外文文献翻译 中英文对照 道路毕业设计 交通系统
中国交通系统英文作文
中国交通系统英文作文英文：China has a vast and complex transportation system that includes roads, railways, air travel, and waterways. The country's transportation infrastructure has undergone significant development in recent years, with high-speed railways and modern highways connecting major cities and regions.One of the most impressive aspects of China's transportation system is its extensive high-speed railway network. The country has the world's largest high-speedrail network, with trains reaching speeds of up to 350 km/h. This has greatly reduced travel times between major cities, making it more convenient for people to commute and travel for leisure.In addition to high-speed railways, China also has awell-developed road network. The country's highways andexpressways connect urban centers and rural areas, providing accessibility and convenience for both passengers and freight transportation. I remember taking a road trip from Beijing to Shanghai and being amazed by the quality of the highways and the efficiency of the toll system.Furthermore, China's air travel industry has experienced rapid growth, with numerous airports beingbuilt or expanded to accommodate the increasing demand for air travel. This has made it easier for people to travel domestically and internationally. I once flew from Guangzhou to Chengdu and was impressed by the modern facilities and efficient operations at the airports.Lastly, China's waterway transportation plays a crucial role in the country's economy, with major rivers and coastal areas being utilized for shipping goods and transporting passengers. I had the opportunity to take a cruise along the Yangtze River and was fascinated by the bustling activity of cargo ships and passenger ferries.Overall, China's transportation system is a testamentto the country's commitment to modernization and development. The convenience and efficiency of the transportation network have greatly benefited the lives of its citizens and have contributed to the country's economic growth.中文：中国拥有庞大而复杂的交通系统，包括公路、铁路、航空和水路。
道路与桥梁专业外文翻译中英对照
道路与桥梁专业外文翻译中英对照Jenny was compiled in January 2021本科毕业设计（论文）专业名称：土木工程专业（道路与桥梁）年级班级：道桥08-5班学生姓名：指导教师：二○一二年五月十八日专业外文翻译Geometric Design of HighwaysThe road is one kind of linear construction used for travel. It is made of the roadbed, the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossingof lines, the protective project and the traffic engineeringand the route facility.The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder,side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's planeposition .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guaranteethat it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding.The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture. The road surface require being smooth, having enough intensity, good stability and anti-slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic.Highway geometry designs to consider Highway Horizontal Alignment, Vertical Alignment two kinds of linear and cross-sectional composition of coordination, but also pay attentionto the smooth flow of the line of sight, etc. Determine theroad geometry, consider the topography, surface features,rational use of land and environmental protection factors, to make full use of the highway geometric components of reasonable size and the linear combination.DesignThe alignment of a road is shown on the plane view and is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by circular. In modern practice it is common to interpose transition orspiral curves between tangents and circular curves.Alignment must be consistent. Sudden changes from flat to sharp curves and long tangents followed by sharp curves must be avoided; otherwise, accident hazards will be created. Likewise, placing circular curves of different radii end to end (compound curves) or having a short tangent between two curves is poor practice unless suitable transitions between them are provided. Long, flat curves are preferable at all times, as they are pleasing in appearance and decrease possibility of future obsolescence. However, alignment without tangents is undesirable on two-lane roads because some drivers hesitate to pass on curves. Long, flat curves should be used for small changes in dir ection, as short curves appear as “kink”. Also horizontal and vertical alignment must be considered together, not separately. For example, a sharp horizontal curve beginning near a crest can create a serious accident hazard.A vehicle traveling in a curved path is subject to centrifugal force. This is balanced by an equal and opposite force developed through cannot exceed certain maximums, and these controls place limits on the sharpness of curves that can be used with a design speed. Usually the sharpness of a given circular curve is indicated by its radius. However, for alignment design, sharpness is commonly expressed in terms of degree of curve, which is the central angle subtended by a 100-ft length of curve. Degree of curve is inversely proportional to the radius.Tangent sections of highways carry normal cross slope; curved sections are super elevated. Provision must be made for gradual change from one to the other. This usually involves maintaining the center line of each individual roadway at profile grade while raising the outer edge and lowering theinner edge to produce the desired super elevation is attained some distance beyond the point of curve.If a vehicle travels at high speed on a carefullyrestricted path made up of tangents connected by sharp circular curve, riding is extremely uncomfortable. As the car approaches a curve, super elevation begins and the vehicle is tilted inward, but the passenger must remain vertical since there is on centrifugal force requiring compensation. When the vehicle reaches the curve, full centrifugal force develops at once, and pulls the rider outward from his vertical position. To achieve a position of equilibrium he must force his body far inward. As the remaining super elevation takes effect, further adjustment in position is required. This process is repeated in reverse order as the vehicle leaves the curve. When easement curves are introduced, the change in radius from infinity on the tangent to that of the circular curve is effected gradually so that centrifugal force also develops gradually. By careful application of super elevation along the spiral, a smooth and gradual application of centrifugal force can be had and the roughness avoided.Easement curves have been used by the railroads for many years, but their adoption by highway agencies has come only recently. This is understandable. Railroad trains must follow the precise alignment of the tracks, and the discomfort described here can be avoided only by adopting easement curves. On the other hand, the motor-vehicle operator is free to alter his lateral position on the road and can provide his own easement curves by steering into circular curves gradually. However, this weaving within a traffic lane (but sometimes into other lanes) is dangerous. Properly designed easement curves make weaving unnecessary. It is largely for safety reasons,then, that easement curves have been widely adopted by highway agencies.For the same radius circular curve, the addition ofeasement curves at the ends changes the location of the curve with relation to its tangents; hence the decision regardingtheir use should be made before the final location survey. They point of beginning of an ordinary circular curve is usually labeled the PC (point of curve) or BC (beginning of curve). Its end is marked the PT (point of tangent) or EC (end of curve).For curves that include easements, the common notation is, as stationing increases: TS (tangent to spiral), SC (spiral to circular curve), CS (circular curve to spiral), and ST (spiralgo tangent).On two-lane pavements provision of a wilder roadway is advisable on sharp curves. This will allow for such factors as(1) the tendency for drivers to shy away from the pavement edge,(2) increased effective transverse vehicle width because thefront and rear wheels do not track, and (3) added width because of the slanted position of the front of the vehicle to the roadway centerline. For 24-ft roadways, the added width is so small that it can be neglected. Only for 30mph design speedsand curves sharper than 22°does the added width reach 2 ft.For narrower pavements, however, widening assumes importance even on fairly flat curves. Recommended amounts of and procedures for curve widening are given in Geometric Design for Highways.2. GradesThe vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the safe and economical operation of the motor vehicle constituteone of the most important features of road design. The vertical alignment, which consists of a series of straight linesconnected by vertical parabolic or circular curves, is known as the “grade line.” When the grade line is increasing from the horizontal it is known as a “plus grade,” and when it is decreasing from the horizontal it is known as a “minusgrade.” In analyzing grade and grade controls, the designer usually studies the effect of change in grade on the centerline profile.In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is onein which the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut to be wasted. All haulsshould be downhill if possible and not too long. The gradeshould follow the general terrain and rise and fall in the direction of the existing drainage. In mountainous country the grade may be set to balance excavation against embankment as a clue toward least overall cost. In flat or prairie country itwill be approximately parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently above it to allow surface drainage and, where necessary, to permit the wind to clear drifting snow. Where the road approaches or follows along streams, the height of thegrade line may be dictated by the expected level of flood water. Under all conditions, smooth, flowing grade lines arepreferable to choppy ones of many short straight sections connected with short vertical curves.Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus grade to a plus grade should be placed in fills. This will generally give a good design, and many times it will avoid the appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general existing contours of the land. Other considerations for determining the gradeline may be of more importance than the balancing of cuts and fills.Urban projects usually require a more detailed study of the controls and finer adjustment of elevations than do rural projects. It is often best to adjust the grade to meet existing conditions because of the additional expense of doing otherwise.In the analysis of grade and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speed are apparent when grades are increase in gasoline consumption and a reduction in speedis apparent when grades are increased. An economical approach would be to balance the added annual cost of grade reduction against the added annual cost of vehicle operation withoutgrade reduction. An accurate solution to the problem depends on the knowledge of traffic volume and type, which can be obtained only by means of a traffic survey.While maximum grades vary a great deal in various states, AASHTO recommendations make maximum grades dependent on design speed and topography. Present practice limits grades to 5 percent of a design speed of 70 mph. For a design speed of 30 mph, maximum grades typically range from 7 to 12 percent, depending on topography. Wherever long sustained grades are used, the designer should not substantially exceed the critical length of grade without the provision of climbing lanes forslow-moving vehicles. Critical grade lengths vary from 1700 ft for a 3 percent grade to 500 ft for an 8 percent grade.Long sustained grades should be less than the maximum grade on any particular section of a highway. It is often preferredto break the long sustained uniform grade by placing steeper grades at the bottom and lightening the grade near the top of the ascent. Dips in the profile grade in which vehicles may be hidden from view should also be avoided. Maximum grade forhighway is 9 percent. Standards setting minimum grades are of importance only when surface drainage is a problem as when water must be carried away in a gutter or roadside ditch. In such instances the AASHTO suggests a minimum of %.3. Sight DistanceFor safe vehicle operation, highway must be designed to give drivers a sufficient distance or clear version ahead so that they can avoid unexpected obstacles and can pass slowervehicles without danger. Sight distance is the length of highway visible ahead to the driver of a vehicle. The conceptof safe sight distance has two facets: “stopping” (or “no passing”) and “passing”.At times large objects may drop into a roadway and will do serious damage to a motor vehicle that strikes them. Again a car or truck may be forced to stop in the traffic lane in the path of following vehicles. In dither instance, proper design requires that such hazards become visible at distances great enough that drivers can stop before hitting them. Further more, it is unsafe to assume that one oncoming vehicle may avoid trouble by leaving the lane in which it is traveling, for this might result in loss of control or collision with another vehicle.Stopping sight distance is made up of two elements. Thefirst is the distance traveled after the obstruction comes into view but before the driver applies his brakes. During this period of perception and reaction, the vehicle travels at its initial velocity. The second distance is consumed while the driver brakes the vehicle to a stop. The first of these two distances is dependent on the speed of the vehicle and the perception time and brake-reaction time of the operator. The second distance depends on the speed of the vehicle; thecondition of brakes, times, and roadway surface; and the alignment and grade of the highway.On two-lane highways, opportunity to pass slow-moving vehicles must be provided at intervals. Otherwise capacity decreases and accidents increase as impatient drivers risk head-on collisions by passing when it is unsafe to do so. The minimum distance ahead that must be clear to permit safe passing is called the passing sight distance. In deciding whether or not to pass another vehicle, the driver must weigh the clear distance available to him against the distance required to carry out the sequence of events that make up the passing maneuver. Among the factors that will influence his decision are the degree of caution that he exercises and the accelerating ability of his vehicle. Because humans differ markedly, passing practices, which depend largely on human judgment and behavior rather than on the laws of mechanics, vary considerably among drivers.The geometric design is to ensure highway traffic safety foundation, the highway construction projects around the other highway on geometric design, therefore, in the geometry of the highway design process, if appear any unsafe potential factors, or low levels of combination of design, will affect the whole highway geometric design quality, and the safety of the traffic to bring adverse impact. So, on the geometry of the highway design must be focus on.公路几何设计公路是供汽车或其他车辆行驶的一种线形带状结构体。
智能交通系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
智能交通系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Traffic Assignment Forecast Model Research in ITS IntroductionThe intelligent transportation system (ITS) develops rapidly along with the city sustainable development, the digital city construction and the development of transportation. One of the main functions of the ITS is to improve transportation environment and alleviate the transportation jam, the most effective method to gain the aim is to forecast the traffic volume of the local network and the important nodes exactly with GIS function of path analysis and correlation mathematic methods, and this will lead a better planning of the traffic network. Traffic assignment forecast is an important phase of traffic volume forecast. It will assign the forecasted traffic to every way in the traffic sector. If the traffic volume of certain road is too big, which would bring on traffic jam, planners must consider the adoption of new roads or improving existing roads to alleviate the traffic congestion situation. This study attempts to present an improved traffic assignment forecast model, MPCC, based on analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of classic traffic assignment forecast models, and test the validity of the improved model in practice.1 Analysis of classic models1.1 Shortcut traffic assignmentShortcut traffic assignment is a static traffic assignment method. In this method, the traffic load impact in the vehicles’ travel is not considered, and the traffic impedance (travel time) is a constant. The traffic volume of every origination-destination couple will be assigned to the shortcut between the origination and destination, while the traffic volume of other roads in this sector is null. This assignment method has the advantage of simple calculation; however, uneven distribution of the traffic volume is its obvious shortcoming. Using this assignment method, the assignment traffic volume will be concentrated on the shortcut, which isobviously not realistic. However, shortcut traffic assignment is the basis of all theother traffic assignment methods.1.2 Multi-ways probability assignmentIn reality, travelers always want to choose the shortcut to the destination, whichis called the shortcut factor; however, as the complexity of the traffic network, thepath chosen may not necessarily be the shortcut, which is called the random factor.Although