土木工程外文翻译-原文
土木工程毕业设计外文翻译原文+翻译
The bridge crack produced the reason to simply analyseIn recent years, the traffic capital construction of our province gets swift and violent development, all parts have built a large number of concrete bridges. In the course of building and using in the bridge, relevant to influence project quality lead of common occurrence report that bridge collapse even because the crack appears The concrete can be said to " often have illness coming on " while fracturing and " frequently-occurring disease ", often perplex bridge engineers and technicians. In fact , if take certain design and construction measure, a lot of cracks can be overcome and controlled. For strengthen understanding of concrete bridge crack further, is it prevent project from endanger larger crack to try one's best, this text make an more overall analysis , summary to concrete kind and reason of production , bridge of crack as much as possible, in order to design , construct and find out the feasible method which control the crack , get the result of taking precautions against Yu WeiRan.Concrete bridge crack kind, origin cause of formation In fact, the origin cause of formation of the concrete structure crack is complicated and various, even many kinds of factors influence each other , but every crack has its one or several kinds of main reasons produced . The kind of the concrete bridge crack, on its reason to produce, can roughly divide several kinds as follows :(1) load the crack caused Concrete in routine quiet .Is it load to move and crack that produce claim to load the crack under the times of stress bridge, summing up has direct stress cracks , two kinds stress crack onces mainly. Direct stress crack refer to outside load direct crack that stress produce that cause. The reason why the crack produces is as follows, 1, Design the stage of calculating , does not calculate or leaks and calculates partly while calculating in structure; Calculate the model is unreasonable; The structure is supposed and accorded with by strength actually by strength ; Load and calculate or leak and calculate few; Internal force and matching the mistake in computation of muscle; Safety coefficient of structure is not enough. Do not consider the possibility that construct at the time of the structural design; It is insufficientto design the section; It is simply little and assigning the mistake for reinforcing bar to set up; Structure rigidity is insufficient; Construct and deal with improperly; The design drawing can not be explained clearly etc.. 2, Construction stage, does not pile up and construct the machines , material limiting ; Is it prefabricate structure structure receive strength characteristic , stand up , is it hang , transport , install to get up at will to understand; Construct not according to the design drawing, alter the construction order of the structure without authorization , change the structure and receive the strength mode; Do not do the tired intensity checking computations under machine vibration and wait to the structure . 3, Using stage, the heavy-duty vehicle which goes beyond the design load passes the bridge; Receive the contact , striking of the vehicle , shipping; Strong wind , heavy snow , earthquake happen , explode etc.. Stress crack once means the stress of secondary caused by loading outside produces the crack. The reason why the crack produces is as follows, 1, In design outside load function , because actual working state and routine , structure of thing calculate have discrepancy or is it consider to calculate, thus cause stress once to cause the structure to fracture in some position. Two is it join bridge arch foot is it is it assign " X " shape reinforcing bar , cut down this place way , section of size design and cut with scissors at the same time to adopt often to design to cut with scissors, theory calculate place this can store curved square in , but reality should is it can resist curved still to cut with scissors, so that present the crack and cause the reinforcing bar corrosion. 2, Bridge structure is it dig trough , turn on hole , set up ox leg ,etc. to need often, difficult to use a accurate one diagrammatic to is it is it calculate to imitate to go on in calculating in routine, set up and receive the strength reinforcing bar in general foundation experience. Studies have shown , after being dug the hole by the strength component , it will produce the diffraction phenomenon that strength flows, intensive near the hole in a utensil, produced the enormous stress to concentrate. In long to step prestressing force of the continuous roof beam , often block the steel bunch according to the needs of section internal force in stepping, set up the anchor head, but can often see the crack in the anchor firm section adjacent place. So if deal with improper, in corner or component form sudden change office , block place to be easy to appear crack strengthreinforcing bar of structure the. In the actual project, stress crack once produced the most common reason which loads the crack. Stress crack once belong to one more piece of nature of drawing , splitting off , shearing. Stress crack once is loaded and caused, only seldom calculate according to the routine too, but with modern to calculate constant perfection of means, times of stress crack to can accomplish reasonable checking computations too. For example to such stresses 2 times of producing as prestressing force , creeping ,etc., department's finite element procedure calculates levels pole correctly now, but more difficult 40 years ago. In the design, should pay attention to avoiding structure sudden change (or section sudden change), when it is unable to avoid , should do part deal with , corner for instance, make round horn , sudden change office make into the gradation zone transition, is it is it mix muscle to construct to strengthen at the same time, corner mix again oblique to reinforcing bar , as to large hole in a utensil can set up protecting in the perimeter at the terms of having angle steel. Load the crack characteristic in accordance with loading differently and presenting different characteristics differently. The crack appear person who draw more, the cutting area or the serious position of vibration. Must point out , is it get up cover or have along keep into short crack of direction to appear person who press, often the structure reaches the sign of bearing the weight of strength limit, it is an omen that the structure is destroyed, its reason is often that sectional size is partial and small. Receive the strength way differently according to the structure, the crack characteristic produced is as follows: 1, The centre is drawn. The crack runs through the component cross section , the interval is equal on the whole , and is perpendicular to receiving the strength direction. While adopting the whorl reinforcing bar , lie in the second-class crack near the reinforcing bar between the cracks. 