世界贸易组织概论(英文版)Chapter 4 Tariff Concession
国际贸易组织
（1）临时反倾销措施。 （2）出口商作出价格承诺。 （3）向进口商征收反倾销税。
二、补贴和反补贴
❖ 1、补贴的含义
（1）补贴是一种政府行为 （2）补贴是一种财政措施 （3）补贴的对象是国内生产者和销售者 （4）补贴的结果是给国内企业带来好处
2、补贴的分类与反补贴争端解决
❖ （2）禁止性补贴(Prohibitive Subsidy)
❖ （2）公平竞争原则既涉及成员的政府行为， 也涉及成员的企业行为
❖ （3）公平竞争原则要求成员维护产品、服务 或服务提供者在本国市场的公平竞争，不论 他们来自本国或其他任何成员
六、鼓励发展和经济改革原则
❖ （Encouraging development and economic reform）
❖ （2） 被倾销国同类产品工业造成了严重或实质性损害，或 形成了实质性损害威胁，或实质性阻碍某项新兴工业的建立；
❖ （3）被倾销与损害之间存在因果关系。
3、中国的反倾销制度
❖ 2001年10月31日国务院第46次常务会议通过 了《中华人民共和国反倾销条例》，并于 2001年11月26日公布，自2002年１月１日起 施行。
成员既不得授予也不得维持的补贴。
❖ （2）可申诉补贴(Actionable Subsidy)
成员根据自己的政治和经济发展需要，在一定范围内对 生产者或销售者进行的补贴。
❖ （3）不可申诉补贴(Unactionable Subsidy)
成员政府为鼓励研究活动、发展落后地区经济、保护环 境而实施的补贴，及其他普遍实施的非专向性的补贴。
第一节 世界贸易组织概述
❖ 一、从GATT到WTO
关贸总协定于1947年10月30日在日内瓦签订并 于1948年正式生效
自考WTO基础知识英文选读名词翻译
Unit oneMultilaterial Trading System 多边贸易体制General Agreement On Tariffs and Trade 关贸总协定Uruguay Round 乌拉圭回合The Doha Development Agenda 多哈发展议程The Trade Policy Review Body 贸易政策审议机构The Dispute Settlement Body 争端解决机构Ministerial conference 部长级会议General Council 总理事会Goods Council 货物贸易理事会Services Council 服务贸易理事会The WTO Secretariat 秘书处Director—general 总干事General Agreement On Trade in Services 服务贸易总协定Dispute Settlement Understanding 争端解决谅解Agreement on Trade—Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 与贸易有关的知识产权的协议Specialized committee 专门委员会Customs duty rate 关税税率State trading 国营贸易The least—developed countries 最不发达国Unit twoInternational Trade Organization(ITO)国贸组织“Bretton woods”System 布雷森顿体系The International Monetary Fund(IMF)国际货币基金组织Trade protectionism 贸易保护主义Havana Charter 哈瓦那宪章A package of agreements 一揽子协定Protocol 议定书Anti—Dumping Agreement 反倾销协定Agreement On Safeguards 保障措施协定Contracting party 缔约方Tariff concession 关税减让Market—sharing agreement 市场共享协定UN Conference on Trade and Employment 联合国贸易与就业大会Economic recession 经济衰退Unit threeTelecommunications 电信Trade without discrimination 非歧视性贸易Most—favored—nation treatment 最惠国待遇Import quotas 进口配额Non—tariff barriers 非关税壁垒Progressive liberalization 渐进式自由化Bound rates 约束贸易Trading partners 贸易伙伴Binding commitments 约束承诺Trade policy Review Mechanism 贸易政策审议机制Undistorted competition 非扭曲竞争Transition economies 转型经济体“least—developed” countries 最不发达国家。
世界贸易组织概论(英文部分)
《世界贸易组织概论》英文部分Chapter 1 OVERVIEW : WTO and GATT1. What is the World Trade OrganizationThe World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only international body dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world's trading nations. These documents provide the legal ground-rules for international commerce. They are essentially contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits. Although negotiated and singed by governments, the goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. The WTO’s creation on 1 January 1995 marked the biggest reform of international trade since after the Second World War. It also brought to reality—in an updated form—the failed attempt to create an International Trade Organization in 1948.2. GATT: a brief historya. The General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeTowards the end of the Second World War, a number of international negotiations were set in motion in order to create institutional structures for the conduct of international relations in the postwar world. One of the most important negotiating processes at the time was the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment, held in Havana, Cuba, in 1947, after lengthy preparatory stages in New York, London and Geneva. At the end of this Conference, the Havana Charter for the International Trade Organization was adopted. For various reasons, including the failure of the United States to ratify it, the Havana Charter never entered into force. As part of the negotiations on the Havana Charter, a group of countries engaged in tariff negotiations and in 1947 agreed on substantial tariff reductions.b. A provisional set of rulesPending the entry into force of the Havana Charter, a mechanism was needed to implement and protect the tariff concessions negotiated in 1947. To do so, it was decided to take the Chapter on Commercial Policy of the Havana Charter and convert it, with certain additions, into the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). To bring the GATT into force quickly, a Protocol of Pro-visional Application was developed. Thus, the GATT was born, as a provisional agreement until such time as the Havana Charter would be ratified. The Protocol of Provisional Application stated that the governments involved would apply Parts I and III of the GATT, however. Part It (mostly on non-tariff barriers) would apply only to the fullest extent "not inconsistent with existing legislation".c. Originally 23 contracting partiesThe "Protocol of Provisional Application of the General Agreement on Tariffs andTrade" was signed by 23 countries. These original "Contracting Parties" were Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, China, Cuba, the Czechoslovak Republic, France, India, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Southern