every traveler hopes to follow the shortcut, there are some whose choice isnot the shortcut in fact. The shorter the path is, the greater the probability of beingchosen is; the longer the path is, the smaller the probability of being chosen is.Therefore, the multi-ways probability assignment model is guided by the LOGIT model:∑---=n j ii i F F p 1)exp()exp(θθ (1)Where i p is the probability of the path section i; i F is the travel time of thepath section i; θ is the transport decision parameter, which is calculated by the followprinciple: firstly, calculate the i p with different θ (from 0 to 1), then find the θwhich makes i p the most proximate to the actual i p .The shortcut factor and the random factor is considered in multi-ways probabilityassignment, therefore, the assignment result is more reasonable, but the relationshipbetween traffic impedance and traffic load and road capacity is not considered in thismethod, which leads to the assignment result is imprecise in more crowded trafficnetwork. We attempt to improve the accuracy through integrating the several elements above in one model-MPCC.2 Multi-ways probability and capacity constraint model2.1 Rational path aggregateIn order to make the improved model more reasonable in the application, theconcept of rational path aggregate has been proposed. The rational path aggregate,which is the foundation of MPCC model, constrains the calculation scope. Rationalpath aggregate refers to the aggregate of paths between starts and ends of the trafficsector, defined by inner nodes ascertained by the following rules: the distancebetween the next inner node and the start can not be shorter than the distance betweenthe current one and the start; at the same time, the distance between the next innernode and the end can not be longer than the distance between the current one and theend. The multi-ways probability assignment model will be only used in the rationalpath aggregate to assign the forecast traffic volume, and this will greatly enhance theapplicability of this model.2.2 Model assumption1) Traffic impedance is not a constant. It is decided by the vehicle characteristicand the current traffic situation.2) The traffic impedance which travelers estimate is random and imprecise.3) Every traveler chooses the path from respective rational path aggregate.Based on the assumptions above, we can use the MPCC model to assign thetraffic volume in the sector of origination-destination couples.2.3 Calculation of path traffic impedanceActually, travelers have different understanding to path traffic impedance, butgenerally, the travel cost, which is mainly made up of forecast travel time, travellength and forecast travel outlay, is considered the traffic impedance. Eq. (2) displaysthis relationship. a a a a F L T C γβα++= (2)Where a C is the traffic impedance of the path section a; a T is the forecast traveltime of the path section a; a L is the travel length of the path section a; a F is theforecast travel outlay of the path section a; α, β, γ are the weight value of that threeelements which impact the traffic impedance. For a certain path section, there aredifferent α, β and γ value for different vehicles. We can get the weighted average of α,β and γ of each path section from the statistic percent of each type of vehicle in thepath section.2.4 Chosen probability in MPCCActually, travelers always want to follow the best path (broad sense shortcut), butbecause of the impact of random factor, travelers just can choose the path which is ofthe smallest traffic impedance they estimate by themselves. It is the key point ofMPCC. According to the random utility theory of economics, if traffic impedance is considered as the negativeutility, the chosen probability rs p of origination-destinationpoints couple (r, s) should follow LOGIT model:∑---=n j jrs rs bC bC p 1)exp()exp( (3) where rs p is the chosen probability of the pathsection (r, s);rs C is the traffic impedance of the path sect-ion (r, s); j C is the trafficimpedance of each path section in the forecast traffic sector; b reflects the travelers’cognition to the traffic impedance of paths in the traffic sector, which has reverseratio to its deviation. If b → ∞ , the deviation of understanding extent of trafficimpedance approaches to 0. In this case, all the travelers will follow the path whichis of the smallest traffic impedance, which equals to the assignment results withShortcut Traffic Assignment. Contrarily, if b → 0, travelers ’ understanding error approaches infinity. In this case, the paths travelers choose are scattered. There is anobjection that b is of dimension in Eq.(3). Because the deviation of b should beknown before, it is difficult to determine the value of b. Therefore, Eq.(3) is improvedas follows:∑---=n j OD j OD rsrs C bC C bC p 1)exp()exp(，∑-=n j j OD C n C 11（4） Where OD C is the average of the traffic impedance of all the as-signed paths; bwhich is of no dimension, just has relationship to the rational path aggregate, ratherthan the traffic impedance. According to actual observation, the range of b which is anexperience value is generally between 3.00 to 4.00. For the more crowded cityinternal roads, b is normally between 3.00 and 3.50.2.5 Flow of MPCCMPCC model combines the idea of multi-ways probability assignment anditerative capacity constraint traffic assignment.Firstly, we can get the geometric information of the road network and OD trafficvolume from related data. Then we determine the rational path aggregate with themethod which is explained in Section 2.1.Secondly, we can calculate the traffic impedance of each path section with Eq.(2),Fig.1 Flowchart of MPCC which is expatiated in Section 2.3.Thirdly, on the foundation of the traffic impedance of each path section, we cancalculate the respective forecast traffic volume of every path section with improvedLOGIT model (Eq.(4)) in Section 2.4, which is the key point of MPCC.Fourthly, through the calculation processabove, we can get the chosen probability andforecast traffic volume of each path section, but itis not the end. We must recalculate the trafficimpedance again in the new traffic volumesituation. As is shown in Fig.1, because of theconsideration of the relationship between trafficimpedance and traffic load, the traffic impedanceand forecast assignment traffic volume of everypath will be continually amended. Using therelationship model between average speed andtraffic volume, we can calculate the travel timeand the traffic impedance of certain path sect-ionunder different traffic volume situation. For theroads with different technical levels, therelationship models between average speeds totraffic volume are as follows: 1) Highway: 1082.049.179AN V = (5) 2) Level 1 Roads: 11433.084.155AN V = (6) 3) Level 2 Roads: 66.091.057.112AN V = (7) 4) Level 3 Roads: 3.132.01.99AN V = (8) 5) Level 4 Roads: 0988.05.70A N V =(9) Where V is the average speed of the path section; A N is the traffic volume of thepath section.At the end, we can repeat assigning traffic volume of path sections with themethod in previous step, which is the idea of iterative capacity constraint assignment,until the traffic volume of every path section is stable.译文智能交通交通量分配预测模型介绍随着城市的可持续化发展、数字化城市的建设以及交通运输业的发展，智能交通系统（ITS）的发展越来越快。
Transportation 英语论文中英文翻译
TransportationTransportation (Sum up)There are two types of transportation: public transportation and private transportation. Examples of public transportation are: buses, trains, tramways, subways, cable cars, ships etc. Examples of private transportation include: private cars, bicycles, motorbikes, as well as walking on foot. Many people prefer means of private transportation to the public transportation, because it is a lot more comfortable, even though it’s pricier: you don’t have to get crammed in a crowded in a crowded wagon if you are driving your own vehicle. Also, riding a bike or a motorbike permits to avoid the traffic on the streets, since in the big cities there are special biking lanes which don’t allow buses or cars. On the other hand, using means of public transportation also has its advantages; first of all, it’s really cheap, nowadays you can purchase a special IP card, and then swipe it every time you get on and get off the bus and save up additional money on cost of transportation. Second, subways are built underground so if you use it, you don’t have to experience the congested streets on the ground. They are fast, and there are many different lines so if you transfer you can get almost anywhere you need. Third, using cable cars or special buses that don’t emit carbon dioxide into the air helps protecting the environment and the ozone layer above.Traffic jams (traffic congestion) is a big problem in big and developed cities all over the world. The situation could be improved if the public transportation system is radically changed; if the subway and train system gets more developed it will be more