profitsinduce new entrants. As these firms enter, the supply curve shifts to the right, causinga fall in the equilibrium price of the product. Entry will stop, and equilibrium will beachieved, when economic profits have fallen to zero.Some firms may earn greater accounting profits than others because, for example, theyown a superior source of an important input, but their economic profits will be the same.To be more concrete, suppose one firm can mine a critical input for $2 per pound whileall other firms in the industry have to pay $3 per pound. The one firm will have anaccounting cost advantage and will report higher accounting profits than other firms inthe industry. But there is an opportunity cost associated with the company’s input use,because other firms would be willing to pay up to $3 per pound to buy the input from119Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.the firm with the superior mine. Therefore, the company should include a $1 per poundopportunity cost for using its own input rather than selling it to other firms. Then, thatfirm’s economic costs and economic profit will be the same as all the other firms in theindustry. So all firms will earn zero economic profit in the long run.4. What is the difference between economic profit and producer surplus?Economic profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost. Producer surplusis the difference between total revenue and total variable cost. So fixed cost issubtracted to find profit but not producer surplus, and thus profit equals producersurplus minus fixed cost (or producer surplus equals profit plus fixed cost).5. Why do firms enter an industry when they know that in the long run economic profit will be zero?Firms enter an industry when they expect to earn economic profit, even if the profit willbe shortlived. These shortrun economic profits are enough to encourage entry becausethere is no cost to entering the industry, and some economic profit is better than none.Zero economic profit in the long run implies normal returns to the factors of production,including the labor and capital of the owner of the firm. So even when economic profitfalls to zero, the firm will be doing as well as it could in any other industry, and then theowner will be indifferent between staying in the industry or exiting.6. At the beginning of the twentieth century, there were many small American automobile manufacturers. At the end of the century, there were only three large ones. Suppose that this situation is not the result of lax federal enforcement of antimonopoly laws. How do you explain the decrease in the number of manufacturers? (Hint: What is the inherent cost structure of the automobile industry?)Automobile plants are highly capitalintensive, and consequently there are substantialeconomies of scale in production. So, over time, the automobile companies thatproduced larger quantities of cars were able to produce at lower average cost. They thensold their cars for less and eventually drove smaller (higher cost) companies out ofbusiness, or bought them to become even larger and more efficient. At very large levelsof production, the economies of scale diminish, and diseconomies of scale may even occur.This would explain why more than one manufacturer remains.7. Because industry X is characterized by perfect competition, every firm in the industry is earning zero economic profit. If the product price falls, no firms can survive. Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.Disagree. If the market price falls, all firms will suffer economic losses. They will cutproduction in the short run but continue in business as long as price is above averagevariable cost. In the long run, however, if price stays below average total cost, somefirms will exit the industry. As firms leave industry X, the market supply decreases (i.e.,shifts to the left). This causes the market price to increase. Eventually enough firmsexit so that price increases to the point where profits return to zero for those firms stillin the industry, and those firms will continue to survive and produce product X.8. An increase in the demand for video films also increases the salaries of actors and actresses. Is the longrun supply curve for films likely to be horizontal or upward sloping? Explain.The longrun supply curve depends on the cost structure of the industry. If there is arelatively fixed supply of actors and actresses, as more films are produced, highersalaries must be offered. Therefore, the industry experiences increasing costs. In anincreasingcost industry, the longrun supply curve is upward sloping. Thus, the supplycurve for films would be upward sloping.120Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.1219. True or false: A firm should always produce at an output at which longrun average cost is minimized. Explain.False. In the long run, under perfect competition, firms will produce where long run average cost is minimized. In the short run, however, it may be optimal to produce ata different level. For example, if price is above the longrun equilibrium price, the firmwill maximize shortrun profit by producing a greater amount of output than the level atwhich LAC is minimized as illustrated in the diagram. P L is the longrun equilibrium price, and q L is the output level that minimizesLAC. If price increases to P ¢ in the short run,the firm maximizes profit by producing q ¢,which is greater than q L , because that is the output level at which SMC (shortrun marginal cost) equals price.10. Can there be constant returns to scale in an industry with an upwardsloping supply curve? Explain.Yes. Constant returns to scale means that proportional increases in all inputs yield the same proportional increase in output. However, when all firms increase their input use, the prices of some inputs may rise because their supply curves are upward sloping. For example, production that uses rare or depleting inputs will see higher input costs as production increases. Doubling inputs will still yield double output, but because of rising input prices, production costs will more than double. In this case the industry is an increasingcost industry, and it will have an upwardsloping supply curve. Therefore, an industry can have both constant returns to scale and an upwardsloping industry supply curve.11. What assumptions are necessary for a market to be perfectly competitive? In light of what you have learned in this chapter, why is each of these assumptions important?The three primary assumptions of perfect competition are (1) all firms in the industry are price takers, (2) all firms produce identical products, and (3) there is free entry and exit of firms to and from the market. The first two assumptions are important because they imply that no firm has any market power and that each faces a horizontal demand curve. As a result, firms produce where price equals marginal cost, which defines their supply curves. With free entry and exit, positive (negative) economic profits encourage firms to enter (exit) the industry. Entry and exit affects industry supply and price. In the long run, entry or exit continues until price equals longrun average cost and firms earn zero economic profit.12. Suppose a competitive industry faces an increase in demand (i.e., the demand curve shifts upward). What are the steps by which a competitive market insures increased output? Will your answer change if the government imposes a price ceiling?If demand increases, price and profits increase. The price increase causes existing firms to increase output, and the positive profits induce new firms to enter the industry in the long run, shifting the supply curve to the right. This results in a new equilibrium with a higher quantity and a reduced price that earns all firms zero economic profit. With an effective price ceiling, price will not increase when demand increases, and firms willPrice Output LACSMC P LP ¢ q L q ¢ SACtherefore not increase output. Also, without an increase in economic