Rhodesia, Syria, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.d. Entered into force: 1 January 1948The Protocol of Provisional Application entered into force on 1 January 1948.e. Terminated on 31 December 19953. Eight "rounds" of multilateral trade negotiationsThroughout its 48-year history, the GATT provided the structure for a global process of steady trade liberalization through eight "rounds" of multilateral trade negotiations sponsored by its Contracting Parties, covering progressively larger volumes of international trade. This process witnessed the initial years of the Cold War, the emergence to independence of many developing countries, the creation of the European Communities, the rise of new and important trading countries, the transition of many countries to market economies, the increasing globalization of the world economy and the consolidation of the multilateral trading system.4. WTO—international organization embodied in the results of the Uruguay RoundIn light of the entry into force of the Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization as of 1 January 1995 and its ratification by almost all GATT Contracting Parties, those parties decided to terminate the GATT 1947 as of 31 December 1995. The substance of GATT rules lives on since they are incorporated, with certain understandings, in the Marrakesh Agreement as GATT 1994.a. International organization embodied in the results of the Uruguay RoundThe Marrakesh Agreement, establishing the World Trade Organization, is included in the Final Act Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, concluded on 15 December 1993 and signed at Marrakesh Ministerial Meeting, on 15 April 1994. It constitutes the principal result of the "Uruguay Round" and incorporates, in its annexes, the multilateral agreements on trade in goods, including the "General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade", the "General Agreement on Trade in Services", the "Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights", the " Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes", the "Trade Policy Review Mechanism", and, for those countries having accepted them, the plurilateral trade agreements.b. Membership—139 countries and regionsAfter a period of intensive activity, and a vigorous debate on international trade policy inthe capitals of many countries participating in the negotiations of the Uruguay Round, the Marrakesh Agreement was ratified by a large number of countries, including the main trading nations, in time for its entry into force on 1 January 1995.By August 2000, one hundred and thirty-nine countries and regions had accepted and ratified the Marrakesh Agreement, and 28 more countries and regions were in the process of acceding to the World Trade Organization. The aim of the WTO is—as clearly indicated in its name—to be universal.c. The secretariat: around 500 staff, headed by a Director-General, based inGenevaProvision is made, in Article VI of the WTO Agreement, for the establishment of a Secretariat and the appointment of its Director-General. It was agreed by ministers that the GATT Secretariat would become the Secretariat of the WTO. At present it has approximately five hundred staff members. The WTO Secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland, at the Centre William Rappard.d. Current Director-General: Michael Moore (from New Zealand)5. WTO vs GATT: main differencesa. NatureThe GATT was a set of rules, with no institutional foundation,applied on a provisional basis. The WTO is a permanent institution with a permanent framework and its own secretariat.b. ScopeThe GATT rules applied to trade in goods. The WTO Agreement covers trade in goods, trade in services and trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights.c. ApproachWhile the GATT was a multilateral instrument, a series of new agreements were adopted during the Tokyo Round on a plurilateral—that is, selective—basis, causing a fragmentation of the multilateral trading system. The WTO has been adopted, and accepted by its Members, as a single undertaking: the Agreements which constitute the WTO are all multilateral, and therefore involve commitments for the entire membership of the organization.d. Dispute settlementThe WTO dispute settlement system has specific time limits and is therefore faster than the GATT system; it operates more automatically, thus ensuring less blockages than in the old GATT; and it has a permanent appellate body to review findings by disputs settlement panels. There are also more detailed rules on the process of the implementation of findings.6. WTO: the main objectivesa. To raise standards of livingRelations among Members of the WTO in the field of trade and economic endeavour should be conducted with a view to raising the standards of living of their populations,b. To ensure full employment to ensure full employment of their economies,c. Growing volume of real income