attractive to the citizens, than purchasing private cars that pollute the air and are responsible of the growing traffic jam problem. In consequence, the streets wouldn’t be jammed with private cars going in all the possible directions.To improve the situation on the streets of the big cities, the government should take various measures; for example, try to relocate some of the companies into the suburbs in order to make the centre of the city less crowded. This reorganization of a densely populated area could be one of the crucial solutions to the traffic congestion problem. The officials should also think of creating new projects to make new subway lines, bus routes and biking lanes so that the means of public transportation are more appealing to the citizens. Also, creating green tax (the kind of tax that the citizens pay the government for them to take measures to protect the environment) is one of the possibilities to help the traffic congestion and resulting from it, air pollution (smog). Unfortunately, these projects cost a lot of money, and take a lot of time and effort, so the situation on the streets can only improve gradually and in a very slow pace.Should Government Spend Money On PublicTransportations Or Roads?Polluted air, sun heated temperature, and poor quality of public transportations are Jakarta’s traffic condition. It’s worsen by the road traffics cause by the increasing amount in the usages of personal cars, that always take part in the crowds. Although there are many options of transportations and the access of highways and roads to shortened the amount of time consuming, Jakarta inhabitants are still dealing with the same problem continually.Well-improved public transportations will decrease the amount of personal cars usages. The public transportation companies have very poor services for jakarta’s citizens which served as their loyal customers. If the facility has been reconditioned, it will attract more attentions from the new and potential customers who never use it before. As a result from the growth of public transportations usages, the rush-hour traffic will be lessened. As an instance, Jakarta has many options for public transportations. Although reconsidered as a metropolitan city, the condition of the public transportation facilitiy is a tragic. Corroded iron bench, non air conditioner applied, unclean passengers area, and high lists of criminalities “performed” in the facilities show the credibility of Jakarta’s publ ic transportation image. But, the government surprised the citizens by launching the new alternative transportation that offers safety, comfort, and hygiene for their customers. The most wanted facility to enjoy is the Busway. When Busway was first introduced to Jakarta inhabitants, the public joyfully welcome the new alternative transportation and hoped that it will be the solution for road traffics which are their main problem.Improving roads and highways cost more funds and time. To recondition and to build roads and highways will pressure the government to strategically planned the budget. Highway constuctions budget usually does not refund until long period of time usages. If the funds are not available to support the roads and highways constructions, the result will not be as what the citizens expect of. Building roads and highways are a time consuming project that includes a lot of proffesional architects and workers, the project will provoked the comfort of roads and highways users and causing more road traffics problem. The example is the project to broaden the highway to Soekarno-hatta international airport. The project cause more road traffic for the customers who want to arrive as fast as they can in the airport to avoid lateness. Huge construction machines, constructionworkers, and the restricted area for the customers that reserved as the construction workers workstation are the main cause that annoyed the customers.Highways and roads are not accessible for all vehicles and all communities. Highways and roads access are not approachable to those who only have two-wheel drive. They will not receive the same conveniences that the government supplied for those who have more than two-wheel drive. Furthermore, the toll for using highways and roads are costly for middle to low class society. As an illustration, from the first time three years ago, Busway has influenced the highest admiration from the Jakarta citizens because Busway offers comfort, safety, and the efficiency of time to reach vary destinations in Jakarta with affordable prices that fits into all communities.Improving roads and highways can induce the society to use personal transportations. When the constructions of the highways are increasing, the citizens are captive in a situation with no options. The citizens are forced to use the highways to reach their destinations. Despite of the unflexible rule that restrict two-wheel drive vehicles and high priced tickets, highways are constructed to link the route from one place to another. In the end, the society will be addicted in using expressway and the construction of highways will happen in cycles and wasting a lot of funds. For example, the first highway constructed in Jakarta is the Jagorawi highway which links the route from Jakarta to Bogor and in the opposite way. The Jagorawi highway has reached the success in facilitating the citizens especially commuters to move from one city to another in a short amount of time. When the government realized how much the benefits and popularity gained from the Jagorawi highway, they immediately formed PT. Jasamarga as the management of Indonesia’s highways and planned for the forthcoming highway projects.In conclusion, public transportations have a very remarkable reputation amongst the society. Therefore, government should pay more attention on improving and creating public transportation facilities that offer safety, comfort, hygienic space, affordable prices, and accessible for all communities.Transportation SafteyTransportation SafetyFor my third and final paper regarding the transportation bill that President Barack Obama has brought to the table. According to , there are nearly 1,800 interest groups both public and private that are lobbying on transportation infrastructure. From these groups there are primarily cities, counties, transit agencies or construction interests that are searching for government funding from congress to create new highways and more efficient transitsystems. There are two major umbrella groups who have enacted a campaign to persuade voters to get their representatives to finish thebill to help their local transportation roadways. These two groups are called Americans for Transportation Mobility and the Transportation Construction Coalition. These two groups also account for members that are included in the Associated General Contractors as well as the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.This major campaign is a nationwide effort to enlighten voters about how the passing of this transportation bill will, among many issues, help road conditions throughout the country and the safety of people using the roadways. This nationwide effort with many different sectors involved includes but not limited to business, labor and transportation organizations throughout the United States. The mission statement of the Americans for Transportation Mobility states that the decline in the transportation infrastructure of our nation is dangerous to our safety, jeopardizes our quality of life, undermines the economy and finally, harms the environment substantially. According to their website, a recent study estimated that $225 billion is needed annually to maintain our surface transportation system and currently there is a $60 billion gap in that much needed investment. In 2006, there was a death on our nation’s roads every five hours and one-third of these fatalities are due to under maintained roads. This major inter est group is heavily interested in fixing America’s roads also because the cost of the millions of traffic crashes accounted for over $162 billion a year.Within the Americans for Transportation Mobility there is a management committee comprised of many different associations, each that have their own president. Three of the major management committees are the American Public Transportation Association headed by William Millar, American Road Transportation Builders Association headed by Pete Ruane, and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce run by Thomas J. Donohue. Each of these associations has major interest in different sectors, and all of which want to have their own input on this dominant bill.The American Public Transportation Association is an international organization that has been representing the transit industry since 1882. Their mission is to strengthen and improve public transport and has a very diverse