2, The centre is pressed. It is parallel on the short and dense parallel crack which receive the strength direction to appear along the component. 3, Receive curved. Most near the large section from border is it appear and draw into direction vertical crack to begin person who draw curved square, and develop toward neutralization axle gradually. While adopting the whorl reinforcing bar , can see shorter second-class crack among the cracks. When the structure matches muscles less, there are few but wide cracks, fragility destruction may take place in thestructure 4, Pressed big and partial. Heavy to press and mix person who draw muscle a less one light to pigeonhole into the component while being partial while being partial, similar to receiving the curved component. 5, Pressed small and partial. Small to press and mix person who draw muscle a more one heavy to pigeonhole into the component while being partial while being partial, similar to the centre and pressed the component. 6, Cut. Press obliquly when the hoop muscle is too dense and destroy, the oblique crack which is greater than 45?? direction appears along the belly of roof beam end; Is it is it is it destroy to press to cut to happen when the hoop muscle is proper, underpart is it invite 45?? direction parallel oblique crack each other to appear along roof beam end. 7, Sprained. Component one side belly appear many direction oblique crack, 45?? of treaty, first, and to launch with spiral direction being adjoint. 8, Washed and cut. 4 side is it invite 45?? direction inclined plane draw and split to take place along column cap board, form the tangent plane of washing. 9, Some and is pressed. Some to appear person who press direction roughly parallel large short cracks with pressure.(2) crack caused in temperature changeThe concrete has nature of expanding with heat and contract with cold, look on as the external environment condition or the structure temperature changes, concrete take place out of shape, if out of shape to restrain from, produce the stress in the structure, produce the temperature crack promptly when exceeding concrete tensile strength in stress. In some being heavy to step foot-path among the bridge , temperature stress can is it go beyond living year stress even to reach. The temperature crack distinguishes the main characteristic of other cracks will be varied with temperature and expanded or closed up. The main factor is as follows, to cause temperature and change 1, Annual difference in temperature. Temperature is changing constantly in four seasons in one year, but change relatively slowly, the impact on structure of the bridge is mainly the vertical displacement which causes the bridge, can prop up seat move or set up flexible mound ,etc. not to construct measure coordinate , through bridge floor expansion joint generally, can cause temperature crack only when the displacement of the structure is limited, for example arched bridge , just bridge etc. The annual difference in temperature of our country generally changes therange with the conduct of the average temperature in the moon of January and July. Considering the creep characteristic of the concrete, the elastic mould amount of concrete should be considered rolling over and reducing when the internal force of the annual difference in temperature is calculated. 2, Rizhao. After being tanned by the sun by the sun to the side of bridge panel , the girder or the pier, temperature is obviously higher than other position, the temperature gradient is presented and distributed by the line shape . Because of restrain oneself function, cause part draw stress to be relatively heavy, the crack appears. Rizhao and following to is it cause structure common reason most , temperature of crack to lower the temperature suddenly 3, Lower the temperature suddenly. Fall heavy rain , cold air attack , sunset ,etc. can cause structure surface temperature suddenly dropped suddenly, but because inside temperature change relatively slow producing temperature gradient. Rizhao and lower the temperature internal force can adopt design specification or consult real bridge materials go on when calculating suddenly, concrete elastic mould amount does not consider converting into and reducing 4, Heat of hydration. Appear in the course of constructing, the large volume concrete (thickness exceeds 2. 0), after building because cement water send out heat, cause inside very much high temperature, the internal and external difference in temperature is too large, cause the surface to appear in the crack. Should according to actual conditions in constructing, is it choose heat of hydration low cement variety to try one's best, limit cement unit's consumption, reduce the aggregate and enter the temperature of the mould , reduce the internal and external difference in temperature, and lower the temperature slowly , can adopt the circulation cooling system to carry on the inside to dispel the heat in case of necessity, or adopt the thin layer and build it in succession in order to accelerate dispelling the heat. 5, The construction measure is improper at the time of steam maintenance or the winter construction , the concrete is sudden and cold and sudden and hot, internal and external temperature is uneven , apt to appear in the crack. 