and effective demand to promote the steadygrowth of real incomes and effective demand in their markets,d. Expanding the production of and trade in goods & servicesto expand the production of and trade in goods and services,e. Sustainable development and environmental protection while allowing for the optimal use of the world) s reserves in accordance with the objective of sustainable development, and protecting and Preserving the environment, andf. Developing countriesin a manner consistent with the respective needs and concerns of Members at different levels of development.7. WTO: functionsThe World Trade Organization is the institutional framework of the multilateral trading systerm. The main functions of WTO are as follows:a. Implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreementsThe WTO facilitates the implementation, administration and operation of the WTO Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreements, and furthers their objectives. It also provides the framework, for those of its Members that have accepted them, for the implementation, administration and operation of the Plurilateral Trade Agreements.b. Forum for negotiationsThe WTO provides the forum for negotiations on multilateral trade relations in matters covered by its various agreements. It may also, on decision by the Ministerial Conference, provide a forum for further negotiations, and a framework for the implementation of their results, on other issues arising in the multilateral trade relations among its Members.c. Dispute settlementThe WTO administers the integrated dispute settlement system, which is a central element in providing security and predictability to the multilateral trading system, serving to preserve the rights and obligations of the Members of the WTO.d. Review of national trade policiesThe WTO administers the Trade Policy Review Mechanism, which is designed to contribute to greater transparency and understanding of the trade policies and practices of WTO Members, to their improved adherence to the rules, disciplines and commitments of the multilateral trading system, and hence to the smoother functioning of the system.e. Coherence in global economic policy-makingA Ministerial Declaration adopted at the Marrakesh Ministerial Meeting recognizes the role of trade liberalization in achieving greater coherence in global economic policy-making. For this purpose, the WTO cooperates, as appropriate, with the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and other world institutions.8. WTO: structurea. Ministerial ConferenceThe Ministerial Conference is the supreme body of the WTO, composed of representatives of all Members, with the authority to carry out the functions of the WTO, take the actions necessary to this effect, and take decisions on matters under any of the Multilateral Trade Agreements if so requested by a Member. The Ministerial Conference is to meet at least once every two years. The first WTO Ministerial Conference was held in Singapore in December 1996 and the second in Geneva in May 1998. The Third took place in Seattle, U.S.A. from 30th November to 3rd December 1999.b. General CouncilThe day to day business of the WTO is conducted by the General Council, also composed of representatives of all WTO Members, which meets on a regular basis (normally once every two months).The General Council acts on behalf of the Ministerial Conference in the periods between its meetings, and reports directly to it.(a) Dispute Settlement BodyThe General Council convenes also as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), which has its own Chairman and its own rules of procedure, to discharge the functions assigned to the DSB under the Dispute Settlement Understanding.(b) Trade Policy Review BodyThe General Council meets also as Trade Policy Review Body, which again has its own Chairman and rules of procedure, to carry out the review of Members' trade policies and practices, as provided for in the Trade Policy Review Mechanism.c. CouncilsThree sectoral councils have been established for goods, services and TRIPs matters, respectively. These Councils, operating under the general guidance of the General Council, carry out the responsibilities assigned to them by their respective agreements and by the General Council, they meet as necessary to carry out their functions, and they are open to representatives of all WTO Members. They may also establish subsidiary bodies, such as committees and working parties.(a) Council for Trade in GoodsThe Council for Trade in Goods oversees the functioning of the multilateral agreementson trade in goods. These include the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and related Understandings, and twelve other agreements, as contained in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement.(b) Council for Trade in ServicesThe Council for Trade in Services oversees the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).