profit, no newfirms enter, and there is no shift in the supply curve. So the result is very different witha price ceiling. Output does not increase as a result of the increase in demand. Insteadthere is a shortage of the product.13. The government passes a law that allows a substantial subsidy for every acre of land used to grow tobacco. How does this program affect the longrun supply curve for tobacco?A subsidy on land used to grow tobacco decreases every farmer’s average cost ofproducing tobacco and will lead existing tobacco growers to increase output. Inaddition, tobacco farmers will make positive economic profits that will encourageother firms to enter tobacco production. The result is that both the shortrun andlongrun supply curves for the industry will shift down and to the right14. A certain brand of vacuum cleaners can be purchased from several local stores as well as from several catalogue or website sources.a. If all sellers charge the same price for the vacuum cleaner, will they all earn zeroeconomic profit in the long run?Yes, all earn zero economic profit in the long run. If economic profit were greaterthan zero for, say, online sources, then firms would enter the online industry andeventually drive economic profit for online sources to zero. If economic profit werenegative for catalogue sellers, some catalogue firms would exit the industry untileconomic profit returned to zero. So all must earn zero economic profit in the longrun. Anything else will generate entry or exit until economic profit returns to zero.b. If all sellers charge the same price and one local seller owns the building in whichhe does business, paying no rent, is this seller earning a positive economic profit?No this seller would still earn zero economic profit. If he pays no rent then theaccounting cost of using the building is zero, but there is still an opportunity cost,which represents the value of the best alternative use of the building.c. Does the seller who pays no rent have an incentive to lower the price he chargesfor the vacuum cleaner?No, he has no incentive to charge a lower price because he can sell as many units ashe wants at the current market price.Lowering his price will only reduce his economic profit. Since all firms sell theidentical good, they will all charge the same price for that good.EXERCISES1. The data in the table on page 307 give information about the price (in dollars) for which a firm can sell a unit of output and the total cost of production.a. Fill in the blanks in the table.b. Show what happens to the firm’s output choice and profit if the price of the productfalls from$60 to $50.qPRP = 60CpP = 60MCP = 60MRP = 60RP = 50MRP = 50pP = 500 60 1001001 60 1502 60 1783 60 198Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.1224 60 2125 60 2306 60 2507 60 2728 60 3109 60 35510 60 41011 60 475The table below shows the firm’s revenue and cost for the two prices.q PRP= 60CpP= 60MCP = 60MRP= 60RP= 50MRP= 50pP= 500 60 0 100 100 ___ ___ 0 ___ 1001 60 60 150 90 50 60 50 50 1002 60 120 178 58 28 60 100 50 783 60 180 198 18 20 60 150 50 484 60 240 212 28 14 60 200 50 125 60 300 230 70 18 60 250 50 206 60 360 250 110 20 60 300 50 507 60 420 272 148 22 60 350 50 788 60 480 310 170 38 60 400 50 909 60 540 355 185 45 60 450 50 9510 60 600 410 190 55 60 500 50 9011 60 660 475 185 65 60 550 50 75At a price of $60, the firm should produce ten units of output to maximize profit, whichis $190 when q = 10. This is also the point closest to where price equals marginal costwithout having marginal cost exceed price. At a price of $50, the firm should producenine units to maximize profit, which will be $95. Thus, when price falls from $60 to $50,the firm’s output drops from 10 to 9 units and profit falls from $190 to $95.2. Using the data in the table, show what happens to the firm’s output choice and profit if the fixed cost of production increases from $100 to $150 and then to $200. Assume that the price of the output remains at $60 per unit. What general