6, Prefabricate T roof beam horizontal baffle when the installation , prop up seat bury stencil plate with transfer flat stencil plate when welding in advance, if weld measure to be improper, iron pieces of nearby concrete easy to is it fracture to burn. Adopt electric heat piece draw law piece draw prestressing force at the component ,prestressing force steel temperature can rise to 350 degrees Centigrade , the concrete component is apt to fracture. Experimental study indicates , are caused the intensity of concrete that the high temperature burns to obviously reduce with rising of temperature by such reasons as the fire ,etc., glueing forming the decline thereupon of strength of reinforcing bar and concrete, tensile strength drop by 50% after concrete temperature reaches 300 degrees Centigrade, compression strength drops by 60%, glueing the strength of forming to drop by 80% of only round reinforcing bar and concrete; Because heat, concrete body dissociate ink evaporate and can produce and shrink sharply in a large amount(3) shrink the crack causedIn the actual project, it is the most common because concrete shrinks the crack caused. Shrink kind in concrete, plasticity shrink is it it shrinks (is it contract to do ) to be the main reason that the volume of concrete out of shape happens to shrink, shrink spontaneously in addition and the char shrink. Plasticity shrink. About 4 hours after it is built that in the course of constructing , concrete happens, the cement water response is fierce at this moment, the strand takes shape gradually, secrete water and moisture to evaporate sharply, the concrete desiccates and shrinks, it is at the same time conduct oneself with dignity not sinking because aggregate,so when harden concrete yet,it call plasticity shrink. The plasticity shrink producing amount grade is very big, can be up to about 1%. If stopped by the reinforcing bar while the aggregate sinks, form the crack along the reinforcing bar direction. If web , roof beam of T and roof beam of case and carry baseplate hand over office in component vertical to become sectional place, because sink too really to superficial obeying the web direction crack will happen evenly before hardenning. For reducing concrete plasticity shrink,it should control by water dust when being construct than,last long-time mixing, unloading should not too quick, is it is it take closely knit to smash to shake, vertical to become sectional place should divide layer build. Shrink and shrink (do and contract). After the concrete is formed hard , as the top layer moisture is evaporated progressively , the humidity is reduced progressively , the volume of concrete is reduced, is called and shrunk to shrink (do and contract). Because concrete top layermoisture loss soon, it is slow for inside to lose, produce surface shrink heavy , inside shrink a light one even to shrink, it is out of shape to restrain from by the inside concrete for surface to shrink, cause the surface concrete to bear pulling force, when the surface concrete bears pulling force to exceed its tensile strength, produce and shrink the crack. The concrete hardens after-contraction to just shrink and shrink mainly .Such as mix muscle rate heavy component (exceed 3% ), between reinforcing bar and more obvious restraints relatively that concrete shrink, the concrete surface is apt to appear in the full of cracks crackle. Shrink spontaneously. Spontaneous to it shrinks to be concrete in the course of hardenning , cement and water take place ink react, the shrink with have nothing to do by external humidity, and can positive (whether shrink, such as ordinary portland cement concrete), can negative too (whether expand, such as concrete, concrete of slag cement and cement of fly ash). The char shrinks. Between carbon dioxide and hyrate of cement of atmosphere take place out of shape shrink that chemical reaction cause. The char shrinks and could happen only about 50% of humidity, and accelerate with increase of the density of the carbon dioxide. The char shrinks and seldom calculates . The characteristic that the concrete shrinks the crack is that the majority belongs to the surface crack, the crack is relatively detailed in width , and criss-cross, become the full of cracks form , the form does not have any law . Studies have shown , influence concrete shrink main factor of crack as follows, 1, Variety of cement , grade and consumption. Slag cement , quick-hardening cement , low-heat cement concrete contractivity are relatively high, ordinary cement , volcanic ash cement , alumina cement concrete contractivity are relatively low. Cement grade low in addition, unit volume consumption heavy rubing detailed degree heavy, then the concrete shrinks the more greatly, and shrink time is the longer. For example, in order to improve the intensity of the concrete , often adopt and increase the cement consumption method by force while constructing, the result shrinks the stress to obviously strengthen . 2, Variety of aggregate. Such absorbing water rates as the quartz , limestone , cloud rock , granite , feldspar ,etc. are smaller, contractivity is relatively low in the aggregate; And such absorbing water rates as the sandstone , slate , angle amphibolite ,etc. are greater, contractivity is relatively high. Aggregate grains of foot-path heavy to shrink light inaddition, water content big to shrink the larger. 3, Water gray than. The heavier water consumption is, the higher water and dust are, the concrete shrinks the more greatly. 4, Mix the pharmaceutical outside. It is the better to mix pharmaceutical water-retaining property outside, then the concrete shrinks the smaller. 5, Maintain the method . Water that good maintenance can accelerate the concrete reacts, obtain the intensity of higher concrete. Keep humidity high , low maintaining time to be the longer temperature when maintaining, then the concrete shrinks the smaller. Steam maintain way than maintain way concrete is it take light to shrink naturall. 6, External environment. The humidity is little, the air drying , temperature are high, the wind speed is large in the atmosphere, then the concrete moisture is evaporated fast, the concrete shrinks the faster. 