(c) Council for TRIPsThe Council for TRIPs oversees the functioning of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs Agreement).d. Committees and other subsidiary bodiesThree main committees are established by the WTO Agreement: the Committee on Trade and Development, the Committee on Balance of Payments Restrictions, and the Committee on Budget, Finance and Administration. Membership of these committees is also open to all Members of the WTO. The General Council has established two other committees reporting to it: the committee on Trade and Environment and the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements.e. Decision-makingThe WTO continues the practice of decision-making by consensus followed under the GATT 1947. Consensus is defined as the situation where no Member, present at a meeting where a decision is taken, formally objects to the proposed decision. However, it is recognized that there may be situations where a consensus cannot be reached, in which case the matter may be decided by voting. Voting rules are set out in the WTO Agreement.Questions for Discussion and Reflection:1. What is the World Trade Organization?2. At what background was GATT born?3. What do you know about the eight rounds of multilateral trade negotiations?4. What are the main differences between GATT and WTO?5. What are WTO' s main objectives?6. Explain WTO' s functions.Chapter 2 WTO’ s Basic Principles1. Trade without discriminationThe basic principles of the multilateral trading system, as embodied in the WTO Agreement, derive mostly from the principles that constituted the foundations of the GATT. Trade without discrimination is one of these basic principles, guaranteed through the operation of various clauses included in the multilateral agreements on trade in goods, in the GATS, and in the TRIPs Agreement.2. Most-favoured-nation treatment (MFN)The most-favoured-nation clause has been the pillar of the system since the inception of the GATT in 1947. The Contracting Parties to the GATT 1947 were bound to grant to the products of other contracting parties treatment no less favourable than that accorded to products of any other country. Members of the WTO have entered into similar commitments, under the GATT 1994 (Article I ) for trade in goods, under the GATS (Article II ) in relation to treatment of service suppliers and trade in services, and under the TRIPs Agreement (Article 4) in regard to the protection of intellectual property.3. National Treatment (NT)The national treatment principle condemns discrimiation between foreign and national goods or services and service suppliers or between foreign and national holders of intellectual property rights.GATT 1994 and the TRIPS Agreement provide for national treatment as one of the main commitments of WTO Members. Imported goods, once duties have been paid, must be given the same treatment as like domestic products in relation to any charges, taxes, or administrative or other regulations (GATT Article 3). With regard to the protection of intellectual property rights, and subject to exceptions in existing international conventions. Members of WTO are committed to grant to nationals or other Members treatment no less favourable than that accorded to their own nationals (Article III ).GATS, however, due to the special nature of trade in services, deals with national treatment under its Part III, Specific Commitments, (Article XV II ), where national treatment becomes a negotiated concession and may be subject to conditions or qualifications that Members have inscribed in their schedules on specific commitments in trade in services.4. TransparencyProvisions on notification requirements and the Trade Policy Review MecHanism are set out in the WTO Agreement and its Annexes, with the objective of guaranteeing the fullest transparency possible in the trade policies of its Members in goods, services and the protection of intellectual property rights. Article X of GATT 1994 deals with the publicationand administration of trade regulations; Article III of GATS sets out provisions on transparency as one of the general obligations and disciplines under that agreement; and Article 3 establishes transparency rules for the TRIPs Agreement.5. Predictable and growing access to marketsPredictable and growing access to markets for goods and services is an essential principle of the WTO. This principle is fulfilled through various provisions so as to guarantee security, predictability and continued liberalization of trade.6. Binding of tariffsIn the case of goods, a basic GATT postulate is that tariffs should normally be the only instrument used to protect domestic industry. Furthermore, tariffs should be predictable and stable.Security and predictability in trade in goods are achieved through the commitments embodied in the "binding of tariffs". A "bound" tariff is a tariff in respect of which there is a legal commitment not to raise it beyond the bound level. The binding of a tariff at a level higher than