conclusion can you reach about the effects of fixed costs on the firm’s output choice?The table below shows the firm’s revenue and cost information for fixed cost (F ) of $100,$150, and $200.In all three cases, with fixed cost equal to 100, then 150, and then 200, the firm willproduce 10 units of output because this is the point closest to where price equalsmarginal cost without having marginal cost exceed price. Fixed costs do not influencethe optimal quantity, because they do not influence marginal cost. Higher fixed costsresult in lower profits, but the highest profit always occurs at the same level of output,which is 10 units in this example.Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.123q P RCF= 100pF= 100MCCF= 150pF= 150CF= 200pF= 2000 60 0 100 100 ___ 150 150 200 2001 60 60 150 90 50 200 140 250 1902 60 120 178 58 28 228 108 278 1583 60 180 198 18 20 248 68 298 1184 60 240 212 28 14 262 22 312 725 60 300 230 70 18 280 20 330 306 60 360 250 110 20 300 60 350 107 60 420 272 148 22 322 98 372 488 60 480 310 170 38 360 120 410 709 60 540 355 185 45 405 135 455 8510 60 600 410 190 55 460 140 510 9011 60 660 475 185 65 525 135 575 853. Use the same information as in Exercise 1.a. Derive the firm’s shortrun supply curve. (Hint: you may want to plot theappropriate cost curves.)The firm’s shortrun supply curve is its marginal cost curve above average variable cost.The table below lists marginal cost, total cost, variable cost, fixed cost, and averagevariable cost. The firm will produce 8 or more units depending on the market price andwill not produce in the 0 – 7 units of output range because in this range MC is less thanAVC. When MC is below AVC, the firm minimizes losses by shutting down andproducing nothing in the short run.Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.124Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.125Q C MC TVC TFC AVC 0 100 100 ___ 0 100 ___ 1 150 50 50 100 50.0 2 178 28 78 100 39.0 3 198 20 98 100 32.7 4 212 14 112 100 28.0 5 230 18 130 100 26.0 6 250 20 150 100 25.0 7 272 22 172 100 24.6 8 310 38 210 100 26.3 9 355 45 255 100 28.3 10 410 55 310 100 31.0 114756537510034.1b. If 100 identical firms are in the market, what is the industry supply curve?For 100 firms with identical cost structures, the market supply curve is the horizontalsummation of each firm’s output at each price. From the table above we know that when P = 38, each firm will produce 8 units, because MC = 38 at an output of 8 units. Therefore, when P = 38, Q = 800 units would be supplied by all the firms in the industry. The other points we know are: P = 45 and Q = 900,P = 55 and Q = 1000, and P = 65 and Q = 1100. The industry supply curve is shown in the diagram below.80038QPS9001000110045 55 654. Suppose you are the manager of a watchmaking firm operating in a competitive market. Your cost of production is given by C = 200 + 2q 2 , where q is the level of output and C is total cost. (The marginal cost of production is 4q; the fixed cost is $200.)a. If the price of watches is $100, how many watches should you produce to maximizeprofit?Profits are maximized where price equals marginal cost. Therefore,100 = 4q, or q = 25.b. What will the profit level be?Profit is equal to total revenue minus total cost:p= Pq – (200 + 2q 2). Thus,p = (100)(25) – (200 + 2(25) 2 ) = $1050.c. At what minimum price will the firm produce a positive output?A firm will produce in the short run if its revenues are greater than its total variablecosts. The firm’s shortrun supply curve is its MC curve above minimum AVC. Here,AVC = VCq=2q 2q=2q. Also, MC = 4q. So, MC is greater than AVC for any quantitygreater than 0. This means that the firm produces in the short run as long as price ispositive.5. Suppose that a competitive firm’s marginal cost of producing output q is given by MC(q) = 3 + 2q. Assume that the market price of the firm’s product is $9.a. What level of output will the firm produce?The firm should set the market price equal to marginal cost to maximize its profits:9 = 3 + 2q, or q = 3.Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.126Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.127b. What is the firm’s producer surplus?Producer surplus is equal to the area below the market price, i.e., $9.00, and above the marginal cost curve, i.e., 3 + 2q . Because MC is linear, producer surplus is a triangle with a base equal to 3 (since q = 3) and a height of $6 (since 9 – 3 = 6). The area of a triangle is (1/2)(base)(height). Therefore, producer surplus is (0.5)(3)(6) = $9.PriceQuantity12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1234MC (q ) = 3 + 2qProducer’s SurplusP = $9.00Producer Surplus c. Suppose that the average variable cost of the firm is given by AVC(q ) = 3 + q . Supposethat the firm’s fixed costs are known to be $3. Will the firm be earning a positive, negative, or zero profit in the short run?Profit is equal to total revenue minus total cost. Total cost is equal to total variable cost plus fixed cost. Total variable cost is equal to [AVC (q )]q . Therefore, at q = 3, AVC (q ) = 3 + 3 = 6, and thereforeTVC = (6)(3) = $18.Fixed cost is equal to $3. Therefore, total cost equals TVC plus TFC , orC = $18 + 3 = $21.Total revenue is price times quantity:R = ($9)(3) = $27.Profit is total revenue minus total cost:p = $27 – 21 = $6.Therefore, the firm is earning positive economic profits. More easily, you might recall that profit equals producer surplus minus fixed cost. Since we found that producer surplus was $9 in part (b), profit equals 9 – 3 or $6.6. A firm produces a product in a competitive industry and has a total cost function C = 50 + 4q + 2q 2and a marginal cost function MC = 4 + 4q. At the given market price of $20, the firm is producing 5 units of output. Is the firm maximizing its profit? What quantity of output should the firm produce in the long run?If the firm is maximizing profit, then price will be equal to marginal cost.P =MCresults in 20 = 4 + 4q, or q = 4. The firm is not maximizing profit; it is producing toomuch output. The current level of profit isp = Pq – C = 20(5) – (50 + 4(5) + 2(5) 2 ) = –20,and the profit maximizing level isp = 20(4) – (50 + 4(4) + 2(4) 2 ) = –18.Given no change in the price of the product or the cost structure of the firm, the firmshould produce q = 0 units of output in the long run since economic profit is negativeat the quantity where price equals marginal cost. The firm should exit the industry.7. Suppose the same firm’s cost function is C(q) = 4q 2+ 16.a. Find variable cost, fixed cost, average cost, average variable cost, and averagefixed cost. (Hint: Marginal cost is given by MC = 8q.)Variable cost is that part of total cost that depends on q (so VC =4q 2 ) and fixed costis that part of total cost that does not depend on q (FC = 16).VC = 4q 2FC =16AC= C(q)q= 4q +16qAVC = VCq= 4qAFC = FCq=16qCopyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.128Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 129b. Show the average cost, marginal cost, and average variable cost curves on a graph.Average cost is Ushaped.Average cost is relativelylarge at first because thefirm is not able to spread thefixed cost over very manyunits of output. As outputincreases, average fixed costfalls quickly, leading to arapid decline in average cost.Average cost will increase atsome point because theaverage fixed cost willbecome very small andaverage variable cost isincreasing as q increases.MC and AVC are linear inthis example, and both passthrough the origin. Average variable cost is everywhere below average cost. Marginal cost iseverywhere above averagevariable cost. If the average is rising, then the marginalmust be above the average.Marginal cost intersects average cost at its minimum point, which occurs at aquantity of 2 where MC and AC both equal $16.c. Find the output that minimizes average cost.Minimum average cost occurs at the quantity where MC is equal to AC:AC = 4q + 16 q=8q = MC 16 q= 4q 16 = 4q2 4 =q 22 =q .d. At what range of prices will