7, Shake and smash the way and time. Machinery shake way of smashing than make firm by ramming or tamping way concrete contractivity take little by hand. Shaking should determine according to mechanical performance to smash time , are generally suitable for 55s / time. It is too short, shake and can not smash closely knit , it is insufficient or not even in intensity to form the concrete; It is too long, cause and divide storey, thick aggregate sinks to the ground floor, the upper strata that the detailed aggregate stays, the intensity is not even , the upper strata incident shrink the crack. And shrink the crack caused to temperature, worthy of constructing the reinforcing bar againing can obviously improve the resisting the splitting of concrete , structure of especially thin wall (thick 200cm of wall ). Mix muscle should is it adopt light diameter reinforcing bar (8 |? construct 14 |? ) to have priority , little interval assign (whether @ 10 construct @ 15cm ) on constructing, the whole section is it mix muscle to be rate unsuitable to be lower than 0 to construct. 3%, can generally adopt 0 . 3%~0. 5%.(4), crack that causes out of shape of plinth of the groundBecause foundation vertical to even to subside or horizontal direction displacement, make the structure produce the additional stress, go beyond resisting the ability of drawing of concrete structure, cause the structure to fracture. The even main reason that subside of the foundation is as follows, 1, Reconnoitres the precision and is not enough for , test the materials inaccuratly in geology. Designing, constructing without fully grasping the geological situation, this is the main reason that cause the ground not to subside evenly .Such as hills area or bridge, district of mountain ridge,, hole interval to be too far when reconnoitring, and ground rise and fall big the rock, reconnoitring the report can't fully reflect the real geological situation . 2, The geological difference of the ground is too large. Building it in the bridge of the valley of the ditch of mountain area, geology of the stream place and place on the hillside change larger, even there are weak grounds in the stream, because the soil of the ground does not causes and does not subside evenly with the compressing. 3, The structure loads the difference too big. Under the unanimous terms, when every foundation too heavy to load difference in geological situation, may cause evenly to subside, for example high to fill out soil case shape in the middle part of the culvert than to is it take heavy to load both sides, to subside soon heavy than both sides middle part, case is it might fracture to contain 4, The difference of basic type of structure is great. Unite it in the bridge the samly , mix and use and does not expand the foundation and a foundation with the foundation, or adopt a foundation when a foot-path or a long difference is great at the same time , or adopt the foundation of expanding when basis elevation is widely different at the same time , may cause the ground not to subside evenly too 5, Foundation built by stages. In the newly-built bridge near the foundation of original bridge, if the half a bridge about expressway built by stages, the newly-built bridge loads or the foundation causes the soil of the ground to consolidate again while dealing with, may cause and subside the foundation of original bridge greatly 6, The ground is frozen bloatedly. The ground soil of higher moisture content on terms that lower than zero degree expands because of being icy; Once temperature goes up , the frozen soil is melted, the setting of ground. So the ground is icy or melts causes and does not subside evenly . 7, Bridge foundation put on body, cave with stalactites and stalagmites, activity fault,etc. of coming down at the bad geology, may cause and does not subside evenly . 8, After the bridge is built up , the condition change of original ground . After most natural grounds and artificial grounds are soaked with water, especially usually fill out such soil of special ground as the soil , loess , expanding in the land ,etc., soil body intensity meet water drop, compress out of shape to strengthen. In the soft soil ground , season causes the water table to drop to draw water or arid artificially, the ground soil layer consolidates and sinks again,reduce the buoyancy on the foundation at the same time , shouldering the obstruction of rubing to increase, the foundation is carried on one's shoulder or back and strengthened .Some bridge foundation is it put too shallow to bury, erode , is it dig to wash flood, the foundation might be moved. Ground load change of terms, bridge nearby is it is it abolish square , grit ,etc. in a large amount to put to pile with cave in , landslide ,etc. reason for instance, it is out of shape that the bridge location range soil layer may be compressed again. So, the condition of original ground change while using may cause and does not subside evenly Produce the structure thing of horizontal thrust to arched bridge ,etc., it is the main reason that horizontal displacement crack emerges to destroy the original geological condition when to that it is unreasonable to grasp incompletely , design and construct in the geological situation.桥梁裂缝产生原因浅析近年来，我省交通基础建设得到迅猛发展，各地建立了大量的混凝土桥梁。
(完整)土木工程外文翻译
原文Prestressed ConcreteConcrete is strong in compression， but weak in tension： Its tensile strength varies from 8 to 14 percent of its compressive strength。
Due to such a low tensile capacity， flexural cracks develop at early stages of loading. In order to reduce or prevent such cracks from developing， a concentric or eccentric force is imposed in the longitudinal direction of the structural element. This force prevents the cracks from developing by eliminating or considerably reducing the tensile stresses at the critical midspan and support sections at service load, thereby raising the bending, shear， and torsional capacities of the sections。
The sections are then able to behave elastically， and almost the full capacity of the concrete in compression can be efficiently utilized across the entire depth of the concrete sections when all loads act on the structure.Such an imposed longitudinal force is called a prestressing force， i.e., a compressive force that prestresses the sections along the span of the structural element prior to the application of the transverse gravity dead and live loads or transient horizontal live loads。
土木工程英文文献及翻译
