耶鲁大学-心理学导论class05
耶鲁大学开放课程
耶鲁大学开放课程1。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：聆听音乐》(Open Yale course：Listening to Music)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2832525/2。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：基础物理》(Open Yale course：Fundamentals ofPhysics)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2834907/3。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：生物医学工程探索》(Open Yale course：Frontiers of Biomedical Engineering) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2834278/4。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：1871年后的法国》(Open Yale course：France Since 1871) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2835256/5。
《耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡》(Open Yale course—Philosophy：Death) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2824902/6。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：金融市场》(Open Yale course：Financial Markets)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2830134/7。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论》(Open Yale course：Introduction to Psychology) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2827597/8。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：博弈论》(Open Yale course：Game Theory)[YYeTs人人影视出品] [中英双语字幕]/topics/2832107/9。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：1648-1945年的欧洲文明》(Open Yale course：European Civiliza tion,1648-1945) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2832611/10。
耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录
耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录Paul Bloom教授：欢迎来到《心理学导论》课堂。
我是Paul Bloom博士，这堂课的讲师。
本课程将对人类心理学进行全面的介绍，课程涉及内容广泛，包括大脑、儿童、语言、性、记忆、疯狂、作呕、种族歧视和爱，以及其他方面。
我们要讨论一些内容，例如，为什么会有男女差别？动物能否学会语言？是什么让我们作呕？为什么我们当中有些人暴饮暴食，如何纠正？为什么有人会发疯？为什么一些人会变得抑郁而其他人不会？《心理学导论》是讲什么的？与其他课程不同的是，一些人是带着特殊目的来学习这门课的。
或许你觉得你疯了，希望能减轻这种症状；或许你想了解怎样提高学习成绩，怎样改善性生活，怎样实现理想，或是怎样结交朋友以及影响他人【笑】。
这些原因都不无道理，除了改善性生活，这门课确实能帮到你不少。
学习科学心理学能增加你对与我们日常生活所发生的问题息息相关的现实世界的了解。
当遇到这些问题时，我会强调这些问题，并希望你们思考我接下来要讲的这些实验室里的研究工作对你的日常生活会产生多大影响，包括你如何学习，如何与人交往，你如何说服别人接受另一种观点，怎样的治疗对你最有效。
我认为你从这门课程学到的东西要远比你想象的有趣得多。
首先我们要介绍一个最重要的话题：我们。
人类的大脑是怎样工作的？我们怎样思考？是什么使我们成为现在这样的人？我们将从几方面来讲授这些内容。
心理学通常分为五个板块：1、神经科学，通过观察、了解大脑的反应来研究心理学。
2、发展心理学，这是我重点研究的领域，研究人们如何成长、发育和学习。
3、认知心理学，对这个术语一些同学可能不太熟悉，它通过计算机来进行研究，观察并分析人的行为，例如，理解语言、认知物体和做游戏之类。
4、社会心理学，研究人在群体中的行为、交往方式。
5、临床心理学，听到心理学一词时，或许人们第一个想到的就是临床心理学，这部分是研究心理健康和心理疾病的。
Lecture+18(耶鲁大学-心理学导论讲稿)
Lecture 18
Yale University
I am extremely pleased to introduce the fourth and final guest lecture of the semester. Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema. Susan is a professor in the Department of Psychology and the Director of Graduate Studies. She is well known for her work in clinical psychology and especially her research in depression, the nature and causes of people with depression, with special focus on sex differences in depression. She basically does everything someone can do. She is a noted scientist, winning many awards and publishing massive amounts of work in scientific journals. She is an award-winning teacher and has authored what, in my mind, is the very best textbook in her area. And she's a noted popular writer who has written popular and accessible books bringing the message and ideas and theories of clinical psychology to the broader public. The only other thing I'll mention before we welcome her is that she's going to teach next year her course in clinical psychology, which has a superb reputation as an extremely interesting course. If you are interested in what you hear today and you want to learn more about it, that's the course you should take. So, let's please welcome Dr. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema. [applause] Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema: Thank you Paul. Can everybody hear me okay? Okay. So, what I want to do today is to give you a very brief overview of how modern clinical psychology looks at mental disorders, some of the ways we think about what constitutes a mental disorder, some of the characteristics that kind of cut across mental disorders, and then I'm going to use the case of mood disorders, that is depression and what is now called bipolar disorder, what you may know more popularly as manic-depression, as sort of examples of how we think about a particular set of disorders and some of the ways we go about researching the theories -- different theories for the disorders and some of the prominent treatments for disorders these days. Okay? So, I'm going to do both a fair amount of lecturing, and then I've got lots of video clips to show you as well. So, I'm going to be roaming around and changing venues here fairly often. So, the first and most fundamental question in clinical psychology is, "What is abnormality?" Where do we draw the line between normal, healthy, typical behavior and what we might want to call abnormal, atypical, deviant, unhealthy, maladaptive mental problems? We tend to have an intuitive sense of what we mean by abnormality, and we'd like to believe--a lot of people who come into my course say, "Well, of course, you know, you guys have figured it out. You know where to draw the line. You have criteria. You have blood tests, right? --that tell me whether I have depression or schizophrenia or one of the things I've read about." Well, the reality is that we don't. First of all, there is no biological test for any of the known mental disorders right now. And instead what we have is a set of behavioral criteria for how to diagnose different mental disorders. And what I mean by behavioral criteria is a set of symptoms that the person reports to you about how they feel, how they think, and a set of observations about their behavior and how typical or atypical it is. And you take the sort of set of symptoms the person shows or reports, and you match them up against the existing criteria for different mental disorders. And then it comes down to a fairly subjective judgment call about whether the person meets the criteria or not. Unfortunately, these judgment calls, because they are so subjective, can be influenced by a lot of factors. And we won't have a chance to go into these too much today, but just to highlight a few of them. The first is social norms. Whether you get labeled as having a mental disorder or a problem depends very heavily on what your social or cultural norms are. So, a woman wearing a veil in a Muslim community or culture
耶鲁大学心理学导论（第五课）