the firm produce a positive output?The firm will supply positive levels of output in the short run as long as P = MC >AVC, or as long as the firm is covering its variable costs of production. In this case,marginal cost is above average variable cost at all output levels, so the firm willsupply positive output at any positive price.e. At what range of prices will the firm earn a negative profit?The firm will earn negative profit when P = MC < AC, or at any price belowminimum average cost. In part (c) above we found that the minimum average costoccurs where q = 2. Plug q = 2 into the average cost function to find AC = 16. Thefirm will therefore earn negative profit if price is below 16. Average and Marginal Costs 0 4 8 1216 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Quantity Cost MC AC AVCCopyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 130f. At what range of prices will the firm earn a positive profit?In part (e) we found that the firm would earn negative profit at any price below 16.The firm therefore earns positive profit as long as price is above 16.8. A competitive firm has the following shortrun cost function:C (q ) = q 3 -8q 2 +30q +5.a. Find MC, AC, and AVC and sketch them on a graph.The functions can be calculated as follows:. 30 8 5 30 8 30 16 3 2 2 2 + - = = + + - = = + - = = q q q VC AVC qq q q C AC q q dqdC MC Graphically, all three cost functions are Ushaped in that cost initially declines as q increases, and then increases as q increases. Average variable cost is below average cost everywhere. Marginal cost is initially below AVC and then increases to intersect AVC at its minimum point. MC is also initially below AC and then intersects AC at itsminimum point. b. At what range of prices will the firm supply zero output?The firm will find it profitable to produce in the short run as long as price is greaterthan or equal to average variable cost. If price is less than average variable cost thenthe firm will be better off shutting down in the short run, as it will only lose its fixedcost and not fixed cost plus some variable cost. Here we need to find the minimumaverage variable cost, which can be done in two different ways. You can either setmarginal cost equal to average variable cost, or you can differentiate averagevariable cost with respect to q and set this equal to zero. In both cases, you can solvefor q and then plug into AVC to find the minimum AVC. Here we will set AVC equalto MC:AVC =q 2 -8q +30 = 3q 2 -16q + 30= MC2q 2 = 8qq = 4AVC (q = 4)= 4 2 -8*4 + 30=14.Hence, the firm supplies zero output if P < $14. Average and Marginal Costs 04812162024283236404448 52 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7QuantityCost MC AC AVC S Shortrun supply curveCopyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 131c. Identify the firm’s supply curve on your graph.The firm’s supply curve is the MC curve above the point where MC = AVC. The firmwill produce at the point where price equals MC as long as MC is greater than orequal to AVC. This point is labeled S on the graph, so the shortrun supply curve isthe portion of MC that lies above point S.d. At what price would the firm supply exactly 6 units of output?The firm maximizes profit by choosing the level of output such that P = MC. To findthe price where the firm would supply 6 units of output, set q equal to 6 and solve forMC:P = MC = 3q 2 -16q + 30= 3(6 2)-16(6) +30 = 42.9. a. Suppose that a firm’s production function is q = 9x 1 2 in the short run, where there are fixed costs of $1000, and x is the variable input whose cost is $4000 per unit. What is the total cost of producing a level of output q? In other words, identify the total cost function C(q).Since the variable input costs $4000 per unit, total variable cost is 4000 times thenumber of units used, or 4000x. Therefore, the total cost of the inputs used is C(x) =variable cost + fixed cost = 4000x + 1000. Now rewrite the production function toexpress x in terms of q: x = q 281. We can then substitute