英语语言学概论短语结构概要
【自学考试】江苏省自考英语语言学概论(27037)填空题与选择题题库及中文翻译最新
第一章绪论填空题或选择题1. A symbol consists of two parts : a concrete form and the meaning which it conveys.一个符号由两个部分组成：一个具体的形式和它所表达的意思。
2.By saying language is arbitrary ,we mean we can’t give a sound reason why such a form ispronounced in this way rather than in that way, and why a particular meaning should be indicated by this form rather than by that form..当说语言是任意的，我们指我们不能合理地解释为什么这个音以这种形式而不是以那种形式发音。
并且为什么以这种形式而不是以那种形式来表明某种特殊的意义。
3. Language has two levels .They are grammatically meaningful level and sound meaninglesslevel.语言有两个层次：语法上有意义的层次和声音上无意义的层次。
4.Human languages have such design features asproductivity ,discreteness ,displacement ,arbitrariness ,cultural transmission ,duality and interchangeability . 人类语言具有以下的甄别性特征：能产性，离散性，不受时空限制的特性，任意性，文化传递性，双重性和互换性。
nguage is a system because every language consists of a set of rules which underlie people’sactual speech or writing .语言是一种体系，因为每种语言都是由一套规则组成的，这些规则表明了人们的真正语言或书面形式。
大学英语语法结构分析知识点汇总
大学英语语法结构分析知识点汇总大学英语的学习中，语法结构的掌握至关重要。
它不仅是理解英语句子和文章的基础，也是正确表达自己思想的关键。
以下为大家汇总了一些重要的大学英语语法结构分析知识点。
一、句子成分句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语和补语。
主语通常是句子所描述的主体，一般是名词、代词或相当于名词的短语或从句。
例如：“The book is interesting”（这本书很有趣。
）中，“The book”就是主语。
谓语则是表示主语动作或状态的部分，通常是动词。
像“ He studies hard”（他学习努力。
）里，“studies”就是谓语。
宾语是动作的对象，常为名词、代词等。
比如“ She loves music”（她喜欢音乐。
）中，“music”就是宾语。
定语用于修饰名词或代词，比如“ The beautiful girl is my sister”（那个漂亮的女孩是我妹妹。
），“beautiful”就是定语。
状语用来修饰动词、形容词、副词或整个句子，说明时间、地点、原因、方式等。
例如“ He runs fast in the park”（他在公园里跑得很快。
），“fast”和“in the park”都是状语。
补语则是对主语或宾语进行补充说明，比如“ The flower smells sweet”（这花闻起来很香。
），“sweet”就是补语。
二、名词性从句名词性从句包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。
主语从句在句子中充当主语，例如：“What he said is true”（他说的是真的。
）宾语从句在句中作宾语，像“ I don't know where he lives”（我不知道他住哪儿。
）表语从句在系动词之后，充当表语，比如“ T he problem is whetherwe can finish it on time”（问题是我们能否按时完成。
）同位语从句用于解释说明前面的名词，例如“ The news that he won the game is exciting”（他赢得比赛的消息令人兴奋。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
语言学概论语法
由综合手段［词形变化］表现的语 法意义概括起来形成的范畴就是词法范畴。 由分析手段［语序、虚词、语调等］表现 的语法意义概括起来形成的范畴叫句法范 畴。
常见的词法范畴有：
性、数、格、时、体、态、人称、式、 级等。
句法范畴比较复杂，至今缺乏系统的 整理，比较有普遍性的有：
陈述、支配、修饰、补充、联合等关 系意义。由于对词法范畴的研究深入，传 统语言学中常常把词法范畴称为语法范畴。
语言学概论语法
• 第一节 什么是语法 • 第二节 语素和词 • 第三节 语法手段和语法范畴 • 第四节 句法结构 • 第五节 句式和句式变换
第一节 什么是语法
一 什么是语法
语法是语言中词的构成与变化的规则与组词成句规则 的总和。
1 词的构成与变化的规则
词的构成规则——构词法 词根+后缀 happiness roommate
２ 分析手段
利用词和词的关系表示语 法意义的所有手段叫分析手段。
语序、虚词、语调、重叠 的变化不是发生在词的内部，而 是发生在词与词之间的外部联系 上，所以称为分析性手段。
值得注意的是：语言中有一些起辅 助作用的虚词，如英语中的will\shall\be， 汉语中的“着、了、过”等，虽然都是 独立的词，但是所起的作用都与词形变 化几乎相同，按习惯，一般也归入构形 法，并概括为综合－－分析手段，就作 用而言是综合的，就形式而言是分析的。
语素的语义变体
同一语素在不同的语言环境里语义 上可能有一些变异,这就是语素的语义变 体.传统词典学里所说的义项,就是语素的 语义变体.如:
民1: 人民,“民主\民权”等词中的 “民”
民2: 某族的人,“回民\藏民”中的 “民”
民3: 从事某种职业的人,如“农民”
语言学概论课件 第四章 语法学
• 英语： • 名词：1、属格（加后缀-’s） • 2、通格（不加后缀） • 人称代词：主格、宾格、属格
一、语法范畴
• 4．时和体 • 时和体都是与动词相关的语法范畴，表示事件的时间关系和 过程状态。 • 时（tense）表示事件时间、参照时间、说话时间之间的时 序关系， • 一般分过去时、现在时和将来时。
一、语法范畴
• 5．态 • 态又称语态，是表示主语与动词的语义关系的语法范畴。一 般通过动词的形态变化来区分主动态和被动态。主动态表示 主语是动词的施事，即行为动作的主体，被动态表示主语是 动词的受事，即行为动作的对象。 • 英语就有主动态和被动态之分，主动态的动词形式不变，被 动态则用助动词be和动词的过去分词形式表示。
组合关系
聚合关系
递归性——指在语言单位的组合过程中，各种语法规 则可以反复地无限地使用。例如： 木头房子
一所木头房子
老师的一所木头房子 他的老师的一所木头房子 他的小学老师的一所木头房子 他的丈夫的小学老师的一所木头房子
• 鸦鹊鹊，肚下白，打下请老伯，老伯耳朵 聋；请裁缝，裁缝手脚慢；请老板，老板 心肠黑；请菩萨，菩萨心眼偏；请神仙， 神仙要猜拳；请和尚，和尚不睁眼……
二、语法形式和语法意义
• （一）语法形式 • 语法形式是反映词语的组合规则和语法类别的形式 标志，是表示语法意义的形式手段，又称语法手段 。 • 语法形式可分显性和隐性两种。显性语法形式可以 直接感知，主要包括语序、虚词、词缀、重叠以及 各种语音形式。 • 隐性语法形式不能直接感知，但可通过能否组合、 替换、扩展、变换等方式分析抽象出来。 • 有些语言主要通过不同的词形变化来体现名词和动 词的区别，但有些语言主要通过不同的组合功能来 体现。 “鸭蛋大”
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
英语语言学概论
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
英语语言学概论--整理
英语语言学概论--整理Chapter 1 Language语言1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish itfrom any animal system of communication.2.Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitelylarge quantities of sentences in their native language.3.arbitrariness (随意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivatedrelationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents somethingelse by association or convention.5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language aremeaningfully distinct.6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be usedto talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of itsusers.7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, theother of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8.culture transmission (文化传扬) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passedon from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producerand a receiver of messages.1.★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2.★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in whicha language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speakerof a language can understand each other.4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’slanguage? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调整功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II.Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1.general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (一般语言学与描写语言学) The former deals withlanguage in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguisticstraces the historical development of the language and records thechanges that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3.theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes withlanguages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4.microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structureof language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.ngue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by allthe members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6petence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguisticregulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7.speech and writing(口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is writtencodes, gives language new scope.8.