心理学导论第五课我们这些天所讲的Most of what we do these days,各种方法理论思想our methods, our theories, our ideas,它们的形成都在一定程度上are shaped, to some extent,受到了皮亚杰的影响by Piaget's influence.所以这堂课我想And so, what I want to do is begin this class通过他的理论 that's going to talk about cognitive development来讲讲认知发展by talking about his ideas.皮亚杰认为儿童是主动思考者His idea was that children are active thinkers;他们试图去理解世界they're trying to figure out the world.他常把儿童称为小科学家He often described them as little scientists.我想顺便提一下他为何会去研究儿童And incidentally, to know where he's coming from on this,他有着一个宏伟且远大的目标he had a very dramatic and ambitious goal.他研究的初衷并不是出于对儿童的兴趣He didn't start off because he was interested in children.而是出于He started off他对认识产生的一般规律的兴趣because he was interested in the emergence of knowledge in general.皮亚杰主张发生认识论It was a discipline he described as genetic epistemology 即认识的起源the origins of knowledge.但是由于他深信But he studied development of the individual child个体儿童的发展because he was convinced能够表现出认识发展的一般规律that this development will tell him所以他才选择去研究个体儿童的发展about the development of knowledge more generally.有一个听上去很傲慢的短语There's a very snooty phrase that--不知你们之前是否已经有所耳闻I don't know if you ever heard it before.这是一个很非常了不起的短语It's a great phrase.叫做"胚胎重演律"It's "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny."这个短语的意思是And the idea of this--What that means is个体的发展that development of an individual模拟或重演了种族的发展mimics or repeats development of the species.现在看来这个观点完全错误Now, it's entirely not true,但这却是个美妙的短语but it's a beautiful phrase皮亚杰对此深信不疑and Piaget was committed to this.他常说He was very interested in saying,"只要能够理解儿童如何发展"Look. We'll figure how a kid develops and就能够理解认识发展的一般规律"that will tell us about the development of knowledge more generally."皮亚杰将儿童视为科学家So, Piaget viewed the child as a scientist认为儿童能够形成关于世界的who developed this understanding, these schemas, 一系列看法图示或者说小型理论these little miniature theories of the world.而这一过程可以通过两种机制实现And they did this through two sorts of mechanisms:同化和顺应assimilation and accommodation.同化是指So, assimilation would be the act of expanding反应范围的扩大the range of things that you respond to.皮亚杰举例说Piaget's example would be一个习惯吸吮乳房的婴儿a baby who's used to sucking on a breast可能会去吸吮奶瓶或是拨浪鼓might come to suck on a bottle or on a rattle.这就是在改变反应范围了That's changing the scope of things that you respond to.顺应是改变你的行为方式Accommodation is changing how you do it.婴儿会因为吸吮物体的不同A baby will form his mouth differently而改变他的嘴型depending on what he's sucking on.所以你们听到的这些过程And so, these processes where you take in--我刚才是从生理的角度来谈论这些过程的I'm giving this in a very physical way, 从心理上来讲but in a more psychological sense你拥有一种看待世界的方式you have a way of looking at the world.你将新信息纳入已有的认知结构中You could expand it to encompass new things, 便是同化assimilation.你改变已有的认知结构But you could also change以适应新的环境和信息your system of knowledge itself,便是顺应accommodation.皮亚杰认为这两种学习机制And Piaget argued that these two mechanisms of learning帮助儿童跨越各个阶段drove the child through different stages.他提出了一个阶段理论And he had a stage theory,这个阶段理论与我们之前所介绍的which was quite different from the Freudian stage theory弗洛伊德的阶段理论有着很大的不同that we have been introduced to.他所用的研究方法是So his methods要求儿童解决问题were to ask children to solve problems并询问他们一些问题and to ask them questions.他发现And his discoveries that--儿童在不同的年龄拥有不同的行为方式they did them in different ways at different ages他根据这一发现提出了阶段理论led to the emergence of the Stage Theory.皮亚杰认为第一个阶段 So, for Piaget, the first stage是感知运动阶段is the sensorimotor stage或者说感知运动期or the sensorimotor period.在此阶段儿童只是个纯粹的自然生物For here the child is purely a physical creature.儿童对于外部世界并没有什么真正的认识The child has no understanding in any real way of the external world.他们对于过去There's no understanding of the past,未来稳定差别no understanding of the future, no stability,没有任何的概念no differentiation.儿童只是触摸和观看The child just touches and sees,但还不能进行逻辑推理but doesn't yet reason.在这一阶段儿童逐渐发展起And it's through this stage that a child gradually comes to acquire客体永存性的概念object permanence.客体永存性是指Object permanence is知道某人或某物虽然现在看不见the understanding that things exist但仍然是存在的when you no longer see them.前面的各位So those of you in front,你们看着我躲在这里you're looking at me and I go.如果我突然在后排出现It occurred to me it'd be a great magic trick那就是非常精彩的魔术了if I then appeared in back.但我没动我还在这But no, I'm just here.这就是客体永存性That's object permanence.如果我蹲在这里有人说If I went under here and then the people said,"他去哪了下课了耶""Where the hell did he go? Class is over,"这话就表现出他缺乏客体永存性的概念that would show a lack of object permanence.成年人是拥有客体永存性概念的So, adults have object permanence.皮亚杰认为婴儿并没有这一概念Piaget's very interesting claim is that kids don't.皮亚杰发现在六个月之前Before six-month-olds, Piaget observed,你将婴儿喜欢的物体比如说拨浪鼓you take an object the kid likes like a rattle,藏起来隐藏在某物的后面you hide it, you put it behind something,就像这东西消失了一样it's like it's gone.皮亚杰认为And he claimed婴儿真的会以为the child really thinks他喜欢的东西就这么凭空消失了it's just gone.只要物体从婴儿的视野中消失Things don't continue to exist婴儿就会认为物体已经不存在了when I'm not looking at them anymore.他注意到And so he noticed they--儿童会对捉迷藏感到惊奇they're surprised by peek-a-boo.皮亚杰认为And Piaget's claim was one reason他们对捉迷藏感到惊奇的一个原因便是why they're surprised at peek-a-boo你凭空消失了你看着婴儿is you go-- you look at a kid,婴儿会对你笑然后你和他玩捉迷藏the kid's smiling and go,"躲猫猫""Oh, peek-a-boo,"你用双手遮住了你的脸 and you close--and you cover your face婴儿会以为 "他不见了" and the kid says, "He's gone.""躲猫猫" "哈他回来了""Peek-a-boo." "Oh, there he is. ""他又不见了""He's gone."这就是他的观点了And you really--That's the claim.皮亚杰还发现Piaget also discovered稍大的婴儿无法完成that older children fail at a taskA非B错误任务that's known as the A-not-B task.彼得·格雷在他的心理学教科书中And Peter Gray in his psychology textbook refers to it将这一任务称为"变换藏身地"问题as the "changing hiding places" problem,这可能是个更为恰当的名字which is probably a better name for it.这个任务的内容如下And here's the idea.你找到一个九个月大的婴儿You take a nine-month-old在皮亚杰看来and for Piaget九个月大的婴儿才刚刚发展出a nine-month-old is just starting客体以及客体永存性的概念to make sense of objects and their permanence.你将物体放到这里的一个杯子中You take an object and you put it here in a cup 婴儿看不见这个物体where the kid can't see it,但这个物体是在杯子之中的but it's in the cup.如果你是这个婴儿你便会伸手去拿So the kid, if you were the kid, will reach for it.你再做一遍他会伸手去拿You do it again, reach for it.你再做一遍他还是会伸手去拿You do it again, reach for it.这个地点是AThat's point A.然后你把杯子拿到这边Then you take--you move it over here.皮亚杰观察到Piaget observed婴儿仍然会将手伸向此处 kids would still reach for this.好像他们还不够聪明不能明白It's like they're not smart enough to figure out 物体已经不在那里了that it's not there anymore,即使他们看到物体被拿走了even if they see it move.这更证明了他们并不理解客体的概念And this was more evidence that they just don't understand objects,而这种概念需要通过大量的时间学习and that this thing takes a lot of time and learning才能够掌握to develop.下一个阶段是前运算阶段The next stage is the preoperational stage.开始的时候儿童只能通过生理的方式The child starts off grasping the world 通过感知运动的方式only in a physical way,来认识世界in a sensorimotor way,但是当儿童进入了前运算阶段but when he gets to the preoperational period, 他们便逐渐拥有了表征事物the capacity to represent the world,在头脑中构建世界的能力to have the world inside your head, comes into being.但这种能力是有局限的But it's limited表现在以下几个显著方面and it's limited in a couple of striking ways.局限之一儿童是以自我为中心的One way in which it's limited is that children are egocentric.自我中心这个词在如今的日常英语里Now, egocentrism has a meaning in common English是自私的意思which means to be selfish.皮亚杰对该词的定义则更为专业Piaget meant it in a more technical way.他认为这个年龄的儿童完全没有意识到He claimed that children at this age literally can't understand别人眼中的世界that others can see the world可以与自己看到的世界有所不同differently from them.他的证据之一就是三山实验So, one of his demonstrations was the three mountains task.那里有三座不同的假山模型We have three mountains over there.你让孩子在模型的一边You put a child on one side of the mountains要求他把自己看到的三山模型画出来and you ask him to draw it,四五岁的儿童便能够轻易做到and a four- or five-year-old can do it easily, 但是如果你要求儿童画出but then you ask him to draw it从模型另一边看过去的样子as it would appear from the other side儿童就会觉得非常困难and children find this extraordinarily difficult.