membership that is trying to make public transportation available and accessible for all Americans across the country. This interest group is very open to ideas and suggestions on the improvement of America’s public transportation and over ninety percent of passengers using transit in both the United States and Canada are sustained by the American Public Transportation Association. According to their membership handbook, the APTA is your voice in Washington and they represent your issues and interests while providing members consistent updates on those interests as well as legislative issues. The APTA has many business opportunities to obtain contacts, exposure and focuspotential customers on your particular products and services you provide. The APTA has many conferences across the country in which you are able to obtain information and training so that you are able to further your career as well as business opportunities. As a member you are also entitled to unlimited use of their resources and information as well as participate in their many committees and audit programs to benefit you and your career. To join this interest group there are dues based upon their criteria and which category you will join. The annual minimum fee is $1,250 and from there, there are additional charges based upon criteria such as how many buses your company runs as well as the amount of operating expenses you incur.The American Road Transportation Builders Association is a major player in the U.S. transportation and design sector of transportation infrastructure which goes before congress, the White House and the Executive Brand and federal agencies. The primary reason for joining this group is the impressive track record of growing the federal transportation construction and is involved in every major piece of federal transportation legislation. In order to become a member and to view the membership benefits, you must contact their National Field Director Kenyon Gleason. Their dues also fluctuate into which category you and your company falls in such as the amount of annual volume to dues for a single executive from a government agency.The U.S. Chamber of Commerce website states that they believe that without proper investment and attention to the infrastructure systems, the economic stability of our nation, the potential for job growth and America’s competitiveness globally are in jeopardy. The Chamber’s plans are to motivate private spending, invest in the declining transportation infrastructure and modernize and protect the energy infrastructure. They believe that by removing legal and regulatory barriers, this will help protect public health as well as public safety and improving the environment. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce is fighting for the improvement of allowing industries to make investments with confidence and by making efficiently timed decisions on energy projects to avoid pricey delays. To become a member you need to identify what type of organization you are whether it is business, chambers or associations. In order to obtain information regarding fees, you must provide name, e-mail and which membership type you want to join. There are many membership benefits such as discounts on services like car renta ls and memberships to Sam’s club.Overall these are just a few of the hundreds of transportation infrastructure interest groups available to the public to become a member. All of these interest groups have major influence on Congress and to become a member there are many stipulations and fees involved. By having to pay these fees, I believe that the peopleinvolved with these groups have much more involvement with the transportation issues this country needs to address and fix. Our transportation is sub-par especially locally in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Many of the roads are extremely rugged and take a serious toll on cars, buses and trucks. Another major local issue is the public bus system. The availability of buses at night are non-existent so if someone were to take a bus to a movie at night, they would not be able to get back home by bus.。
公共交通运输系统外文文献翻译英文参考
公共交通运输系统外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Marinov Kim. The fractal structure of Seoul’s public transportation system[J]. Cities, 2013, 20(1):31-39.英文原文Public transportation systemMarinov KimAbstractTransportation systems provide significantly different services than urban suburbs, which often leads to different assumptions about the user's choice of transportation method. The simulation model mentioned in this paper proposes a policy for evaluating the impact of transport services. The mode of transportation is considered to be public transport, including light rail transit (light rail) and buses, plus private cars. In the three-step traveler behavior simulation model, the concept of generalized transportation cost is used. It proposes various types of transportation, as well as advice on residents’ travel options and the quantification of suburban residential community forms, and uses data derived from a typical corridor in Beijing, China. The simulation results show that lowering fares, increasing the comprehensive capacity of public transport, and penalties for private cars are necessary to improve the efficiency of the system and the attractiveness of the suburbs, especially for those withlow income; without roads Pricing will encourage middle-income residents to shift to private cars. At the same time, high-income earners may leave the suburbs due to road congestion; however, improvements in public transportation can attract more short- and medium-distance travelers, but passengers are not sensitive to travel distance.Key words: generalized cost, public transportation, congestion pricing, transportation service, BeijingSince the 1990s, large and medium-sized cities in China have experienced suburbanization, and the spatial structure of these cities has been gradually formed, relying heavily on the advancement of transportation. Due to population explosions and the transformation of the central cities, many suburban towns have developed into residential areas, and most of these newly developed towns and cities are employed by central cities or nearby industrial areas. For example, more than 80% of the residents of the Longkou suburban community work in Beijing or in central cities in developed regions. Almost half of the Beijing community residents are employed in the CBD of Chaoyang District. These areas pose new challenges to traffic policy makers and urban planners in the planning of transportation systems and the provision of operational efficiency.In many cases, border towns connect central cities or industrial parks via highways and city tracks. Compared with traditional cities, suburbanexhibitions exhibit more stable modes of transport use, rely more on public transportation, private cars, and less use of motorized modes (bicycles, walking). Working distance has a greater impact on people's mode of transportation than any single factor. This feature can profoundly affect the suburbanization of the population and restrict some people from immigrating to the suburbs.This article uses Beijing in the northwestern region as a test case to analyze the policies for transport services, mainly the costs and service quality, and will affect the overall transport system and urban spatial structure. The organization of this article is as follows: Section 2 briefly reviews some of the recent literature on the choice of transport mode and compares it with the Haicheng Corridor case in Haicheng City, especially China. The third section discusses the concept of transport costs in general and establishes new concepts, including the use of generalized costs and the obstacles to shifting the cost budget. In the fourth quarter, the passenger transport mode selection behavior simulation model was introduced between public transport and driving, and then it turned to the China experience transport service policy and the selection of Haicheng Haicheng travel mode. In the fifth section, the special mention was made of the rapid suburbanization of the northwestern region using Beijing's light rail and highway. In section VI, the main findings and policy implications are drawn. A large number of research institutions arestudying the choice of transportation mode and individual travel mode. In general, there are three common ways to determine this problem. The first part focuses on the characteristics of each model that influences choice decisions, and the empirical research used to change the results, study people and tourism purposes. For example, the travel-to-work behavior in Accra (Ghana) is primarily determined by the perceived quality of service, commercial commuter cars, and the personal circumstances of the employees, rather than by waiting for the time or the car. In the United