Civil engineeringCivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,[4] surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.History of the civil engineering professionSee also: History of structural engineeringEngineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[7]The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), theAppian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5]The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6]In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[8] The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[9] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[10] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatchin 1905.History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[12]One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[13]Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of thesub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[14]While anUndergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.[15]In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".[16]This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[17]In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[18] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, thecharge of criminal negligence.[citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.CareersThere is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering toresidential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction翻译：土木工程土木工程是一个专业的工程学科，包括设计，施工和维护与环境的改造，涉及了像桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市或城市工程，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，勘测和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次：从市政府到国家，从私人部门到国际公司。
土木工程专业外文文献及翻译
土木工程专业外文文献及翻译外文文献及翻译学号：学校代码：（二〇一二年六月题目： About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名：学院：土木工程学院系别：建筑工程系专业：土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班级：土木08-4班指导教师：英文原文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread e某istencebut again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this te某t carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiarcrack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concretethe circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mi某ture but formation of the inaddition material of quality brittleness not andall the concrete construction transform with oneself,control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete e某istence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is e某actly because these beginning start blemish of e某istencejust make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of e某pand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of e某istence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of e某ternal appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly ofthe scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope reinforced concrete norm is also e某plicit provision:Some structure at place ofdissimilarity under the condition allow e某istence certain the crack of at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don'tappear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention Suo crack and preventionSu constringency crack and preventionto sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation kind crack manyis deep enter or pierce through se某 crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 ° Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion width under the influence of temperature variety foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.crack and prevention。
土木工程专业英语带译文
Chapter 6
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
6. —We shall finish the civil work by the end of the year. 在年底前我们将完成土建工作。 —Cement steel and timber are the most important construction materials used in civil engineering. 水泥、钢材和木材是土建工程中最重要的建筑材料。 7. These are the anchor bolts (rivets, unfinished bolts, high-strength structural bolts) for the structure. 这是用于结构的锚定螺栓（铆钉、粗制螺栓、高强度结构用螺栓）。
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Reinforced Concrete
土木工程--外文文献翻译
土木工程--外文文献翻译-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1学院：专业：土木工程姓名：学号：外文出处： Structural Systems to resist (用外文写)Lateral loads附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。
确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。
这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。
实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。
如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1.抗弯矩框架。
2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。
3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。
4.筒中框架。
5.筒中筒结构。
6.核心交互结构。
7. 框格体系或束筒体系。
特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。
而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。
将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。
其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。
这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。
正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。
无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。
虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。
设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。
土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译土木工程师建造道路、桥梁、隧道、水坝、港口、发电厂、水和污水系统、医院、学校、大众交通和其他对现代社会和大量人口集中地区至关重要的公共设施。
他们还建造私人拥有的设施，如机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼和其他为工业、商业或住宅使用而设计的大型结构。
此外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城市和城镇，最近还在规划和设计太空平台，以容纳自给自足的社区。
___ passes the planning。
design。
n。
and management of the built ___ scientific principles。
from ___ are essential to modern society。
such as roads。
bridges。
___。
dams。
and hospitals.___ public facilities。
civil engineers also design and build privately-owned structures。
including airports。
railroads。
pipelines。
skyscrapers。
and other ___。
and ___.Overall。
___ civil engineers。
our modern infrastructure and public facilities would not exist.___。
n。
and maintenance of public and private infrastructure。
This includes roads。
bridges。
pipelines。
dams。
ports。
power plants。
water supply and sewage systems。
hospitals。
schools。
___。
and other structures that are essential to modern ___ as airports。
土木工程外文翻译-原文
外文原文Response of a reinforced concrete infilled—frame structure to removal of twoadjacent columnsMehrdad Sasani_Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center，Boston，MA 02115, UnitedStatesReceived 27 June 2007；received in revised form 26 December 2007；accepted 24January 2008Available online 19 March 2008AbstractThe response of Hotel San Diego，a six—story reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure，is evaluated following the simultaneous removal of two adjacent exterior columns. Analytical models of the structure using the Finite Element Method as well as the Applied Element Method are used to calculate global and local deformations. The analytical results show good agreement with experimental data. The structure resisted progressive collapse with a measured maximum vertical displacement of only one quarter of an inch （6.4 mm）。