他们很难从他人的角度出发来认识世界They find it very difficult to grasp the world as another person might see it.皮亚杰在该发展阶段中的另一个重大发现Another significant finding Piaget had about this phase of development就是"守恒"concerns what's called "conservation."守恒是指物体某方面的特征The notion of conservation is that there's ways to transform things不会因为其他方面特征的改变such that some aspects of them change而有所改变but others remain the same.比如说你有一杯水So, for instance, if you take a glass of water将水倒进另一个更浅或者更深的杯子里and you pour it into another glass that's shallow or tall,含水量并未发生任何改变it won't change the amount of water you have.如果你把一卷硬币全部摊开If you take a bunch of pennies and you spread them out, 你不会得到更多的硬币you don't get more pennies.但皮亚杰认为儿童并不知道会这样But kids, according to Piaget,don't know that 这个概念是非常精彩的证据之一and this is one of the real cool demonstrations.如果你身边有四五岁大的孩子Any of you who have access to a four- or five-year-old,兄弟姐妹什么的a sibling or something--一定要先得到同意再去试验Do not take one without permission,如果你身边有四五岁大的孩子but if you have access to a four- or five-year-old你可以自己去试试you can do this yourself.情况大体上会是这样的This is what it looks like.第一段影片没有声音The first one has no sound.第二段影片的最后会有些声音The second one is going to be sound that's going to come on at the end.这里有两排方格But there's two rows of checkers.她问儿童哪一排更多She asks the kid which one has more.儿童说一样多The kid says they're the same.然后她问现在哪一排更多Then she says--Now she asks him which one has more, 这个还是那个这孩子真笨that or that. So that's really stupid.儿童会这样做这是个令人惊奇的发现And it's an amazing finding kids will do that.也是个生动的发现And it's a robust finding.这是另一个例子Here's another example.它们其实是一样的 So, they're the same.这是该阶段的一个重要发现So, it's a cool finding of that stage,表明儿童在考虑和理解世界的方式上suggesting a limitation in how you deal 存在着局限性and make sense of the world.下一阶段具体运算阶段The next phase, concrete operations,七到十二岁儿童可以解决守恒问题from seven to twelve, you can solve the conservation problem,但儿童的抽象推理能力仍然有限but still you're limited to the extent you're capable of abstract reasoning.因此对于无限这个数学概念So the mathematical notions of infinity or或者是像逻辑蕴涵这样的逻辑概念logical notions like logical entailment 超出了该年龄阶段儿童的理解范围are beyond a child of this age.虽然此时的儿童有能力进行一些逻辑思考The child is able to do a lot,但他们的思维在某种程度上but still it's to some extent仍然是局限于具体情境的stuck in the concrete world.最后大约在十二岁的时候And then finally, at around age twelve,儿童的抽象推理和科学推理能力得以完善you could get abstract and scientific reasoning.这就是皮亚杰理论的大体内容And this is the Piagetian theory in very brief form.皮亚杰要比弗洛伊德或是斯金纳成功很多Now, Piaget fared a lot better than did Freud or Skinner原因有以下几点for several reasons.一个原因是这些是关于儿童发展的One reason is these are interesting and falsifiable claims有趣且可证伪的论断about child development.关于不同年龄阶段的儿童So claims that--about the failure of conservation 缺乏守恒概念的论断in children at different ages能够很轻易的得到系统的检验could be easily tested and systematically tested, 事实上有相当多的证据支持这些论断and in fact, there's a lot of support for them.通过将各种观察结果Piaget had a rich theoretical framework,以不同的方式组合在一起pulling together all sorts of observations皮亚杰的理论内容变得十分丰富in different ways,他写了大量的书籍和论文wrote many, many books and articles丰富了他的理论and articulated his theory very richly.我认为最重要的是他令人震惊的发现And most of all, I think, he had some really striking findings.在皮亚杰之前没有人注意到守恒Before Piaget, nobody noticed these conservation findings.在皮亚杰之前Before Piaget,并没有人注意到婴儿在追踪和理解客体上nobody noticed that babies had this problem存在着守恒的问题tracking and understanding objects.然而与此同时At the same time, however,皮亚杰的理论也有其局限之处there are limitations in Piaget's theory.有些局限是理论上的Some of these limitations are theoretical.问题是It's an interesting question他是否真的解释了as to whether he really explains儿童思维是如何从具体向抽象转变的how a child goes from a concrete thinker to an abstract thinker,或是真的解释了or how he goes from not having object permanence儿童的客体永存性概念是如何从无到有的to understanding object permanence.还有些研究方法上的局限There's methodological limitations.皮亚杰非常热衷用问与答的方法进行研究Piaget was really big into question and answer,但这里存在的一个问题便是but one problem with this is儿童并未能完全掌握语言that children aren't very good with language,这可能会导致你低估他们的理解能力and this might lead you to underestimate how much they know.往往儿童越小这个问题就越明显And this is particularly a problem the younger you get.在讨论包括心理学在内的任何科学时Methodology is going to loom heavy研究方法是个重要的方面in the discussion of any science and that includes psychology.研究中90%的内容通常都是在寻找Often 90% of the game is discovering a clever method一种能够检验假说的精巧方法through which to test your hypotheses.我们会谈谈与婴儿有关的研究方法We're going to talk a little bit about that regarding babies.我给大家再举一个不同方面的例子I'll give you another example from a very different domain.很多科学家对研究挠痒痒非常感兴趣There was a set of scientists interested in studying tickling.在什么情况下So, when you tickle somebody,你挠别人痒痒他们会发笑under what circumstances will they laugh?要挠哪里才行你挠自己会感到痒吗Where do you have to tickle them? Can you tickle yourself?需要出其不意吗等等Does it have to be a surprise, and so on?事实证明很难对此进行实验室研究It turns out very difficult to study this in a lab.你又不能靠傻笑来得到你的实验学分You're not going to have your experimental credit.你走进实验室说You come into the lab and say,"我是研究生然后傻笑""Okay. I'm the graduate student. Ha, ha, ha."实际上And in fact,宾夕法尼亚大学的亨利·葛雷曼an example of a methodological attempt was done 曾经进行过研究方法上的尝试by Henry Gleitman at University of Pennsylvania, 他发明了一台挠痒痒的机器who built a tickle machine,这是一个装有两只大手的箱子which was this box双手会不停的去挠痒痒with these two giant hands that went "r-r-r-r."这是一个失败的发明This was a failure因为人们还没靠近挠痒痒的机器because people could not go near the tickle machine就已经被它的模样逗笑了without convulsing in laughter.我们会在讲到关于笑的课程时But we will discuss再来讨论这个关于挠痒痒的科学when we have a lecture on laughter a bit of the tickle sciences.最后是证据上的局限And finally there's factual.婴幼儿究竟知道些什么What do infants and children really know?皮亚杰很可能由于研究方法上的局限It's possible that due to the methodological limitations of Piaget,而系统地低估了婴幼儿的理解能力he systematically underestimated what children and babies know.事实上我要给大家呈现一些证据And in fact, I'll present some evidence这些证据表明事实确实如此suggesting that this is in fact--that this is the case.我要给大家介绍下So, I want to introduce you关于婴儿认知的现代科学发现to the modern science of infant cognition.婴儿认知已经得到了多年的研究Infant cognition has been something studied for a very long time.这些研究都基于某个观点And there was a certain view这是一个在哲学和心理学领域中that has had behind it广泛达成的共识a tremendous philosophical and psychological consensus.这份《洋葱报》的标题总结出了这个共识And it's summarized in this Onion headline here.那就是婴儿是愚笨的And the idea is that babies are stupid,婴儿对世界一无所知that babies really don't know much about the world.《洋葱报》的这个标题很是讽刺Now, the work that this Onion headline issatirizing接下来我要来讲一下最近的研究is the recent studies, which I'm going to talk about,与此标题相反suggested that on the contrary,最新的研究表明babies might be smarter婴儿可能比你想象中更加聪明than you think.要想探究婴儿的智力And to discover the intelligence of babies我们就必须足够聪明we have to ourselves be pretty smart发明出不同的研究技术in developing different techniques.你不能用提问的方式To study what a baby knows,去研究婴儿知道些什么you can't ask your questions.因为婴儿不会说话Babies can't talk.你可以观察婴儿You could look at what it does但婴儿不怎么配合but babies are not very coordinated或者说他们的言语技能并不熟练or skilled所以你必须要用精巧的方法才能做到so you need to use clever methods.一种聪明的方法便是去观察脑电波One clever method is to look at their brain waves.右边的这个孩子在测试时死掉了This child on the right died during testing.是个悲剧被电极的重量给压死了It was a tragic--It was crushed by the weights of the electrodes.