this into the above cost function to find C(q): C (q ) = 4000q 281+1000. b. Write down the equation for the supply curve.The firm supplies output where P = MC as long as MC ≥ AVC . In this example, MC =98.7654q is always greater than AVC = 49.3827q , so the entire marginal cost curve isthe supply curve. Therefore P = 98.7654q , or q = .010125P , is the firm’s shortrunsupply curve.c. If price is $1000, how many units will the firm produce? What is the level of profit?Illustrate on a cost curve graph.Use the supply curve from part b: q = .010125(1000) = 10.125.Profit is 1000(10.125) – [(4000(10.125) 2 /81) + 1000] = $4,062.50. Graphically, thefirm produces where the price line hits the MC curve. Since profit is positive, thisoccurs at a quantity where price is greater than average cost. To find profit on thegraph, take the difference between the revenue rectangle (price times quantity) andthe cost rectangle (average cost times quantity). The area of the resulting rectangleis the firm’s profit.。
《微观经济学》平狄克 第8章课件
Chapter 8
4
▪ 根据上述四点，微观经济学中的市场被划分为四个 类型 完全竞争市场 垄断竞争市场 寡头市场 垄断市场
Chapter 8
5
表1 市场分类及其特点
市场和厂商 的类型 完全竞争 Perfect competition 垄断竞争
寡头 Oligopoly 垄断 Monopoly
厂商 数目 很多
很多 几个 一个
产品差别的 对价格的控 进出一个行业 接近哪种市
程度
制程度
的难易程度 场情况
完全无差别 没有
很容易
一些农产品
有差别
有一些
比较容易
香烟、糖果、
日用品
▪ 一、市场的类型
商品市场 产品市场 劳务市场
生产要素市场 土地市场 资本市场 劳动力市场 经理市场
Chapter 8
3
1、不同市场类型会导致企业的经济行为有所差异， 要研究企业行为必须在不同市场类型下进行分析。
2、市场竞争程度的强弱是微观经济学划分市场类型 的标准。
影响市场竞争程度强弱的具体因素：
➢ 较高的价格可以弥补厂商因产量的增加而产生的较高 的生产成本，并提高总利润。因此，这个较高的价格 适用于所有的商品。
Chapter 8
50
8.4 竞争性厂商的短期供给曲线
▪ 厂商对投入品价格变动的反应
➢ 当产品的价格发生变动时，厂商往往会改变产 量水平，以使生产的边际成本与价格保持相等。
➢ 下面我们来分析当一种投入品的价格发生变动 时，厂商如何选择产量。
微观经济学平狄克第八版课后答案
微观经济学平狄克第八版课后答案【篇一：平狄克《微观经济学》课后答案 (中文版) 1-3章】> 1．市场是通过相互作用决定一种或一系列产品价格的买卖双方的集合，因此可以把市场看作决定价格的场所。
行业是出售相同的或紧密相关的产品的厂商的集合，一个市场可以包括许多行业。
2．评价一个理论有两个步骤：首先，需要检验这个理论假设的合理性；第二，把该理论的预测和事实相比较以此来验证它。
如果一个理论无法被检验的话，它将不会被接受。
因此，它对我们理解现实情况没有任何帮助。
3．实证分析解释“是什么”的问题，而规范分析解释的是“应该是什么”的问题。
对供给的限制将改变市场的均衡。
a中包括两种分析，批评这是一种“失败的政策”——是规范分析，批评其破坏了市场的竞争性——是实证分析。
b向我们说明在燃油的配给制下总社会福利的被损坏——是实证分析。
4．由于两个市场在空间上是分离的，商品在两地间的运输是套利实现的条件。
如果运输成本为零，则可以在oklahoma购买汽油，到new jersey出售，赚取差价；如果这个差价无法弥补运输成本则不存在套利机会。
5．商品和服务的数量与价格由供求关系决定。
鸡蛋的实际价格从1970年至1985年的下降，一方面是由于人们健康意识的提高而导致鸡蛋需求的减少，同时也因为生产成本的降低。
在这两种因素下，鸡蛋的价格下降了。
大学教育的实际价格的升高，是由于越来越多的人倾向于获得大学教育而导致需求提高，同时教育的成本也在升高。
在这两方面因素作用下，大学教育费用提高了。
6．日圆相对美圆来说，价值升高，升值前相比，兑换同样数量的日圆需要付出更多的美圆。
由汇率的变化引起购买力的变化，在日本市场出售的美国汽车，由于美圆贬值日圆升值，持有日圆的消费者将较以前支付较底的价格；而在美国市场出售的日本汽车，由于日圆升值美圆贬值，持有美圆的消费者将面对较以前提高的价格。
4.长期弹性和短期弹性区别在于消费者对价格变化的反映速度以及可获得的替代品。
《微观经济学第八章》PPT课件
所以要素成本 MFC = MC MP
边际要素成本曲线和要素供给曲线 MFC
MFC
W(L)
a
0
L
买方垄断厂商的要素使用原则
买方垄断厂商使用要素的边际收益和边际成本分 别等于要素的边际产品价值和边际要素成本。因此， 买方垄断厂商的要素使用原则可以写成：
VMP = MFC
W
MFC
E
W（L）
W1
W0
卖方垄断的收益是要素的复合函数，即R=R[Q（L]，根据
复合函数求导法则即有：
dR dL
=
dR dQ
dQ dL
在卖方垄断条件下，厂商使用要素的边际收益等于产品的 边际收益MR和要素的边际产品MP的乘积MR•MP。这个乘积通常
被称作要素的边际收益产品，并用MRP来表示，即：
MRP = MR • MP
由于买方垄断厂商在产品市场上是完全竞争者， 故其产品的边际收益与产品价格相等：MR=P，从而 其使用要素的边际收益就等于要素的边际产品价值： VMP=P•MP。但是其使用要素的边际成本不等于要素 价格。
买方垄断厂商使用要素的成本和边际成本分析
边际要素成本（MFC）——是增加一单位要素使用所增
加的成本。
完全竞争厂商使用要素的原则可以表示为： VMP = W 或者 MP·P = W
可以用数学方法推导上述要素使用原则。 假设代表完全竞争厂商的利润，它是要素L的函数，则由 利润的定义可有：
π（L）= P·Q（L）- W·L 为了达到利润最大化，必须使
dπdL（L）= P
dQ（L） dL
-
W
=
0
即P
dQ（L） dL
Y
W
PEP K2 K1 K0
平狄克《微观经济学》第八版笔记
《微观经济学》学问点总结第一章绪论微观经济学争论个体经济单位的行为，包括消费者、工人、投资者、土地全部者、企业，事实上包括任何参与经济运行的个人和法人。
宏观经济学争论经济总量，诸如国民产出的水平和增长率、利率、失业以及通货膨胀。
微观经济学就是关于有限性的，争论如何配置稀缺资源。
重要概念包括权衡取舍，价格等。
微观经济学既关注实证问题，也关注标准问题。
实证问题主要是解释和推想，而标准问题关注的是“应当如何”引号的问题。
独立的经济单位按功能可分为买者和卖者。
市场是买者和卖者的集合，通过他们实际或潜在的相互作用来打算一种或多种商品的价格。
行业是指出售一样或严密相关产品的厂商的集合。
套利是指在一个地方低价买进，然后在另一个地方高价卖出的行为。
完全竞争市场，即有很多买者和卖者的市场，没有任何买者和卖者能够影响价格。
卡特尔是指集体行动的生产者群体。
市场价格，竞争性市场中通行的价格。
市场范围，市场的边界，既包括地理的边界，又包括就产品范围而言的边界。
名义价格，未经通货膨胀调整确实定价格。
实际价格，一种依据总体价格指标衡量的价格，这是经过通胀调整后的价格。
消费者价格指数，CPI，衡量总体价格水平的指标。
生产者价格指数，PPI，衡量半成品和批发品的总体价格水平的指标。
其次章供给和需求的根本原理供给曲线，描绘生产者情愿出售的商品数量与该商品价格之间关系的曲线。
供给的变动表示供给曲线的移动，供给量的变动表示沿着供给曲线的移动。
需求曲线，消费者情愿购置的商品数量与该商品价格之间的关系。
需求的变动表示需求曲线的移动，需求量的变动表示沿着需求曲线的移动。
替代品，一种商品的价格上升会导致另一种商品的需求量增加的两种商品。
互补品，一种商品的价格上升会导致另一种商品的需求量下降的两种商品。
均衡或市场出清价格，供给和需求相等时的价格。
市场机制，自由市场中价格不断变动直到市场出清的趋势。
过剩，供给大于需求的情形。
短缺，需求量大于供给量的情形。