the tariff actually applied is considered as a legitimate concession. In this case, the concession is the binding itself, that is , the commitment not to raise the tariff beyond that level. The developed countries have normally bound their tariffs at the applied levels. By contrast, and consistently with open market policies, developing countries have adopted commitments on "ceiling bindings", that is , bindings at levels higher than the applied rates. This has allowed developing countries to substantially increase their bound commitments, thus underpinning their open markets policies, while keeping a certain margin for protection in case of need.7. Tariff negotiations: progressive reduction in protectionIn the past, tariff negotiations were launched periodically under the auspices of the GATT. These negotiations served to reduce progressively the level of tariff protection in many countries now Members of the WTO. Tariff negotiations will remain important in the future, particularly in relation to agricultural products, where all non-tariff barriers have been eliminated and substituted by tariffs, in many cases at very high levels.8. Prohibition of quantitative restrictionsAs a general rule, quantitative restrictions are prohibited under the GATT 1994. However, in some cases, such as safeguard action, quantitative restrictions can be introduced under strictly defined criteia.9. Safeguards: emergency import measuresA safeguard measure is an import restriction which can be adopted in emergency circumstances, when imports have increased in such quantities and conditions that they are the cause of serious injury or threat of such injury to a domestic industry producing a like or directly competing product. An agreement on safeguards, setting out conditions and criteria for these actions, is one of the multilateral trade agreements. Measures affecting prices, that is tariffs, are preferable to quantitative restrictions. However, quantitative restrictions can be applied as safeguard measures in specific cases.10. Tariff renegotiations: compensationThe contractual nature of a bound tariff concession lies in the fact that the triff rate cannot be increased beyond the bound level. However, countries would not enter into this kind of commitment without the possibility of revision when the situation of a domestic industry so requires. The GATT 1994 allows for the possibility of renegotiations. A Member desiring to withdraw or modify tariff bindings has to renegotiate them with other interested Members and provide compensation, that is, substantially equivalent tariff concessions on other products.Questions for Discussion and Reflection:1. What does non-discrimination treatment mean?2. Please explain MFN and NT principles.3. Why should WTO member's trade policies be transparent?4. Why should quantitative restrictions be prohibited?5. What does "binding of tariffs" really mean?6. Why should safeguards be taken as one of the WTO principles?Chapter 3 WTO: Dispute Settlement1. The integrated dispute settlement systemThe integrated dispute settlement system is an important part of the multilateral trading system embodied in the WTO. It is based on Articles XX II and XXIII of the GATT 1994, and the rules and procedures further elaborated in the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) contained in the WTO Agreement. The rules have evolved on the basis of past practice in GATT 1947.2. Coverage: goods, services and intellectual propertyThe dispute settlement system covers all the multilateral trade agreements, that is, it is applicable to trade in goods, trade in services, and intellectual property issues arising from the TRIPs Agreement. It is also applicable to disputes arising under the plurilateral Government Procurement Agreement. Some of these agreements have dispute settlement provisions that apply only to disputes arising under that specific agreement and that add to or change the rules of the DSU. The dispute settlement system is administered by the Dispute Settlement Body:3. Procedures: strict time-limitsThe dispute settlement process is initiated through a request for consultations made by one Member to another in respect of a specific issue. If consultations fail to resolve a dispute, a Member may ask the DSB to establish a panel, normally consisting of three independent trade experts, to rule on the issue. After hearing the parties, the panel issues a report to the DSB. For the panel, strict time-limits have been agreed so as to achieve the greatest efficiency possible under the system. A large degree of automaticity is involved in this process.4. Adoption of panel reports: the reverse consensusUnder GATT practice, the report of a panel was submitted to the GATT Contracting Parties for adotion. Since the Contracting Parties normally took decisions by consensus, any Party (including the losing Party) could block adoption of a panel report. While this did not occur frequently, it happened from time to