他临死还是挺高兴的He's happy though.你可以去研究他们的脑电波You could study their brain waves.吮吸奶嘴是婴儿能够做到的One of the few things babies can do为数不多的事情之一is they could suck on a pacifier.你也许会想And you might think,你能从婴儿的行为中知道些什么呢well, how could you learn anything from that?举例来说Well, for instance,你可以制造一个机器you could build machines每当婴儿吮吸奶嘴that when babies suck on a pacifier他们就会听到音乐或是话语they hear music or they hear language,然后你可通过观察婴儿有多喜欢吮吸奶嘴and then you could look at how much they suck on the pacifier来确定他们喜欢音乐还是话语to determine what they like.但不可否认的是But undeniably我们所拥有的绝大多数关于婴儿的知识we know most of our -- we got most of our knowledge about babies都来自于对婴儿注视次数的研究from studies of their looking times.这是婴儿们能够做到的一件事That's one thing babies can do.他们能够注视某物They can look.这里是一张伊丽莎白·斯皮克的照片And I have up here--This is a picture of Elizabeth Spelke,她是一个发展心理学家who is a developmental psychologist在婴儿注视次数who's developed the most research on looking at babies' lookingtimes及其意义方面研究颇多and what you could learn from them.你可以通过两种方法And I have here two ways从注视这个动作中得出一些结论you could learn from looking.一种方法便是呈现One is preference.比如说假设你没来由的想知道So for instance, suppose you want to know, for whatever reason,婴儿会喜欢狗的模样还是猫的摸样do babies like the looks of dogs or cats?你可以抱来一个婴儿Well, you could put a baby down,在这里呈现一张狗的照片have a picture of a dog here,在这里呈现一张猫的照片a picture of a cat here,然后观察婴儿会看哪一张照片and see which one the baby looks at.你可以从婴儿移动的眼珠中找到答案Babies can move their eyes and that could tell you something.婴儿能区分出漂亮和丑陋的脸庞吗Do babies distinguish pretty faces from ugly faces?在这边放一张漂亮的脸庞Well, put a pretty face here,在这边放一张丑陋的脸庞an ugly face here,观察婴儿是否更喜欢注视漂亮的那个see if the baby prefers to look at the pretty one.你也可以通过习惯化和惊奇来进行探究You could also do habituation and surprise.我在随后提到的各种研究And much of the studies I'm going to talk about here 很多都会涉及到习惯化和惊奇involve habituation and surprise.习惯化是厌倦这个词的一种华丽表达Habituation is a fancy word for boredom.向婴儿反复呈现某物What you do is you show a baby something over and over again.根据行为主义Now, remember from behaviorism婴儿会觉得这东西没什么意思the baby will learn this isn't very interesting.这时你向婴儿呈现某个不同的物体Then you show the baby something different.如果婴儿认为此物与之前出现物体不同If the baby really sees it as different, 婴儿的注视时间会变长the baby will look longer,你可以将注视时间变长and you could use that视为婴儿发现物体间区别的一种标志as a measure of what babies find different.比如假设你想知道For instance, suppose you want to know婴儿是否能够区分绿色和红色if the baby can tell green from red.你可以向婴儿呈现一个绿色色块Well, you could show the baby a green patch, 将这个绿色色块不停的重复呈现a green patch, a green patch, a green patch;婴儿便会感到厌倦the baby'll get bored,然后呈现一个红色色块then a red patch.如果对于婴儿来说两种颜色没有差别If they all look the same to the baby, 他就仍然不予理会the baby will just continue to tune out,但如果他觉得红色与绿色不同but if the red looks different那他就会重新活跃起来the baby will perk up.实际上And this is, in fact,这是一种研究婴儿颜色视觉的方法one way they study color vision in babies.惊奇也与此相关Surprise is related to this.你给婴儿呈现一些本不该出现的事物You could show babies something that shouldn't happen.如果婴儿也觉得该事物出乎意料If babies are like--If babies also think it shouldn't happen,那么他们会注视的更久they might look longer,基本上科学家们and essentially what happens就是通过魔术技巧来进行研究is scientists do magic tricks to explore this very thing.下面给大家介绍一些实例And to start with some real examples,许多的婴儿研究都回到了a lot of this infant research has gone back皮亚杰的客体永存性问题上to the Piagetian question of object permanence, 去探讨 "婴儿是否真的不知道asking, "Is it really true babies don't know 物体即使离开视线也仍然是存在的"that objects remain even when they're out of sight?"斯皮克和巴亚热昂做了一个简单的研究So one very simple study by Spelke and Baillargeon:向婴儿呈现一个木块Have babies shown a block木块中间有一个能够来回移动的木杆with a bar going back and forth就像这个样子like that.这个木杆可以来回移动So the bar just goes back and forth.现在你做了件你自己都未必意识到的Now, there's something you do that's so obvious超级无聊的事情you probably don't even know you're doing it.当你看到这样的演示时When you see a display like that,你已经假定那里有一根木杆what you assume is there's a bar there,也就是说中间的部分and what that means is there's something in the middle 有你之前所未曾见过的物体that you've never seen before.但是But of course,如果你只是个拥有感知的简单生物if you were a simple perceptual creature, 你只会看到在顶端和底端分别有一根木杆you would just see that there'd be a bar on top and a bar on the bottom.你不会觉得中间有什么物体You wouldn't expect anything in the middle因为你并未在中间部分看到些什么because you never saw anything in the middle.接下来你向婴儿呈现这个装置So, what you do then is you show babies this再给他们看B或C选项and then you show them either B or C如果是成人来进行测试肯定会选Band if we do this with adults you expect B, C基本上就是个笑话C is almost a joke.事实上婴儿也有相同的反应方式And, in fact, babies respond the same way.婴儿会期待那是一根完整的木杆Babies expect there to be an entire, complete bar 所以会对断开的木杆感到惊讶and are surprised并且会有更长的注视时间and look longer at the broken bar.还有些其他的研究Other studies, some of them--这是勒奈·巴亚热昂所进行的另一项研究Well, here's another study by ReneBaillargeon通过不同的方式去观察同一个物体looking at the same thing in a different way.将一个木块放在平台上You show the baby, say a six-month-old,然后让一个六个月大的婴儿来观看a stage with a block on it.然后升起屏板遮住木块Then a screen rises and obscures the block.这时如果婴儿会期待木块留在原处Now, if the babies expect the block to still be there,那么他们会认为木块能阻止屏板上升they should think the block should stop the screen.另一方面On the other hand,如果看不见就觉得不存在if out of sight out of mind,那么婴儿会期待屏板继续移动they should expect the screen to keep going.所以你可以设计几个演示 So, what you do is you set up a couple of displays, 一个是木块被挡住了one where the block is stopped,另一个是用活门把木块挪开the other one where you take this away with a trap door 使得屏板继续上升and it keeps going.正如你所看到的And, as you see,当这种情况发生时婴儿会发出尖叫the baby screams when this happens.这实际上是假的That doesn't really happen,但他们的注视时间的确更长了but they do look longer.最后举一个关于客体永存性研究的例子One final example of an object permanence study.这个研究的一些部分是在耶鲁的Some of this work's been done凯伦·韦恩实验室进行的at Yale in Karen Wynn's lab,他们在那里观察婴儿对加减法的理解where they look at babies' understanding of addition and subtraction.大部分实验启用了实物And a lot of it is done with real objects,但也有些动画视频but there's also animated versions这就是个动画的例子so here is an animated example.婴儿感到很惊奇Babies are surprised.它们认为2-1=1They expect 2 - 1 = 1所以当2-1=2或3或0and when 2 - 1 = 2 or 3 or 0,他们注视时间更长表明了惊奇they look longer, indicating surprise.即便六个月大的婴儿And even six-month-olds are sensitive对算术的基础知识已经相当敏感to these rudimentary facts of arithmetic,向我们展示了婴儿所具有的数学知识telling us something about their mathematical knowledge,但也同时告诉了我们but also telling us something about婴儿在看不到物体时that they expect things to remain仍然会认为物体依然存在when they're out of sight.这个研究表明Now, this research suggests婴儿从出生that infants' understanding of the physical world就对物质世界有所理解is there from the very start,但同时这种理解并不完善but at the same time not entirely.。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论5婴儿是如何思考的：思维的
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论5婴儿是如何思考的：思维的本课通过皮亚杰的理论，来讲讲认知发展。
皮亚杰认为：儿童是主动思考者，他们试图去理解世界。
他把儿童称为小科学家。
他研究的初衷并不是出于对儿童的兴趣，而是出于他对认识产生的一般规律的兴趣。
皮亚杰主张发生认识论，即认识的起源。
但是由于他深信个体儿童的发展能够表现出认识发展的一般规律，所以他才选择去研究个体儿童的发展。
"胚胎重演律" 这个短语的意思是：个体的发展，模拟或重演了种族的发展。
现在看来，这个观点完全错误。
他常说："只要能够理解儿童如何发展，就能够理解认识发展的一般规律"。
皮亚杰认为儿童能够形成关于世界的一系列看法、图示、或者说小型理论。
而这一过程可以通过两种机制实现-----同化和顺应。
同化是指反应范围的扩大。
例如一个习惯吸吮乳房的婴儿，可能会去吸吮奶瓶或是拨浪鼓。
这就是在改变反应范围了。
顺应是改变你的行为方式。
例如婴儿会因为吸吮物体的不同，而改变他的嘴型。
我刚才是从生理的角度来谈论这些过程的，从心理上来讲，你拥有一种看待世界的方式你将新信息纳入已有的认知结构中，便是同化。
你改变已有的认知结构，以适应新的环境和信息，便是顺应。
皮亚杰认为这两种学习机制，帮助儿童跨越各个阶段。