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完全竞争市场
产品同质
•所有厂商的产品互相之间是完全替代的——也就是说他们 是完全同质的，任何一个厂商如果想将其产品的价格提高到 市场价格之上必然失去顾客。 •相反，如果产品是异质的，则每一家厂商都有机会提高其 价格，而不会导致顾客流失。 •产品同质性的假定非常重要，因为它保证了单一市场价格 的存在，这使市场供求的分析变得有意义。
8.2 Profit maximization
8.3 Marginal Revenue, Marginal Cost, and Profit Maximization
8.4 Choosing Output in the Short Run
8.5 The Competitive Firm’s ShortRun Supply Curve
CHAPTER 8
利润最大化与竞争性供给
•完全竞争市场 •利润最大化 •边际收益、边际成本与利润最大化 •选择短期产量 •竞争性厂商的短期供给曲线 •短期市场供给曲线 •长期的产量选择 •行业的长期供给曲线
CHAPTER OUTLINE
8.1 Perfectly Competitive Markets
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边际收益、边际成本和利润最大化
•在竞争性市场上，单个厂商面对的需求曲线d既是它的平 均收益曲线，又是它的边际收益曲线。
•在这条曲线上，边际收益与价格相等。
MR=AR=P
竞争性厂商的利润最大化 完全竞争性厂商应该选择的产量是使边际成本等于价格：
MC(q) = MR = P
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
•即使市场的需求弹性不是很大，这三个厂商也可能会激烈竞争
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
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8.2
利润最大化
厂商最大化利润吗？
•微观经济学经常用到利润最大化的假设，因为它合理而准确地预测商业行 为并可避免不必要的分析上的混乱。
•在短期，如果价格高于1 140美 元/吨而低于1 300美元/吨，则工 厂就应该每天生产600吨铝。 •如果价格高于1 300美元/吨，则 厂商就应该要求加班，每天生产 900吨铝。而如果价格低于1 140 美元/吨，它就应该停止生产。 •但是如果它预期价格未来会上 升，它也可能继续生产。
图8.5 精炼铝工厂的短期产量
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
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8.2
其他组织形式
利润最大化
•合作社 •一些厂商或个人共同拥有的组织，由设施为共有，并要共同付钱来维护和管理 那些公共设施。
8.6 The Short-Run Market Supply Curve
8.7 Choosing Output in the Long-Run
8.8 The Industry’s Long-Run Supply Curve
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
导原则： •第一，除了条件有限，平均可变成本不应用来替代 边际成本。
当前产量： 材料成本：
每天100单位，其中80单位属于正常生产，20单位属于加 班生产。 每单位产量8美元
人工成本：
正常工作时间30美元/单位；加班时间50美元/单位。
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
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完全竞争市场
自由的进入与退出
•不存在任何特别的成本使厂商难以进入（退出）某个行业 的情形
•购买者可以很容易地从一家厂商转向另一家厂商，厂 商也可以很容易地进入或者退出市场。
•有许多厂商的行业，由于厂商可以在价格制定上进行或明或暗的合谋， 对于判断是否大体上是完全竞争的，存在许多厂商这个条件并不充分。 •相反，市场上仅有几家厂商也不能排除竞争行为。
•假设市场上仅有三个厂商，但是产品的市场需求是非常富有弹性 的，那么每个厂商面临的需求曲线可能接近水平，厂商的行为就像 在完全竞争市场上一样。
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EXAMPLE 8.3 经理的一些成本考虑
•对边际收益等于边际成本这一准则的运用，取决于经理对边
际成本的估算能力。
•为获得有用的成本估算，经理应在心里牢记以下三条指
Prepared by: Fernando Quijano, Illustrator
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8.1
完全竞争市场
价格接受
每个厂商出售的产量占全部行业产量的比重足够小，以至于其决策对市 场价格不产生影响，所以每个厂商视价格为给定的。
价格接受者
● 对市场价格没有影响，因而只能接受给定价格的厂商。
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
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完全竞争市场
市场何时是高度竞争的
•除了农业，世界上几乎没有哪个市场是完全竞争的。然而，由于一些市场 是高度竞争的，厂商面对的是高弹性需求曲线，进入与退出都相对容易。 •没有一个简便的用于描述市场是否接近完全竞争的经验准则
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8.4
选择短期产量
竞争性厂商的短期利润最大化
•在短期，竞争性厂商 通过选择边际成本MC 与产品价格P(或边际 收益MR)相等的产量 来实现利润最大。
•厂商的利润由矩形 ABCD表示。
•任何较低的产量q1或 较高产量q2都将导致 利润下降。
利润为正
产出法则 如果一家厂商可以在任何产出水平生产，那么它 应当在边际收益等于边际成本的产出水平上生产。
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
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8.3 边际收益、边际成本和利润最大化
●利润 总收益与总成本的差额
π(q) = R(q) − C(q)
●边际收益 产量增加一个单位时总收益的变化量
•厂商选择产量q*，以使利润， 即收益R和成本C之差AB最大。 •在该产出水平上，边际收益( 收益曲线的斜率)等于边际成本 (成本曲线的斜率)。
•平均可变成本为劳动成本加材料成本，即42美元/单位。 •加班时间生产的产品单位边际成本为58美元/单位 •因为边际成本高于平均可变成本，依靠平均可变成本决策的经理可 能会生产过多的产品。
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
•但厂商是否真的以利润最大化为目标，一直存在争议。 •对由所有者自己管理的小企业，利润似乎决定着差不多全部的企业决策。 •在大企业里，作日常决策的经理通常很少与所有者接触，结果导致企业的 所有者不能常规化地监督经理的行为。
•经理可能会更关心其他目标 •但是，企业要在竞争性行业中生存下去，就得将长期利润最大化作为 它们最优先考虑的目标之一。
•一座典型的共管公寓比相同条件下的合作公寓贵15.5%。 •显然，合作公寓形式并不是公寓价值最大化的一种最 佳方式。
•另一方面，合作公寓的拥有者在原先的邻居房屋出售时更 有对未来邻居的选择权——这些是纽约人更在乎的事项。
•因此，在纽约，许多人愿意放弃一些金钱而实现一些 非货币收益。
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. • Microeconomics • Pindyck/Rubinfeld, 8e.
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EXAMPLE 8.1 纽约市的共管公寓与合作制公寓
•虽然共管住房的业主必须加入业主委员会来管理公共空间( 如门廊)，但他们仍能就如何管理各自的地方以尽可能实现 价值最大化做出决策。相反，合作制公寓的成员共同负担有 关公寓的所有未付抵押贷款，并且要服从更复杂的管理规章 制度。 •从全国来看，共管住房的形式比合作住房的形式更普遍， 几乎是10∶1。在这点上，纽约市与全国其他城市相比非常 不同——其合作住房更普遍，它与共管住房相比是4∶1。
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EXAMPLE 8.3 经理的一些成本考虑
当前产量：
材料成本： 人工成本：
每天100单位，其中80单位属于正常生产，20单位属于加 班生产。 每单位产量8美元
正常工作时间30美元/单位；加班时间50美元/单位。