Kingdom, to determine the itinerary for visiting relatives and friends, economic factors explain the choice of mode to a large extent, and the reasons for qualitative use of private transport are often secondary (Cohen, Harris, 1998). Examples of images used by Johansson and other Swedish workers indicate that the two sensations of flexibility and comfort affect the individual's choice pattern. According to the experimental field research and statistical analysis in Frankfurt, Germany, there are four types of people. One group seldom pays attention to money and time. The second group attaches great importance to money but does not attach much importance to time. The third group attaches great importance to it. The fourth group seldom pays attention to money but attaches great importance to time. Lin Tancu et al. selected data from 1998 that the Dutch national tourism survey team confirmed spatial allocation, land use and transport infrastructure, and had a major impact on long-distancetravel patterns such as commuting, business and leisure travel.The concept of generalized transportation costs is often used to evaluate and explain tourism behavior. Generalized travel costs include travel time, overtime, money costs, parking fees, and some negligible tips. However, this concept is different in different literature because of different research purposes. For example, generalized cycling costs are as follows: travel time, physical needs, comfort, traffic safety, the risk of bicycle theft, the cost of parked bicycles, maintenance costs, and personal safety. The generalized concept of monetization is usually the conversion of travel time into monetary expenses, increased fees, and fees collected. In this study, the commuter travel behavior was simulated. The three transports are all related to the concept cost. The first one can be defined as budgetary obstacles, including operating expenses, road maintenance fees, and parking fees. The second is the generalized cost and time cost of monetization, including operating expenses, as well as parking fees. Users are presumed to minimize the monetization costs of individuals and differentiate their traveler from travel time and cost. The generalized monetization cost of public transportation is to calculate the time of access to the train station, waiting time, which is calculated based on the progress, waiting time, and fare. Monetization costs include travel time, fees, car operating costs, and parking fees at work locations. The third concept is to determine the cost of the mode transfer cost, that is,congestion caused by discomfort. It is speculated that if the passengers in the vehicle have far exceeded capacity, new passengers will be transferred to other affordable transport methods.Roads that run through cities and villages are usually not only private cars but also public cars. From previous experience, road pricing can greatly increase the user's remaining area, and the cost of public transportation can greatly reduce the congestion caused by long-term travel, especially if the user largely loves public transportation. Option 2 shows that high-income travelers have to abandon plans for regular migration to the suburbs, mainly due to the serious congestion caused by free use. The other group is passengers who have deeply affected middle-income people. They switched from public transport to private car driving.The reduction in bus fares and the increase in bus lines have led many middle-income residents to move to the bus, while car users have shifted to the light rail, especially those short-distance travel. In addition, the study found that a comprehensive policy to improve public transport services and some private car punitive measures will help improve system efficiency and the attractiveness of suburban communities.This integrated system includes the reduction of light rail and bus fares, the improvement of service quality, and the collection of highway tolls. It should be pointed out that the light rail has been designed toincrease the use of public handrails to make public transport more attractive to users, and thus reduce road congestion. According to the simulation results, the reduction in LRT and bus fares and the increase in passenger capacity make this model more attractive to those low- and middle-income travelers. The end result is that more and more people migrate to the suburbs, from low-income to high-income classes. Of course, improvement of public transport services requires government subsidies. This is also a worldwide phenomenon. The economic travel distance of each model is hardly affected by the policies of different transport services. Public buses are used for short-distance travel, while middle- and long-distance people prefer light rail. On the other hand, car users do not matter. The results show that these low-income citizens have moved to suburban economic housing due to existing transport service policies, including relatively high fees for public transportation and roads, and limited light rail and bus lines. Of course, all modes of transport have a certain degree of influence on people working from home.Urban transport is a major area of government policy throughout the world. Transport policy will also affect the urban form, especially suburbanization. In Beijing, many economic apartments are designed for the construction of low-income residents. There are two main issues before the decision on major issues. First, from past experience, a large number of permanent residents in suburban communities are middle- orhigher-income people. And many owners still live in the city center, and suburban houses are only used for vacations. In addition, residents are constantly complaining about traffic congestion and relatively high toll roads, especially during peak hours. The simulation results of this study explain these phenomena and try to give corresponding policy implications.中文译文公共交通运输系统Marinov Kim摘要运输系统提供了与城市郊区显着不同的服务,这通常会导致有关用户选择交通方式的不同假设。
交通毕业设计外文及翻译（最终五篇）
交通毕业设计外文及翻译（最终五篇）第一篇：交通毕业设计外文及翻译Synchro在交通控制与设计中的应用在城市的较小的区域内，可以对区域内的所有交叉口进行控制;在城市较大的区域，可以对区域进行分区分级控制。
分区的结果往往使面控制成为一个由几条线控制组成的分级集中控制系统，这时，可认为各线控制是面控制中的一个单元；有时分区的结果是成为一个点，线，面控制的综合性分级控制系统。
现在对城市道路进行区域协调控制就是将其划分为多级多个信号控制子区，对信号子区进行协调控制，优化管理控制信号子区，然后对整个道路进行区域协调控制，达到整个城市道路优化的目的。
把城市道路划分为多个信号控制子区，也就是进行城市道路干线交叉口交通信号协调控制，把城市划分为多个主路控制，再把主路上各个交叉口进行联动控制，同时，对单个交叉口信号控制优化的同时需要考虑主路上下游各个交叉口的联动控制。
主路上的各个交叉口按照设计的信号配时方案进行运行，使车辆进入城市主干道交叉口时，不至经常遇到红灯，称为城市主干道交叉口信号协调控制，称为“绿波”信号控制。
城市单点交叉口作为城市交通网络中的重要组成部分，作为城市道路交通问题的关键点。
对城市单点交叉口，评价标准的参考指标：交叉口的通行能力、进口道的饱和度、道路交叉口进口道停车延误、交叉口进口道停车次数、进口道排队长度和汽车的油耗等。
交叉口定时信号控制配时方法在不断的改进之中，国内外大部分学者认为从不同的评价指标出发，可以采用不同的种优化算法寻求其它更合理的配时方法。
平面交叉口按交通管制方式可以分为全无控制交叉口、主路优先控制交叉口、信号灯控制交叉口、环形交叉口等几种类型。
主路优先控制交叉口，是在次路上设停车让行或减速让行标志，指令次路车辆必须停车或减速让主路车辆优先通行的一种交通管制方式。
交叉口是道路网中通行能力的“瓶颈”和交通事故的“黑点”。
国内外城市中的交通堵塞主要发上在交叉口，造成车辆中断，事故增多，延误严重。
交通工程专业外文翻译外文文献英文文献
土木工程学院交通工程专业中英文翻译Road Design专业：交通工程英文原文The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of a road’sstructure can weaken that la yer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moistureproblems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow somepla ce• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relatively water tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications.4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction also shrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs or reconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safet y, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsides that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history and surface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.中文译文一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。
交通安全外文翻译文献中英文