他要求儿童解决问题，并询问他们一些问题，用这种研究方法，他发现儿童在不同的年龄拥有不同的行为方式，他根据这一发现提出了阶段理论。
第一个阶段是感知运动阶段（感知运动期）。
在此阶段儿童只是个纯粹的自然生物。
儿童对于外部世界并没有什么真正的认识，他们对于过去、未来、稳定和差别没有任何的概念。
儿童只是触摸和观看，但还不能进行逻辑推理。
在这一阶段，儿童逐渐发展起客体永存性的概念。
客体永存性是指知道某人或某物虽然现在看不见但仍然是存在的。
成年人是拥有客体永存性概念的。
皮亚杰认为，婴儿并没有这一概念。
皮亚杰发现在六个月之前，你将婴儿喜欢的物体比如说拨浪鼓藏起来，隐藏在某物的后面，就像这东西消失了一样。
耶鲁大学心理学导论（第四课）
耶鲁大学心理学导论（第四课）心理学导论第四课我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends.我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts.我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it.可整个周末我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented.我不该跳过它们所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit--先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it.我所跳过的是关于The discussion I skipped was the discussion of"我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all.我当时正在讲So, I was talking about在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unconscious.我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question.正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course,尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do,其实都是无意识的是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it.因此问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be, "为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?"而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life--为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious?另一方面On the other hand,这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting.所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you.那么从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint,要问的问题便是"无意识为何得以进化""Why would an unconscious evolve?"一些心理学家与生物学家们所给出的答案And an answer that some psychologists and biologists have given是欺骗is deception.大多数动物都会有一些欺骗行为So, most animals do some deception.而广义上的欺骗是以愚弄的方式And deception defined broadly is simply使他人相信虚假之事to act or be in some way认为虚假之事是真实的that fools others into believing or thinking或是使他人对虚假之事做出反应or responding to something that's false.举一个欺骗的实例There's physical examples of deception.当黑猩猩受到威胁When threatened, chimpanzees--它们的毛发会竖起来their hair stands up on end使得他们看上去更加强壮and that makes them look bigger从而使其他黑猩猩误以为它们to fool others to thinking they're more dangerous 比原先想象中更加危险than they are.在深海中生活着琵琶鱼There's an angler fish at the bottom of the ocean这种鱼的头顶会长出鱼竿状的长刺that has a rod sticking up from the top of its head用于引诱和捕获其他鱼类with a lure to capture other fish让它们误认为那是食物to fool them in thinking that this is something edible 然后它们自己就被吃掉了and then to themselves be devoured.总的来说灵长类动物特别是人类But humans, primates in general but particularly humans,都是欺骗大师are masters of deception.我们不断地利用我们的心理We use our minds行为和动作and our behaviors and our actions去哄骗他人相信那些虚假的事情continually to try to trick people into believing what's not true.比如我们总是试着去欺骗他人We try to trick people, for instance,使他人相信我们比实际更加into believing that we're强壮聪明性感tougher, smarter, sexier,更加可靠或是更加值得信赖等等more reliable, more trustworthy and so on, than we really are.社会心理学中也有很大一部分内容And a large part of social psychology在关注我们向他人展现自己的方式concerns the way in which we present ourselves 人们会尽力使积极印象最大化to other people so as to make the maximally positive impression即使留下的印象是虚假的even when that impression isn't true.但同时At the same time,though,我们也进化出了很好的欺骗检测机制we've also evolved very good lie detection mechanisms.因此不仅存在着要求我对你说谎So not only is there evolutionary pressure for me的进化压力to lie to you,比如如果我们之间存有冲突for me to persuade you for instance, that if we're going to have a conflict-当你威胁我时if you are threatening me我会说"别吓唬我我可不是吃素""Don't threaten me, I am not the sort of man you could screw around with"而且还存在着要求你辨别谎言的进化压力But there's evolutionary pressure for you to look你会说 "不你肯定不行and say, "No. You are the sort of man you could screw around with.我看得出来的"I can tell."那么怎样才能成为一个好骗子呢So how do you become a good liar?无意识在这里扮演了重要的角色And here's where the unconscious comes in.我们假定The hypothesis is:最好的谎言是能够骗到我们自己的谎言the best lies are lies wetell ourselves.一个行骗高手在通常情况下You're a better liar, more generally, 会对自己所说的谎言深信不疑if you believe the lie that you're telling.阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的一个故事 This could be illustrated很好地阐释了这个道理with a story about Alfred Hitchcock.故事是这样的The story goes--他痛恨与童星共事但又时常被迫合作He hated working with child actors but he often had to.有一次And the story goes--和他合作的一个小演员竟哭不出来He was dealing with a child actor who simply could not cry.最后他沮丧极了走到那个小演员身边And, finally frustrated, Hitchcock went to the actor,俯下身子凑到他耳边说leaned over, whispered in his ear,"你爸妈刚把你丢在这了"Your parents have left you他们再也不回来了"and they're never coming back."那孩子立刻泣不成声The kid burst into tears.希区柯克说"开拍" 录制顺利进行Hitchcock said, "Roll'em" and filmed the kid.如果你能看到那个孩子你一定会说And the kid, if you were to see him, you'd say, "天呐这孩子看起来真伤心啊""That's--Boy, he's--he really looks as if he's sad"因为他本来就伤心because he was.如果我在这里举行一个竞赛If I had a competition谁最能将痛苦表演的和真的一样where I'd give $100,000 to the person谁就能拿到10万美元who looks the most as if they are in pain, 那么最好用的一招莫过于拿根笔it is a very good tactic to take a pen狠狠地戳进你的腹股沟and jam it into your groin因为此时的你看上去真的because you will look extremely persuasively足以使他人相信你非常痛苦as if you are in pain.如果我想让你相信我爱你If I want to persuade you that I love you,永远都不离开你你什么都可以信任我would never leave you, you can trust me witheverything,或许最好的策略便是我自己对此深信不疑it may be a superb tactic for me to believe it.所有对于无意识进化的解释And so, this account of the evolution of the unconscious便是某些动机和目标is that certain motivations and goals,尤其是那些邪恶的动机和目标particularly sinister ones,最好是无意识的are better made to be unconscious因为如果个体察觉不到because if a person doesn't know他们所拥有的动机和目标的话they have them这些动机和目标也就不会被他人识破they will not give them away.这个我们先放在这里等到我们探讨And this is something I think we should return to later on社会交往与社会关系的时候再回头来看when we talk about social interaction and social relationships.弗洛依德的另一个故事--One other thing on Freud--其实是个恶搞他的故事just a story of the falsification of Freud.周日我带我的小儿子去玩回家的路上I was taking my younger child home from a play date on Sunday他突然问我and he asked me out of the blue,"你为什么不能和你的父母结婚?""Why can't you marry yourmother or your father?"向一个孩子解释这个问题其实挺困难的Now, that's actually a difficult question to ask-- to answer for a child,但我还是尽力给了他一个答案but I tried my best to give him an answer.之后我又想到弗洛依德的理论And then I said--then I thought back on the Freud lecture然后我就问他and so I asked him,"如果你谁都能娶你会选择娶谁?""If you could marry anybody you want, who would it be?"我想根据俄狄浦斯情结imagining he'd make explicit the Oedipal complex他会毫不犹豫地选择他的妈妈and name his mother.不过出乎意料的是他想了一会说Instead, he paused for a moment and said, "我想娶一只驴子"I would marry a donkey 和一大包花生"and a big bag of peanuts."他的父母都是心理学家Both his parents are psychologists他恨透了这些问题and he hates these questions所以他会时不时的忽悠我们一下and at times he just screws around with us.好了Okay.上一堂课我们从弗洛依德讲起Last class I started with Freud现在我要开始讲斯金纳了and now I want to turn to Skinner.斯金纳的理论And the story of Skinner and science与弗洛依德的理论有些不同is somewhat different from the story of Freud.弗洛依德是精神分析的Freud developed and championed提出者与拥护者the theory of psychoanalysis by himself.就像是一个科学发明的专利享有者It is as close as you could find in science to a solitary invention.显然他利用了各种资源Obviously, he drew upon all sorts of sources还总结了前人的成果and predecessors但精神分析依然被认为but psychoanalysis is identified是由弗洛伊德提出的as Freud's creation.