time. An innovative formula has been agreed upon in the DSU, whereby a consensus in the negative is required in order not to adopt a panel report. This formula allows for a smoother functioning of the system.5. Appellate body reviewThe WTO dispute settlement mechanism gives the possibility of appeal to either party in a panel proceeding. However, any such appeal must be limited to issues of law covered in thepanel report and the legal interpretations developed by the panel. Appeals are heard by a standing Appellate Body consisting of seven members appointed by the DSB for four year terms. The report of the Appellate Body must be unconditionally accepted by the parties to the dispute, and the report is to be adopted by the DSB unless there is a negative consensus, that is a consensus against adoption.6. Non-compliance with recommendationsThe Dispute Settlement Body keeps under surveillance the implementation of adopted recommendations or rulings, and any outstanding issue remaining in its agenda until its resolution. Timelimits are also established for compliance with recommendations of panel reports. When a party is unable to implement those recommendations within a reasonable period of time, it is obliged to enter into negotiations with the complainant in order to determine mutually acceptable compensation. If these negotiations fail, the Dispute Settlement Body may authorize the complainant party to suspend concessions or obligations against the other party. Compensation and suspension of concessions are, however, interim solutions until such time when the recommendations of the DSB are implemented by the member concerned.Questions for Discussion and Reflection:1. What is dispute settlement mechanism?2. What is reverse consensus?3. Explain the dispute settlement procedures.4. What can be done if a member does not implement Dispute Settlement Body’srecommendations?Chapter 4 WTO: Trade Policy Review Mechanism1. IntroductionThe Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) was introduced into GATT in 1989 following the Mid-Term Review of the Uruguay Round. The mechanism was confirmed as an integral part of the WTO in Annex 3 of the Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization. Before 1995, trade policy reviews were restricted to trade in goods. In conformity with WTO rules, since 1 January 1995 reviews have also covered new areas like trade in services and intellectual property rights.2. ObjectivesThe purpose of the TPRM is to "contribute to improved adherence by all Members to rules, disciplines and commitments made under the Multilateral Trade Agreements and, where applicable, the Plurilateral Trade Agreements, and hence to the smoother functioning of the multilateral trading system, by achieving greater transparency in, and understanding of, the trade policies and practices of Members^. The review covers the full range of individual Members trade policies and practices and their impact on the functioning of the multilateral trading system. It is not confined to a consideration of the trade policies from the point of view of consistency with WTO rules. The purpose is to enable a collective appreciation and evaluation of these policies and practices. It is not meant to serve as a basis for enforcement of specific obligations or to impose new commitments.3. Trade policy reviewsThe TPRM seeks to achieve its objectives by conducting reviews, over time, of all WTO Members. Through such reviews, Members undertake the regular collective appreciation of the trade policies and practices of trading partners. Also examined is the impact on the multilateral trading system of such policies and practices.The reviews are set against the background of each country's wider economic and developmental needs, policies, objectives, and of its external economic environment.4. Scope of reviewsReviews in the TPRM seek to show the extent to which individual trading entities follow basic WTO principles. Those principles are as follows:—Transparency of trade policies;— Non-discrimination in treatment of trading partners;— Whether their policies contribute to trade liberalization;— The degree of stability and predictability in trade policies;— The pattern of protection and the extent to which tariffs only are used as measures of。
世界贸易组着(WTO)规则解读中英版 WTO专题(概述)
六
WTO的法律地位
WTO is a permanent international organization and is of equality in legal status with such international organizations as UN, etc. It has legal personality with the privileges and immunities. WTO是一个独立于联合国的永久性国际组织， 在法律上与联合国等国际组织是平等的，并享 有法人地位及特权和豁免权。
Cont’d
5. Seeking both to protect and preserve the environment and to enhance the means for doing so in a manner consistent with their respective needs and concerns at different levels of economic development; 6. Ensuring that developing countries, and especially the least developed among them, secure a share in the growth in international trade commensurate with the needs of their economic development.