外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)英文原文POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITA TIONS OF ACCIDENT ANALYSISS.OppeAbstraetAccident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the (product) evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures. The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for (process) evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures. There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research. Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research. This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.Keyword: Consequences; purposes; describe; Limitations; concerned; Accident Analysis; possibilities1. Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research. These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis. A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly. For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video. It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record. In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident. For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked: Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him thepossibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated. At the moment of the accident there were no bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection. The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace. It is hardly possible to observe traffic behavior under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips. Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs. Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behavior as a reference base. The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered. We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis. Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, especially collected accident data, behavioral background data etc. To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety. Some ofthese activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system; some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:- detection of new or remaining safety problems;- description of the problem and its main characteristics;- the analysis of the problem, its causes and suggestions for improvement;- selection and implementation of safety measures;- evaluation of measures taken.Although this cycle can be carried out by the same person or group of persons, the problem has a different (political/managerial or scientific) background at each stage. We will describe the phases in which accident analysis is used. It is important to make this distinction. Many fruitless discussions about the method of analysis result from ignoring this distinction. Politicians, or road managers are not primarily interested in individual accidents. From their perspective accidents are often treated equally, because the total outcome is much more important than the whole chain of events leading to each individual accident. Therefore, each accident counts as one and they add up all together to a final safety result.Researchers are much more interested in the chain of events leading to an individual accident. They want to get detailed information abouteach accident, to detect its causes and the relevant conditions. The politician wants only those details that direct his actions. At the highest level this is the decrease in the total number of accidents. The main source of information is the national database and its statistical treatment. For him, accident analysis is looking at (subgroups of) accident numbers and their statistical fluctuations. This is the main stream of accident analysis as applied in the area of traffic safety. Therefore, we will first describe these aspects of accidents.2. The nature of accidents and their statistical characteristics.The basic notion is that accidents, whatever there cause, appear according to a chance process. Two simple assumptions are usually made to describe this process for (traffic) accidents:- the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed. The first assumption does not meet much criticism. Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents. In some cases where there is a direct causal chain (e.g. , when a number of cars run into each other) the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties. Casualties are often related to the same accident andtherefore the independency assumption does not hold. The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight. The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely. However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods. It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature. If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed. The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of (composite) situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations. E.g. , the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day (the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.). If the conditions are assumed to be the same (same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.) then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process. This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values (the estimate being the average of the two values). Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful. The Poisson assumptionis investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence. It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety. The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety. This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions. Such differences may guide the process of improvement. Because the main concern is to reduce the number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment. A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences. In many local cases an application is not possible. Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average. The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets. Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions. Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e. for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test. In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large. Then the Poissondistribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter. Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one. No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3. The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned. The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents (eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before. If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years. Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds. Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned. The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949. We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.(1). The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications. Foldvary and Lane (1974), inmeasuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.(2). Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model. Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables. The advantage of 1. and 2. over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated (sub)tables and corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.(3). More attention is put to parameter estimation. E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.(4). The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts. This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary. The last option is not found in many statistical packages. Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table. A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV (see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976). The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory. It tries to detect safety problems that need specialattention. The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or (groups of) road users with a high level of risk. 4. Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences. Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident. The researcher’s interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results (or does not result) in accidents. Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study. One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers. As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research. However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked. Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself. The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detectwhich factors, under what circumstances cause an accident. Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident. Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated. Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: - Given the state of the traffic system, traffic volume and composition, the manoeuvres of the road users, their speeds, the weather conditions, the condition of the road, the vehicles, the road users and their interactions, accidents can or cannot be prevented.- Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial. Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels. In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consistingof the elementary events (the situations) that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors. This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups. The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design (e.g. a roundabout) etc.中文译文交通事故分析的可能性和局限性S.Oppe摘要交通事故的统计数字, 尤其国家一级的数据对监控和预测事故的发展, 积极或消极检测事故的发展, 以及对定义安全目标和评估工业安全特别有益。
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交通系统交通运输一直是土木工程最重要的一个方面。
古罗马工程师的巨大成就之一就是公路系统，它使罗马与帝国的各个省之间的快速交通成为可能。
在工程方面的第一所培训学校就是桥梁和公路学校，它于1747年创建于法国。
而在英国，一位道路建筑家，托马斯·泰尔福特于1820年担任了土木工程学会的第一任主席。
现代公路仍然根据18世纪及19世纪初法国人皮埃尔·特埃萨凯，英国人泰尔福特，以及苏格兰人约翰·L·马克当所制定的原则进行建造。
这些人设计出了最初的现代道路，这种道路具有坚实的垫层，基础就建在垫层的上面。
他们设计的道路还具有排水良好而且不渗水的磨耗层，即直接承受车辆交通磨耗的表层。
特埃萨凯和泰尔福特均采用较厚的石头基础，在其上面铺筑由较小碎石组成的基层和由更小的石头组成的磨耗层。