行为主义则不同Behaviorism is different.行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of thought远在斯金纳提出他的理论之前就已经存在that was there long before Skinner,受到了众多心理学家的拥护championed by psychologists比如约翰·华生like John Watson, for instance.斯金纳算是这一学派中的晚辈了Skinner came a bit late into this但是何斯金纳能够被我们所熟知but the reason why we've heard of Skinner能够声名远播的原因就在于and why Skinner is so well known 他将这些观点进行了一番整理is he packaged these notions.他扩展了先前的观点He expanded upon them;并将它们出版发行he publicized them;他科学地发展了这些观点he developed them scientifically并同时将这些观点呈现给了and presented them both to the scientific community 学术界和社会大众and to the popular community.在上世纪60到70年代之间的美国社会And sociologically in the 1960s and 1970s, in the United States,行为主义极为盛行behaviorism was incredibly well known斯金纳也得以名声大噪and so was Skinner.他就像现在上脱口秀的明星一样有名He was the sort of person you would see on talk shows.他的书登上了畅销榜首His books were bestsellers.言归正传行为主义的核心Now, at the core of behaviorism由三个非常极端又很有趣的观点组成are three extremely radical and interesting views.第一个观点是它非常强调学习的作用The first is a strong emphasis on learning.行为主义的观点认为The strong view of behaviorism你的知识你的一切is everything you know, everything you are, 都是经验的产物is the result of experience.人性是根本不存在的There's no real human nature.相反人类是具有无限可塑性的Rather, people are infinitely malleable.约翰·华生有一段非常有名的话There's a wonderful quote from John Watson这段话是约翰·华生根据and in this quote john Watson is paraphrasing耶稣会所宣扬的一段著名鼓吹改写而来a famous boast by the Jesuits.耶稣会曾宣称The Jesuits used to claim,"给我一个孩子待他7岁之时"Give me a child until the age of seven我会将他锻造成一个男人"and I'll show you the man,"也就是说他们能够把一个孩子that they would take a child培养成他们想要的任何样子and turn him into anything they wanted.华生将此鼓吹加以扩展他说到And Watson expanded on this boast,给我一打健全的婴儿Give me a dozen healthy infants,只要给予合适的条件well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up 我就可以and I'll guarantee to take any one at random把他们变成and train them to become any type of specialist I might select 医生律师艺术家企业家—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant,乃至乞丐和小偷chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,而不用去考虑他的天赋倾向regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, 能力祖先的职业与种族abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.你们可以从中看出Now, you could imagine— you could see in this这是一个极具感染力的观点a tremendous appeal to this view 因为在某种意义上because Watson has华生是一个极端的平等主义者an extremely egalitarian view in a sense.如果不存在人性If there's no human nature,那么一群人因种族或性别then there's no sense in which one group of humans 优于另一群的人的说法by dint of their race or their sex便纯属无稽之谈could be better than another group.华生明确地指出了这一点And Watson was explicit.人类的自然属性并不存在任何差异None of those facts about people will ever make any difference.个体差异源于他所受到的不同教育与待遇What matters to what you are is what you learn and how you're treated.因此华生断言And so, Watson claimed他只需通过一定的方式he could create anybody in any way simply便能将婴儿培养成各种类型的人by treating them in a certain fashion.行为主义的第二个观点A second aspect of behaviorism是反心理主义was anti-mentalism.我的意思是And what I mean by this is行为主义者沉迷于"科学"的理念之中the behaviorists were obsessed with难以自拔the idea of doing science他们主要针对的是弗洛依德and they felt, largely in reaction to Freud,他们认为那些所谓的内在心理状态that claims about internal mental states如欲望意愿目标情感等等like desires, wishes, goals, emotions and so on, 都是不科学的are unscientific.这些不可见定义模糊的东西These invisible, vague things不能被划入严谨的科学范畴里can never form the basis of a serious science.因此行为主义者的目标And so, the behaviorist manifesto是建立一门科学would then be to develop a science将一切不可观测的事情都排除在外without anything that's unobservable取而代之的是应用and instead use notions诸如刺激反应强化惩罚like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment以及表示现实世界和客观事件的环境and environment that refer to real world 之类的概念来进行研究and tangible events.最后行为主义者认为Finally, behaviorists believed生物种群之间并不存在太大的差别there were no interesting differences across species.行为主义者可能会承认人类能够做到A behaviorist might admit that a human can do things一些老鼠或鸽子无法做到的事情that a rat or pigeon couldn't 但他们或许只会说but a behaviorist might just say,"它们只不过是在一般性联想学习能力上"Look. Those are justgeneral associative powers有所差异而已"that differ"甚至他们干脆否认Or they may even deny it.他们会说 "人和老鼠根本没有区别They might say, "Humans and rats aren't different at all.只不过相较于老鼠It's just humans tend to live人类生活在刺激更加丰富的环境中罢了"in a richer environment than rats."从这个理论观点中From that standpoint, from that theoretical standpoint, 可以得出一种研究方法comes a methodological approach即如果人类与动物并无差别which is, if they're all the same那你就能通过研究非人类动物的学习过程then you could study human learning 来研究人类的学习过程by studying nonhuman animals.这也是行为主义者的常用研究方法And that's a lot of what they did.好了下面我们来讲讲Okay. I'm going to frame my introduction—my discussion 行为的三个主要的学习原则of behaviors in terms of the three main learning principles 这三个学习原则被认为能够解释that they argue can explain所有的人类心理活动all of human mental life,所有的人类行为all of human behavior.之后我还想讲讲对行为主义的反对And then, I want to turn to objections to behaviorism但这三个原则是非常重要的but these three principles are powerful也是很有意思的and very interesting.第一个原则是习惯化The first is habituation.这是最简单的学习形式This is the very simplest form oflearning.它在学术上被描述为And what this is is technically described as由于重复暴露在刺激环境中a decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli 而造成对该刺激反应倾向的降低that are familiar due to repeated exposure."喂""Hey!""喂""Hey!"突如其来的噪音吓了大家一跳The sudden noise startles but as it—但听到第二声的时候就没那么吃惊了as you hear it a second time it startles less.第三遍时就变成我自己在这犯傻了The third time is just me being goofy.这是因为你对这些事情已经习惯了It's just--It's--You get used to things.习惯化在我们的日常生活中随处可见And this, of course, is common enough ineveryday life.我们习惯了钟的滴答声和车来人往的噪音We get used to the ticking of a clock or to noise of traffic但这却是一种非常重要的学习形式but it's actually a very important form of learning我们不妨试想一下无法进行习惯化的情形because imagine life without it.试想你在生活中无法习惯任何事情Imagine life where you never got used to anything,要有人突然跳出来向你挥手where suddenly somebody steps forward and waves their hand你肯定吓得惊叫 "哇"and you'd go, "Woah,"然后他们再跟你挥手你又惊叫"哇"and then they wave their hand again and you'd go, "Whoah,"然后你就不停地--and you keep--或是在你听到响亮的钟摆声后很惊奇地说And there's the loud ticking of a clock and you say,"嗯""Hmmm."但实际上人类和动物都不会这个样子And that's not the way animals or humans work.你会习惯于很多事情You get used to things.而习惯化实际上也是至关重要的And it's actually critically important to get used to things因为这是一种非常有用的适应机制because it's a useful adaptive mechanism可以让你注意到新鲜事物to keep track on new events and objects.能够注意到新鲜事物的出现是非常重要的It's important to notice something when it's new因为你需要确定它是否会对你造成伤害because then you have to decide whether it's going to harm you,需要确定如何去处理这个新鲜刺激how to deal with it, to attend to it,但你不能一直去注意它but you can't keep on noticing it.事实上And, in fact,如果它在环境中出现的时间足够长久的话you should stop noticing it你就不该再去一直注意它了after it's been in the environment for long enough.所以习惯化算是一种学习So, this counts as learning是因为这种学习是基于经验而发生的because it happens through experience.习惯化是通过经验而进行学习的一种方式It's a way to learn through experience, 是通过经验改变你思维方式的一种方法to change your way of thinking through experience.而且它还是非常有用的And also, it's useful因为危险刺激会吸引到你的注意because harmful stimuli are noticed但当某物被视为环境的一部分时but when something has shown itself to be part of the environment你便不会再去注意到该物体you don't notice it anymore.