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外文原文Response of a reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure to removal of twoadjacent columnsMehrdad Sasani_Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, Boston, MA 02115, UnitedStatesReceived 27 June 2007; received in revised form 26 December 2007; accepted 24January 2008Available online 19 March 2008AbstractThe response of Hotel San Diego, a six-story reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure, is evaluated following the simultaneous removal of two adjacent exterior columns. Analytical models of the structure using the Finite Element Method as well as the Applied Element Method are used to calculate global and local deformations. The analytical results show good agreement with experimental data. The structure resisted progressive collapse with a measured maximum vertical displacement of only one quarter of an inch (6.4 mm). Deformation propagation over the height of the structure and the dynamic load redistribution following the column removal are experimentally and analytically evaluated and described. The difference between axial and flexural wave propagations is discussed. Three-dimensional Vierendeel (frame) action of the transverse and longitudinal frames with the participation of infill walls is identified as the major mechanism for redistribution of loads in the structure. The effects of two potential brittle modes of failure (fracture of beam sections without tensile reinforcement and reinforcing bar pull out) are described. The response of the structure due to additional gravity loads and in the absence of infill walls is analytically evaluated.c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Progressive collapse; Load redistribution; Load resistance; Dynamic response; Nonlinear analysis; Brittle failure1.IntroductionThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computation al methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which accor ding to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials u sed, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also prop ortional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as un serviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was desi gned for. There are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing cap acity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of t he geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. E xamples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early o r excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety co nditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random para meters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational meth ods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some u seful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses. (2)Probabilistic meth ods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combin ed to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabri cation and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the str ucture ); (2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( fa ults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure; (4)U ncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ). Furthermore, probabilistic theories me an that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure; (2)Numbe r of human lives which can be threatened by this failure; (3)Possibility and/or likeliho od of repairing the structure; (4) Predicted life of the structure. All these factors are rel ated to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows constructio n at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of mat erials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. F urthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on t he cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the mate rial and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The seco nd is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assump tions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) . As part of mitigation programs to reduce the likelihood of mass casualties following local damage in structures, the General Services Administration [1] and the Department of Defense [2] developed regulations to evaluate progressive collapse resistance of structures. ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines progressive collapse as the spread of an initial local failure from element to element eventually resulting in collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it. Following the approaches proposed by Ellinwood and Leyendecker [4], ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines two general methods for structural design of buildings to mitigate damage due to progressive collapse: indirect and direct design methods. General building codes and standards [3,5] use indirect design by increasing overall integrity of structures. Indirect design is also used in DOD [2]. Although the indirect design method can reduce the risk of progressive collapse [6,7] estimation of post-failure performance of structures designed based on such a method is not readily possible. One approach based on direct design methods to evaluate progressive collapse of structures is to study the effects of instantaneous removal of load-bearing elements, such as columns. GSA [1] and DOD [2] regulations require removal of one load bearing element. These regulations are meant to evaluate general integrity of structures and their capacity of redistributing the loads following severe damage to only one element. While such an approach provides insight as to the extent to which the structures are susceptible to progressive collapse, in reality, the initial damage can affect more than just one column. In this study, using analytical results that are verified against experimental data, the progressive collapse resistance of the Hotel San Diego is evaluated, following the simultaneous explosion (sudden removal) of two adjacent columns, one