他们的道路还微微隆起成曲线，形成路拱和反拱以便使雨水流走。
马克当认识到当土壤被夯实或压紧之后，只要保证干燥，其本身就可承受道路的重量，因而他能够通过在压实的垫层上铺碎石基层来省掉建造石头基础所需要的昂贵费用。
当时车辆的铁质车轮把表层石头碾压成连续的，较为平整的，更加不透水的表面。
早19世纪，货车和客车都采用铁或钢制车轮，这种道路是适用的。
当汽车在20世纪初出现之后，其橡胶轮胎毁坏了这种平整的路面。
因此，就采用焦油或沥青掺拌碎石，使路面表层更坚固的黏合一起。
现在，遍布全世界的数百万公里的道路采用这种路面。
在20世纪，道路建设基本上仅在两方面进行了改进。
第一种改进是采用混凝土作为磨耗层。
另一种改进则是交通工程，即设计高速的大交通量的、造价经济并且对于车辆和旅客都安全的公路。
交通工程已建成了现代高速公路，这种公路具有限定的入口和最安全的管理。
老式道路常用的拐角形交叉已不使用，而采用互通式立体交叉或其他更为复杂的设计。
现代高速公路通常设有专门的车道，在那里当车辆要驶出公路时可减速驶入时可加速。
应该尽量减少急弯或陡坡，以使能在不减速的情况下连续行驶。
由于单调已被实践证明是对安全有害的，故交通工程甚至要包括道路两旁景观的设计工作。
当开始建设一条新的公路时，被称为推土机的大型运土机械要沿着指定路线平整土地。
平土和填土的运土量都要预先计算出来。
不论在哪里，都要尽可能使移除土壤的挖方量等于就近所需的填方量。
远距离运土是很昂贵的，而经济效益是工程师工作的一个关键方面。
在运完土方并根据道路设计的横断面定形之后，其他机械就为垫层做准备。
其中最主要的一种机械很可能是振动压路机，它被用来压实地面，直至地面能承受将要压在其上的基层及磨耗层传来的重量。
但是在许多情况下，必须用其他材料与土拌和而使土壤稳定。
这种材料可以是沥青，也可以是混凝土浆或者其他物质。
接着是基层，它或者是碎石，或者是用一种稀薄的混凝土铺成，然后才铺磨耗层。
磨耗层可以是一层沥青，也可以是一排排钢筋混凝土板。
混凝土路面必须分段铺设，每段之间留有膨胀缝，使其能在不同气候条件下膨胀和收缩。
铺钢筋混凝土磨耗层的一种方法是在浇筑一部份混凝土之后，再铺钢筋，钢筋通常为格栅状或网栅状。
为了保证良好的粘结，必须在浇筑完底部的后20分钟之内浇完顶层。
另一种方法是先浇筑全部所需厚度的混凝土，然后再将钢筋网按预定的标高压到混凝土当中。
一组总称为混凝土铺路机组的机器通常能以每分钟四分之三米的速度完成所有的工序。
一种新的，称为滑膜铺路机的单机，除了不能铺设钢筋网外，可以完成混凝土铺路机组所能完成的所有工作。
已经研究出了一种新技术，就是先把钢筋网安放就位，然后使机械通过并在钢筋周围浇筑混凝土。
滑膜铺路机能以每分钟大约两米的速度进行工作。
飞机场跑道的施工也按类似的步骤进行，只不过跑道用的水泥板比公路用的要宽的多。
飞机场必须设计的不仅能够承受大型喷气飞机的巨大荷载，而且还要能够承受发动机喷出的强烈的热流。
飞机的冲击系数也不比汽车的大。
公路与飞机场跑道的区别在于尺寸和强度，而不是设计和施工的方法。
如果说大型混凝土高速公路是本世纪的交通奇迹的话，那么铁路就是19世纪的交通奇迹。
在1829发明蒸汽机车以前，人们也知道运用铁路运输。
不过，当时铁路线路的长度只限于马或者其他动物能够拖着重物进行短距离运输的范围内。
这种铁路大部分是和采矿作业一起兴建起来的。
在蒸汽机车成为使用机器之后，建造铁路的热潮迅速兴起，使铁路网络扩展到世界各地。
到1920年，铁路建设的鼎盛时期已经基本结束。
随着汽车的使用日益广泛，重点就转移到公路建设上。
除了有限的改进，诸如电气化等铁路已不再被人们重视。
不过，现在人们对铁路又有了新的认识。
例如，日本人最近开通了从东京到大阪的新干线，其高速列车在正常运行时，平均速度为每小时166公里，并且达到了最高速度为每小时210公里。
甚至在许多铁路都处于不景气状况的美国，特别是在其东部地区，对提供良好服务的兴趣也正在增长。
不仅在美国，而且在其他国家的人们对建立城市快速交通系统也呈现的较大的兴趣。
附件2：外文原文（复印件）Transportation SystemsTransportation has always been one of the most important aspects of civil engineering .one of the great accomplishments of the Roman engineers was the highway system that made rapid communication possible between Rome and the provinces of the empire. The first school that offered training specifically in engineering was the School of Bridges and Highways, established in France in 1747. And in England, Thomas Telford, a roadbuilder, became the first president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1820.Modern highways are still built according to the principles laid down in the eighteenth and early nineteenth cenruries by a Frenchman, Pierre Tresaguet, the Englishman Telford, and a Scot, John L. McAdam. These men designed the first modern roads that had a firm footing, the surface on which the foundstion rested. Their roads also included good drainage and a wearing surface-the top levelthat directly receives the wear of traffic-that could not be penetratated by water. Both Tresaguet and Telford used a heavy foundation of stones, on top of which a base course of lighter crushed stones and a wearing surface of still smaller stones were built up. Their roads were also slightly curved in a crown or camber so that the water would run off. McAdam realized that the soil utself could bear the weight of the road when it was compacted or pressed down, aslong as it remained dry. He wasable therefore to eliminate the heavy cost of the stone foundation by laying a base course of crushed stone on top of a compacted footing. The iron wheels of the carriages of his day ground the stones of the top level into a continually smoother and more watertight surface.These roads were adequate during the nineteenth century when wagons and carriages had tires made of iron or steel. When the automobile appeared at the beginng of the twentieth century, however, its rubber tires broke up the smooth surfaces. Therefore,the top layer was bound together more firmly by mixing the crushed rock with tar or asphalt. Millions of kilometers of roads throughout the world today have this kind of surface.Basically, roadbuilding has improved in only two ways in the twentieeh century. Thefirst improvement involves the use of concrete for the wearing surface. The other is traffic engineering, the design of highways for high-speed, heavy-volume traffic, highways thathat are economical to build and safe for vehicles and their passengers. Traffic engineering has produced the modern express highway that has only limited access and maximum safety controls. The angular intersections common on older roads have been eliminated in favor of interchanges or others with even more complicated designs. Modern express highways usually have special lanes where traffic can either slow down before exiting or speed up upon entering.Extreme curves or steep slopes are minimiced so that the traffic can continue to move without slo wing down. Since monotony has proved to be a safety hacard, tiaffic engineering even includes the landscaping of the borders of the road.When construction on a new highway begins, huge earthmoving machines called bulldocers level the ground along the designated route. The amount of earth to be moved, both in leveling and filling , has been previously calculated. Wherever possible, the amount in a cat where earth is being removed shoule be equlal to the amount needed for a nearby fill. Moving earth form a distant point is extremely expensive, and economy is a critical aspect of an engineer’s work.After the earth has been moved and shaped according to the design of the road, other machines prepare the footing . The most important of these is probably a vibrating roller, which compacts the earth until it can bear the weight of the base course ang wearing surface that will rest on it. In many cases, however, the soil must be stabilized by mixing some other material with it. This may be bitumen or a grout of concrete or some other substance.The base course, which is made of either crushed stone or a layer of thinly-mixed concrete, comes next, the wearing surface, which may be a layer of asphalt or a series of reinforced concrete slabs, is then laid. A concrete surface be laid in segments separated by joints to allow for expansion and contraction under difffering weather conditions. One method of laying a reinforced concrete wearing surface is to put down the steel rods, usually in the form of a grill or mesh, after a certain proportion of the concrete has been poured. The top level must be poured within twenty minutes ofthe pouring of the bottom level to assure proper bonding. Anther method is to pour the entire thickness of concrete and then force the steel mesh down into it to a predetermined level.A group of machines collectively callled a concrete train usually perform these operations at a rate of about three-fourths of a meter per minute. A single new machine called a slipform pawer can perform all the different jobs of a concrete train excep laying the reinforcing mesh. However, a technique has been worked out in which the mesh is held in place before the machine passes over it and pours concrete aroung it . The slipform paver can operate at a rate of about two meters per minute. The construction of airport runways follows similar procedures, except that the slabs in a runway are much wider then those in a highway. Airport runways must also be designed to carry the heavy load of the big modern jumbo jets, as well as to withstanf enormous blastes of heat from the engines of heat form the engines of the aircraft.The impact fatcor is also greater with airplanes than with automobiles. Highways differ form airport runways, however, insize and strength rather than design and construction methods.If huge concrete freeways are the transportation phenomenon of hort this century, then the railroads were the transportation phenomenon of the nineteenth century . Transportation by rail was not unkonw before the invention of steam locomotive in 1892, but rail lines had been limited to the short distances over which horses or other draft animals pulled the load. Most of the lines were bugreat ilt in conjunction with mining operations. After the steam locomotive became a practical machine, a surge of railroad construction rapidly spread a network of railroads across the face of the word.By 1920 the age of railroad building generally seemed to be over. As automobiles came into increasingly wider use, the emphasis shifted to highway consruction. Except for few improvements such as electrification, railroads were neglected. Now, however, there is a renewed interest in railroads. The Japanese for example, have recently opened the Tokaido line between Tokyo and Osaka, with express trains that average 166 kilometers per hiur and reach speeds as high as 210 kilometers per hourin nirmal operation. Even in the United Stares where many of the railroads are in deplorable condition, especially in the eastern part of rhe country, there is an increased in providing better service. There is also considerable interest-not only in the United States but in many other countries as well-in urban rapid transit systems.。