习惯化的存在非常重要原因有很多The existence of habituation is important for many reasons.原因之一就是One thing it's important for is聪明的发展心理学家们将习惯化clever developmental psychologists have used habituation作为研究人类as a way to study people,研究诸如非人类动物或是婴儿这样creatures who can't talk无法进行言语表达的生物like nonhuman animals,的一种方式and young babies.等我们在周三探讨发展心理学时And when I talk on Wednesday about developmental psychology我会向大家讲述心理学家们I'll show different ways应用习惯化in which psychologists have used habituation来研究婴儿心理的不同的方法to study the minds of young babies.学习的第二种形式The second sort of learning被称为经典条件作用is known as classical conditioning.一般来说And what this is in a very general sense经典条件作用是指在一个刺激is the learning of an association 和另一个刺激之间形成联结between one stimulus and another stimulus,这里的刺激是一个专业术语where stimulus is a technical term 意思是环境中出现的事件meaning events in the environment 比如某种味道声音或景观like a certain smell or sound or sight.经典条件作用是巴甫洛夫提出的It was thought up by Pavlov.这便是巴甫洛夫的那条著名的狗This is Pavlov's famous dog这是一个科学研究中的意外and it's an example of scientific serendipity.在研究的最初巴甫洛夫Pavlov, when he started this research, 对学习行为毫无兴趣had no interest at all in learning.他研究的是唾液的分泌He was interested in saliva.为了弄到唾液他找来了几条狗And to get saliva he had to have dogs.他给狗套上了一些装置And he had to attach something to dogs来收集狗的唾液用以研究so that their saliva would pour out so he could study saliva.他研究唾液分泌的初衷我们不得而知No idea why he wanted to study saliva,但他却因为这个研究而有所发现but he then discovered something.他的做法是What he would do is给狗喂食让狗分泌唾液he'd put food powder in the dog's mouth to generate saliva.他注意到But Pavlov observed that当给它喂食的人when somebody entered the room进屋时who typically gave him the food powder,狗便开始分泌唾液the dog--the food powder saliva would start to come out.稍后And later on if you—在喂食前或者喂食过程中right before or right during you givethe dog some food 你摇铃you--you ping a bell铃声就会加速唾液的分泌the bell will cause the saliva to come forth.这是他在研究时所使用的仪器And, in fact, this is the apparatus that he used forhis research.他通过区分两种条件作用He developed the theory of classical conditioning两种刺激反应关系by making a distinction between two sorts of conditioning, 提出了经典条件作用理论two sorts of stimulus response relationships.一个是无条件作用One is unconditioned.无条件作用是指An unconditioned is when an unconditioned stimulus无条件刺激会引起无条件反应gives rise to an unconditioned response.这是我们的本能And this is what you start off with.如果有人用棍子戳你So, if somebody pokes you with a stick and you say,你会因为疼而叫出来"Ouch," because it hurts,戳的动作和你的喊叫the poking and the "Ouch"这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反射is an unconditioned stimulus causing an unconditioned response.这些行为无需学习You didn't have to learn that.巴甫洛夫给狗喂食When Pavlov put food powder in the dog's mouth狗会分泌唾液and saliva was generated,这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反应that's an unconditioned stimulus giving rise to an unconditioned response.但学习会在条件刺激与条件反应之间But what happens throughlearning is that another association develops建立起另一种联结that between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.比如So when Pavlov, for instance--比如在条件作用形成之前Well, when Pavlov, for instance, started before conditioning只是简单的存在着无条件刺激即食物there was simply an unconditioned stimulus, the food in the mouth,以及无条件反应即唾液and an unconditioned response, saliva.此时的铃声什么都不是The bell was nothing.只是一个中性刺激The bell was a neutral stimulus.但是如果铃声和食物多次同时出现But over and over again, if you put the bell and the food together,很快铃声便也能促使狗分泌出唾液pretty soon the bell will generate saliva.开始时呈现无条件刺激And now the bell--When--You start off with the unconditioned stimulus,会出现无条件反应unconditioned response.当条件刺激与非条件刺激When the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus同时且多次反复出现are brought together over and over and over again,条件刺激很快也能引起条件反应pretty soon the conditioned stimulus gives rise to the response.这就是所谓的And now it's known as the conditioned stimulus 条件刺激引起了条件反应giving rise to the conditioned response.这在教材中已有详细的叙述This is discussed in detail in the textbook但我还是想给你们but I also--I'm going to give you—如果一下子理解不了也不用担心Don't panic if you don't get it quite now.我会再多给你们举些例子I'm going to give you further and further examples.这里的意思是说So, the idea here is,无条件刺激与条件刺激的反复匹配repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus 会引起条件反应will give rise to the response.但强化尝试和非强化尝试是不一样的And there's a difference between reinforced trials and unreinforced trials.强化尝试是指条件刺激 A reinforced trial is when the conditioned stimulus 与无条件刺激同时出现的时候and the unconditioned stimulus go together.简单地说You're--and to put it in a crude way,你在让狗知道you're teaching the dog铃声和食物是一起出现的that the bell goes with the food.非强化尝试是只有食物而没有铃声的时候An unreinforced trial is when you get the food without the bell.这就不需要你去教了You're not teaching the dog this.事实上条件反射形成以后And, in fact, once you teach an animal something, 如果得不到强化if you stop doing the teaching 条件反应就会逐渐消失the response goes away这就是消退and this is known as extinction.这里有张图标But here's a graph.图标记录了分泌出的唾液量If you get--They really count the number of cubic centimeters of saliva.经过训练当狗听到铃声The dog is trained so that when the bell comes on—我讲错了Actually, I misframed it.重讲一遍I'll try again.当铃声和食物形成了联系When the bell comes connected withfood,狗会因为铃声的出现而分泌大量唾液there's a lot of saliva.非强化反应是有铃声但却没食物的时候An unreinforced response is when the bell goes on but there's no food.想想你就是那条狗So, it's like--Imagine you're the dog.有人喂你食物So, you get food in your mouth,"铃声食物"Bell, food,铃声食物"bell, food,"而现在只有"铃声"and now "Bell."但等到下次你再听到"铃声"的时候But next you get "Bell, bell, bell."你就不会再去等待食物You give it up.不再分泌唾液You stop.不再对铃声进行反应You stop responding to the bell.教材中讨论了一件奇怪的事情A weird thing which is discussed in the textbook is 如果你稍等一会if you wait a while在几个小时之后用铃声重新去尝试and then you try it again with the bell after a couple of hours,狗会重新开始分泌唾液the saliva comes back.这种现象叫做自发恢复This is known as spontaneous recovery.经典条件作用似乎是关于动物的So, this all seems a very technical phenomena 科学现象related to animals and the like 但其实典条件作用发生but it's easy to see how it generalizes 及其相关概念都简单易懂and how it extends.刺激泛化是个很有意思的概念One interesting notion is that of stimulus generalization.刺激泛化是And stimulus generalization is the topic《诺顿读本》中一篇文章的主题of one of your articles in The Norton Reader, 作者为约翰·华生著名的行为主义者the one by Watson, John Watson, the famous behaviorist,他记述了一项奇怪的实验who reported a bizarre experiment 对象则是一名叫做小阿尔伯特的婴儿with a baby known as Little Albert.实验是这样的And here's the idea.小阿尔伯特原本喜欢老鼠Little Albert originally liked rats.实际上我要给你们看一段In fact, I'm going to show you a movie小阿尔伯特原先喜欢老鼠时的录像of Little Albert originally liking rats.看到吧他很好没问题See. He's okay. No problem.现在华生做了件有意思的事情Now, Watson did something interesting.小阿尔伯特正在和老鼠玩耍As Little Albert was playing with the rat,"噢我喜欢老鼠""Oh, I like rats, oh,"华生走到婴儿身后Watson went behind the baby—教材中是这么说的this is the--it's in the chapter—重击那里的金属棒and banged the metal bar right here .婴儿"啊"了一声开始大哭The baby, "Aah," screamed, started to sob.好了Okay.这里的无条件刺激是什么What's the unconditioned stimulus?有人知道吗Somebody.那个响声重击金属棒发出的声音The loud noise, the bar, the bang.无条件反应是什么What's the unconditioned response?哭泣悲伤以及痛苦Crying, sadness, misery.这样做导致的结果就是And as a result of this,小阿尔伯特开始惧怕老鼠Little Albert grew afraid of the rat.那么条件刺激又是什么老鼠So there--what would be the。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论笔记