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) Peopleactually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation (横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes thehorizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10.verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language asa means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning withoutusing language is called non-verbal communication.1.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theoryand the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3.★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaningof sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1.articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is calledarticulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics(声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics(听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditoryphonetics.4.consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completelyblocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any wayand is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6.bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restrictedby the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7.affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing itslowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8.glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forminga circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10.diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another throughintervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11.triphthongs (三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel positionto another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]x vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and shortvowels, vowels are classified tensevowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.2.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?V owel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1)The state of the velum2)The position of the tongue.3)The openness of the mouth.4)The shape of the lips.5)The length of the vowels.6)The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3.★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatoryphonetics.2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics.3)Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditoryphonetics.4.★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1)V oiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)V ocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.7)Coronal.8)Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1.phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2.allophones(音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3.phones(单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4.minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5.contrastive distribution (对照分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and thesubstitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6plementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,thenthey are said to be in complementary distribution.7.free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitutionof one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8.distinctive features(区分性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phonemefrom another.9.suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groupslarger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10.tone languages(声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11.intonation languages(语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaningat phrase level or sentence level.12.juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammaticalunits.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1)Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds,while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2)Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstractdescription of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2.Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3.How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1)The two forms are different in meaning.2)The two forms are different in one sound segment.3)The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4.★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1)Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution becausesubstituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2)Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are incomplementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially ina stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3)Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and/dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to bein fr ee variation.5.What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are thesuprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effecton one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segmentare known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a stringof several sounds.main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6.What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7.