of which was a corner column. In order to explode the columns, explosives were inserted into predrilled holes in the columns. The columns were then well wrapped with a few layers of protective materials. Therefore, neither air blast nor flying fragments affected the structure.2. Building characteristicsHotel San Diego was constructed in 1914 with a south annex added in 1924. The annex included two separate buildings. Fig. 1 shows a south view of the hotel. Note that in the picture, the first and third stories of the hotel are covered with black fabric. The six story hotel had a non-ductile reinforced concrete (RC) frame structure with hollow clay tile exterior infill walls. The infills in the annex consisted of two withes (layers) of clay tiles with a total thickness of about 8 in (203 mm). The height of the first floor was about 190–800 (6.00 m). The height of other floors and that of the top floor were 100–600 (3.20 m) and 160–1000 (5.13 m), respectively. Fig. 2 shows the second floor of one of the annex buildings. Fig. 3 shows a typical plan of this building, whose response following the simultaneous removal (explosion) of columns A2 and A3 in the first (ground) floor is evaluated in this paper. The floor system consisted of one-way joists running in the longitudinal direction (North–South), as shown in Fig. 3. Based on compression tests of two concrete samples, the average concrete compressive strength was estimated at about 4500 psi (31 MPa) for a standard concrete cylinder. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was estimated at 3820 ksi (26 300 MPa) [5]. Also, based on tension tests of two steel samples having 1/2 in (12.7 mm) square sections, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths were found to be 62 ksi (427 MPa) and 87 ksi (600 MPa), respectively. The steel ultimate tensile strain was measured at 0.17. The modulus of elasticity of steel was set equal to 29 000 ksi (200000 MPa). The building was scheduled to be demolished by implosion. As part of the demolition process, the infill walls were removed from the first and third floors. There was no live load in the building. All nonstructural elements including partitions, plumbing, and furniture were removed prior to implosion. Only beams, columns, joist floor and infill walls on the peripheralbeams were present.3. SensorsConcrete and steel strain gages were used to measure changes in strains of beams and columns. Linear potentiometers were used to measure global and local deformations. The concrete strain gages were 3.5 in (90 mm) long having a maximum strain limit of ±0.02. The steel strain gages could measure up to a strain of ±0.20. The strain gages could operate up to a several hundred kHz sampling rate. The sampling rate used in the experiment was 1000 Hz. Potentiometers were used to capture rotation (integral of curvature over a length) of the beam end regions and global displacement in the building, as described later. The potentiometers had a resolution of about 0.0004 in (0.01 mm) and a maximum operational speed of about 40 in/s (1.0 m/s), while the maximum recorded speed in the experiment was about 14 in/s (0.35m/s).4. Finite element modelUsing the finite element method (FEM), a model of the building was developed in the SAP2000 [8] computer program. The beams and columns are modeled with Bernoulli beam elements. Beams have T or L sections with effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Plastic hinges are assigned to all possible locations where steel bar yielding can occur, including the ends of elements as well as the reinforcing bar cut-off and bend locations. The characteristics of the plastic hinges are obtained using section analyses of the beams and columns and assuming a plastic hinge length equal to half of the section depth. The current version of SAP2000 [8] is not able to track formation of cracks in the elements. In order to find the proper flexural stiffness of sections, an iterative procedure is used as follows. First, the building is analyzed assuming all elements are uncracked. Then, moment demands in the elements are compared with their cracking bending moments, Mcr . The moment of inertia of beam and slab segments are reduced by a coefficient of 0.35 [5], where the demand exceeds the Mcr. The exteriorbeam cracking bending moments under negative and positive moments, are 516 k in (58.2 kN m) and 336 k in (37.9 kN m), respectively. Note that no cracks were formed in the columns. Then the building is reanalyzed and moment diagrams are re-evaluated. This procedure is repeated until all of the cracked regions are properly identified and modeled.The beams in the building did not have top reinforcing bars except at the end regions (see Fig. 4). For instance, no top reinforcement was provided beyond the bend in beam A1–A2, 12 inches away from the face of column A1 (see Figs. 4 and 5). To model the potential loss of flexural strength in those sections, localized crack hinges were assigned at the critical locations where no top rebar was present. Flexural strengths of the hinges were set equal to Mcr. Such sections were assumed to lose their flexural strength when the imposed bending moments reached Mcr.The floor system consisted of joists in the longitudinal direction (North–South). Fig. 6 shows the cross section of a typical floor. In order to account for potential nonlinear response of slabs and joists, floors are molded by beam elements. Joists are modeled with T-sections, having effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Given the large joist spacing between axes 2 and 3, two rectangular beam elements with 20-inch wide sections are used between the joist and the longitudinal beams of axes 2 and 3 to model the slab in the longitudinal direction. To model the behavior of the slab in the transverse direction, equally spaced parallel beams with 20-inch wide rectangular sections are used. There is a difference between the shear flow in the slab and that in the beam elements with rectangular sections modeling the slab. Because of this, the torsional stiffness is setequal to one-half of that of the gross sections [9].The building had infill walls on 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th floors on the spandrel beamswith some openings (i.e. windows and doors). As mentioned before and as part of the