1.Introduction2.Foundations:This is Your Brain3.Foundations:Freud4.Foundations:Skinner5.What Is It Like to Be a Baby:The Development of Thought6.How Do We Communicate?:Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands7.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Language(cont.);Vision and Memory8.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory(cont.)9.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Love(Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey)10.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Evolution and Rationality11.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part I12.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part II13.Why Are People Different?:Differences14.What Motivates Us:Sex15.A Person in the World of People:Morality16.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part I17.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part II18.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part I19.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part II20.The Good Life:Happiness第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯《诺顿读本》心理学研究领域：1、神经科学2、发展心理学（研究人类如何成长、发育以及学习）3、认知心理学（用计算机方法研究心理学）4、社会心理学（研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流）5、临床心理学（心理健康、心理疾病）如今，经济学和博弈论已经成为理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
耶鲁大学心理学导论(第1-9课)
心理学导论第一课我所要做的就是向大家介绍在人文领域里对最重要主题，也就是对我们人类的研究现状，人类大脑如何运作，我们如何思考，又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子？我们将从多个方面来理解这些问题，所以传统上，心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域：神经科学，通过观察大脑反应来研究心理发展心理学，研究人类是如何成长、发育以及学习的认知心理学，也许是五个子领域里，对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域，它用计算机方法来研究心理，通常将心理比作计算机，并探究人类如何行动，如言语理解、物体辨认、游戏等等还有社会心理学，主要研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流；最后就是临床心理学，这也许是当人们提到心理学时，最先想到的方面，它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病。
我们会涉及以上所有的领域，我们还会涉及一些相关的领域。
我坚信，仅仅局限于心理学学科的学习，是不可能让你有能力去研究人类心理的，心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题。
经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
这些问题涉及哲学、计算机科学、人类学、文学、神学，以及许多其他的科学领域，因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛。
到现在为止，我一直都在进行一些概述。
我想通过给出五个，我们将会涉及到的一些主题的例子，来结束这节导论课。
我以我们下周一要讨论的主题作为开始，这是个特殊人物的大脑，有意思的是大脑上有个白色的小标记。
这是个女人的大脑，是特丽·夏沃的大脑，你们能更好地从她的照片上认出她。
想象一下这样的情况，某人正陷于昏迷之中，由于脑部损伤而失去了意识，这是心理活动的生理属性毫无修饰的图解，我们所拥有的一切的生理基础，如自由意志、意识、道德和情绪。
我们的课程将会以此作为开始，讨论生理的东西如何能产生心理活动。
我们会讨论很多与孩子有关的问题，这实际上是个特殊的小孩，是我儿子扎卡里，我的小儿子扮成蜘蛛侠的样子，这个还是有故事可说的。
我主要研究儿童的发展，我对很多问题都感兴趣，其中一个便是发展的问题。
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Cognitive DevelopmentReading Response #1 • Give a Freudian explanation for alcoholism. Then give a behaviorist explanation. Finally, invent a behaviorist treatment to get people to stop drinkingWho is my TF?(corrected)A -Colb Sunny Bang, sunjung.bang@ Coll - G Erik Cheries, erik.cheries@H -Lio Jane Erickson, jane.erickson@ Lip -O Koleen McCrink, koleen.mccrink@ P - Star Izzat Jarudi, izzat.jarudi@Stau - Z Greg Laun, un@Cognitive DevelopmentBig Questions1. Morality2. ContinuityBig Questions 3. KnowledgeEmpiricismv.Nativismv.ConstructivismJean Piaget• 1896-1980• Geneticepistemology• Theories• Methods• ObservationsPiaget’s Theory ofCognitive Development• Piaget believed that “children are activethinkers, constantly trying to construct moreadvanced understandings of the world”• Little scientists• These “understandings” are in the form ofstructures he called schemasDevelopment of Schemas• Schemas are frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge• Assimilation -process of taking new information or a new experience and fitting it into an already existing schema• Accommodation -process by which existing schemas are changed or new schemas are created in order to fit new informationPiaget’s approach• Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions • Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults• Proposed that development occurs as a series of ‘stages’ differing in how the world is understoodSensorimotor Stage(birth -2)• Information is gained through the senses and motor actions• In this stage child perceives and manipulates but does not reason • Object permanence is acquiredObject Permanence• The understanding that objects exist independent of one’s actions or perceptions of them• Before 6 months infants act as if objects removed from sight cease to exist– Can be surprised by disappearance / reappearance of a face (peek-a-boo)• Then, failure at A-not-B taskPreoperational Stage(2-7 years)• Emergence of symbolic thought• EgocentrismPreoperational Stage(2-7 years)• Emergence of symbolic thought• Egocentrism• Lack the concept of conservation Concrete Operational Stage(7-12 years)• Understanding of mental operations leading to increasingly logical thought • Less egocentric• But .. inability to reason abstractly or hypotheticallyFormal Operational Stage (age 12 -adulthood)• Abstract and scientific reasoningPiaget: Scientific evaluationHighly positive:--interesting & falsifiable claims--rich theoretical framework--striking findingsPiaget: Scientific evaluationTheoretical: Does he really explaindevelopment?Methodological: Limitations of Q&A Factual: What do infants andchildren really know?The modern science of infantcognitionMethods for studying infants • Brain waves• Sucking• Looking-- preference-- habituation & surpriseInfant understanding of thephysical worldThe case of object permanenceMuch understanding of thephysical world is there fromthe very startBut not everything…How do we explaindevelopment?• Neural maturation• Problems with inhibition--A-not-B• The accumulation ofknowledgeInfant understanding of thesocial worldSocial babySocial prediction by babies(with Valerie Kuhlmeier & KarenWynn)• 9-month-olds & 12-month-olds• Shown movies in which one character “helps” a ball achieve a goal, and another character “hinders” the ball• Then shown test movies in which the ball interacts with these characters in an entirely different situation• Do babies expect the ball to behave differently with regard to the helper vs. the hinderer?Some understanding of the social world may be there from the very start But there are also some strikinglimitations …Open question IWhy do children do so poorly at these social tasks?They need to learn more about mindsVs.They have the right knowledge but suffer from problems with inhibition and actionOpen question IIWhat is the relationship between different sorts of development?General changes in how children think(Freud, Piaget)Vs.Separate modules(Chomsky, Fodor)A modular conception ofdevelopment• Separate partially pre-wired systems for reasoning about the physical and social world• Innate knowledge• Constrained developmentA damaged module: Autism• About 1 in 1,000• Mostly boys• Lack of social connectedness• Language impairment• Treat people “as objects”• MindblindnessOpen question III If there are modules, what are they?• Physics and people, but also …--artifacts--sociology--biology?Open question IV Are there any profound general differences between the minds of children and adults?--effect of language?Why study development? “Everything is the way it isbecause it got that way.”--D’Arcy Thompson。