★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1.morphemes(语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2.roots(词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes(词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3.inflectional affixes(屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, butdo not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4.empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5.IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyzea linguistic expression (both aword and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6.immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical unitsthat constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7.morphological rules (形态学规章) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into newwords are said to be morphological rules.8.word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of formingnew words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2.How are morphemes classified?1)Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixationalmorphemes.2)Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3.★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a)All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b)All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4.What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a)Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b)Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5.Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function andposition.a)Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words whilederivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b)In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a)un- + adj. ->adj.b)Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c)V. + -able -> adj.d)Adj. + -ly -> adv.Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学1.syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationshipsbetween constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements withina sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2.IC Analysis(直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any levelwithin a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3.constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4.surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation ofa linguistic expression, derivedfrom deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures(深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5.phrase structure rules(短语结构规章)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are usedto break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6.transformational rules (转换规章)7.structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1.What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1)Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deepstructures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2)Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3)Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings ofsentences.4)Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2.Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3.What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deep structures?How differently are they generated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4.Wh at’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5.What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学1.Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2.Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3.Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4.Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5.Denotation(外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expressionindependent of context and situation.6.Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of themeaning of, a linguistic unit.ponential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8.Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items,but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9.Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word anda more specific word.10.Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11.Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12.Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13.Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14.Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form.15.Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1.W hat’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how doeshe classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2.What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3.What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theoryin defining meaning of words?文档内容到此结束，欢迎大家下载、修改、丰富并分享给更多有需要的人。
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英语语言学概论短语结构概要
短语结构是英语语言学中的一个重要概念，它涉及到词语的组合和关系。
短语结构是由一个中心词（Head）和相应的修饰成分（Modifiers）
组成的，它们一起构成了一个完整的短语。
在短语结构中，中心词起到了核心作用，它确定了短语的性质和意义。
修饰成分则用来描述或修改中心词，提供额外的细节和信息。
短语结构可
以根据修饰成分的类型和作用进行分类。
最常见的短语结构类型是形容词短语结构（Adjective Phrase，AP）、副词短语结构（Adverb Phrase，AdvP）、名词短语结构（Noun Phrase，NP）和动词短语结构（Verb Phrase，VP）。
形容词短语结构是由一个形容词作为中心词和它的修饰成分组成的。
修饰成分可以是其他形容词、名词、副词等。
例如，在句子“The
weather is extremely hot.”中，“extremely hot”是一个形容词短语
结构，其中形容词“hot”是中心词，“extremely”是它的修饰成分，表
示程度。
副词短语结构包含一个副词作为中心词和相关的修饰成分。
修饰成分
可以是其他副词、形容词，也可以是介词短语等。
例如，在句子“She
ran quickly towards the finish line.”中，“quickly”是一个副词
短语结构，其中副词“quickly”是中心词，“towards the finish line”是它的修饰成分，表示方向。
名词短语结构由一个名词作为中心词和相应的修饰成分组成，修饰成
分可以是限定词、形容词、代词等。
例如，在句子“The big black cat
is sleeping.”中，“the big black cat”是一个名词短语结构，其中
名词“cat”是中心词，“the big black”是它的修饰成分，表示大小和
颜色。
动词短语结构由一个动词作为中心词和相关的修饰成分组成，修饰成
分可以是副词、名词短语、介词短语等。
例如，在句子“They are
playing soccer in the park.”中，“playing soccer in the park”
是一个动词短语结构，其中动词“playing”是中心词，“soccer in the park”是它的修饰成分，表示具体的动作和地点。
除了以上常见的短语结构类型，还有其他一些特殊的短语结构，如介
词短语结构（Prepositional Phrase，PP）、双重结构（Double Phrase Structure）等，它们根据语法和语义的需要而出现。
总之，短语结构是英语语言学中的一个重要概念，它涉及到中心词和
修饰成分的组合和关系。
不同类型的短语结构在句子中发挥不同的作用，
为语言的表达提供了丰富多样的选择和变化。
对于语言学研究和语言学习，理解短语结构的概念和特点是非常重要的。