demolition procedure, the infill walls in the 1st and 3rd floors were removed before the test. The infill walls were made of hollow clay tiles, which were in good condition. The net area of the clay tiles was about 1/2 of the gross area. The in-plane action of the infill walls contributes to the building stiffness and strength and affects the building response. Ignoring the effects of the infill walls and excluding them in the model would result in underestimating the building stiffness and strength.Using the SAP2000 computer program [8], two types of modeling for the infills are considered in this study: one uses two dimensional shell elements (Model A) and the other uses compressive struts (Model B) as suggested in FEMA356 [10] guidelines.4.1. Model A (infills modeled by shell elements)Infill walls are modeled with shell elements. However, the current version of the SAP2000 computer program includes only linear shell elements and cannot account for cracking. The tensile strength of the infill walls is set equal to 26 psi, with a modulus of elasticity of 644 ksi [10]. Because the formation ofcracks has a significant effect on the stiffness of the infill walls, the following iterative procedure is used to account for crack formation:(1) Assuming the infill walls are linear and uncracked, a nonlinear time history analysis is run. Note that plastic hinges exist in the beam elements and the segments of the beam elements where moment demand exceeds the cracking moment have a reduced moment of inertia.(2) The cracking pattern in the infill wall is determined by comparing stresses in the shells developed during the analysis with the tensile strength of infills.(3) Nodes are separated at the locations where tensile stress exceeds tensile strength. These steps are continued until the crack regions are properly modeled.4.2. Model B (infills modeled by struts)Infill walls are replaced with compressive struts as described in FEMA 356 [10] guidelines. Orientations of the struts are determined from the deformed shape of the structure after column removal and the location of openings.4.3. Column removalRemoval of the columns is simulated with the following procedure.(1) The structure is analyzed under the permanent loads and the internal forces are determined at the ends of the columns, which will be removed.(2) The model is modified by removing columns A2 and A3 on the first floor. Again the structure is statically analyzed under permanent loads. In this case, the internal forces at the ends of removed columns found in the first step are applied externally to the structure along with permanent loads. Note that the results of this analysis are identical to those of step 1.(3) The equal and opposite column end forces that were applied in the second step are dynamically imposed on the ends of the removed column within one millisecond [11] to simulate the removal of the columns, and dynamic analysis is conducted.4.4. Comparison of analytical and experimental resultsThe maximum calculated vertical displacement of the building occurs at joint A3 inthe second floor. Fig. 7 shows the experimental and analytical (Model A) vertical displacements of this joint (the AEM results will be discussed in the next section). Experimental data is obtained using the recordings of three potentiometers attached to joint A3 on one of their ends, and to the ground on the other ends. The peak displacements obtained experimentally and analytically (Model A) are 0.242 in (6.1 mm) and 0.252 in (6.4 mm), respectively, which differ only by about 4%. The experimental and analytical times corresponding to peak displacement are 0.069 s and 0.066 s, respectively. The analytical results show a permanent displacement of about 0.208 in (5.3 mm), which is about 14% smaller than the corresponding experimental value of 0.242 in (6.1 mm).Fig. 8 compares vertical displacement histories of joint A3 in the second floor estimated analytically based on Models A and B. As can be seen, modeling infills with struts (Model B) results in a maximum vertical displacement of joint A3 equal to about 0.45 in (11.4 mm), which is approximately 80% larger than the value obtained from Model A. Note that the results obtained from Model A are in close agreement with experimental results (see Fig. 7), while Model B significantly overestimates the deformation of the structure. If the maximum vertical displacement were larger, the infill walls were more severely cracked and the struts were more completely formed, the difference between the results of the two models (Models A and B) would be smaller.Fig. 9 compares the experimental and analytical (Model A) displacement of joint A2 in the second floor. Again, while the first peak vertical displacement obtained experimentally and analytically are in good agreement, the analytical permanent displacement under estimates the experimental value.Analytically estimated deformed shapes of the structure at the maximum vertical displacement based on Model A are shown in Fig. 10 with a magnification factor of 200. The experimentally measured deformed shape over the end regions of beamsA1–A2 and A3–B3 in the second floorare represented in the figure by solid lines. A total of 14 potentiometers were located at the top and bottom of the end regions of the second floor beams A1–A2 and A3–B3, which were the most critical elements in load redistribution. The beam top and corresponding bottom potentiometer recordings were used to calculate rotation between the sections where the potentiometer ends were connected. This was done by first finding the difference between the recorded deformations at the top and bottom of the beam, and then dividing the value by the distance (along the height of the beam section) between the two potentiometers. The expected deformed shapes between the measured end regions of the second floor beams are shown by dashed lines. As can be seen in the figures, analytically estimated deformed shapes of the beams are in good agreement with experimentally obtained deformed shapes.Analytical results of Model A show that only two plastic hinges are formed indicating rebar yielding. Also, four sections that did not have negative (top) reinforcement, reached cracking moment capacities and therefore cracked. Fig. 10 shows the locations of all the formed plastic hinges and cracks.。