2、“WTO造成失业和企业破产”。
WTO解释： 贸易是创造就业岗位和减少贫穷的重要 力量。自由流动和更稳定的贸易会促进 经济增长。 WTO 所倡导的贸易自由化是渐进的，允 许其成员作必要的调整。当成员不能作 必要的调整时，他们能并确实可以拒绝 开放相关的市场部门。
大学课程《世界贸易组织概论》PPT课件：第四章 WTO有关货物贸易的协议(中)
三、对SPS协议的评价
SPS协议最为显著的一个特点是强调以科学证据作为制定卫生检疫措施的基础,明 确要求成员方必须以风险评估为依据决定适当的卫生检疫保护水平,在风险评估 时应综合考虑现有的科学证据、有关过程与生产方法、检验和抽样与测试方法、 某种疾病或虫害的流行、无疾病或虫害地区以及有关生态与环境条件等因素。
SPS协议中对于风险评估与适当保护水平的规定也存在一些具体问题:
第一,除了要求风险评估,协议并没有进一步规定使用科学程序进行风险评估 的指导原则与具体程序,这就使成员方对协议的具体解释与执行有很大的空间。
第二,风险评估的结果主要取决于某具体风险发生的可能性及其后果,而可能性与 后果既反映有关风险的客观信息,又反映风险评估者一定的主观态度,尤其是对那 些发生的可能性很低,但一旦发生却会产生严重后果的风险,其发生的可能性经常 会被高估。
(六)海关估价机构 1.海关估价委员会 2.海关估价技术委员会第四节 《装运前检验协议》
一、装运前检验的概念与特征 装运前检验(简称PSI)是当代国际商品贸易中经常采用的
一种检验方法,是指进口国政府的检验机构,或其授权或委托 的独立的第三方检验机构,根据法律规定或贸易合同的要求, 在货物出口所在地关境内对有关进口货物所进行的货物发运 前的检验活动。
(四)通报、评议与咨询制度
为了保证各成员方的技术法规和合格评定程序具有透明 度,TBT协议规定,当不存在有关国际标准或成员方拟采纳 与国际标准不同并可能对其他成员方的贸易产生重大影 响的技术性措施时,必须履行通报义务,通报必须在该措 施还没有被批准且可修改的时间内进行,应在指定出版物 上发布拟采纳技术法规的通知,并通过TBT委员会秘书处 就其所涉及产品及目的和理由向其他成员方通报,对其他 成员方提出的书面意见和评议的结果应予以考虑。
2024年度-世界贸易组织WTOppt课件
04
CATALOGUE
WTO的主要协定与协议
16
关税与贸易总协定（GATT）
1 2
GATT的基本原则
包括非歧视原则、关税减让原则、取消非关税壁 垒原则等，旨在促进国际贸易的自由化和便利化 。
GATT的历史与发展
自1947年签署以来，GATT经历了多次修订和扩 展，逐渐成为国际贸易领域的重要法律文件。
2001年11月10日，在卡塔尔多哈举 行的世贸组织第四次部长级会议上审 议并批准了中国加入世贸组织法律文 件。
1995年7月11日，世贸组织总理事会 会议决定接纳中国为该组织的观察员 。
2001年12月11日，中国正式成为世 贸组织成员。
5
WTO的宗旨与职能
• 宗旨：提高生活水平，保证充分就业和大幅度、稳步提高实际收入和有效需求 ；扩大货物和服务的生产与贸易；坚持走可持续发展之路，各成员方应促进对 世界资源的最优利用、保护和维护环境，并以符合不同经济发展水平下各成员 需要的方式，加强采取各种相应的措施；积极努力确保发展中国家，尤其是最 不发达国家在国际贸易增长中获得与其经济发展水平相适应的份额和利益。
在部长会议休会期间代行部长会议职 能，其下设委员会、理事会和总干事 。
秘书处与总干事
秘书处是WTO的常设办事机构，由 部长会议任命的总干事领导，其人数 约为600人。秘书处的职责主要由《 WTO协定》加以规定，主要有：安 排WTO的各种会议；负责WTO文件 、报告的起草及文件的印发和保管； 协助各机构工作；对发展中国家成员 提供技术援助；管理WTO的对外关 系；为WTO提供法律服务。
如果争端一方对专家组的报告持 有异议，可以向上诉机构提起上 诉。上诉机构由7名成员组成， 负责审理对专家组报告提起的上 诉。上诉机构的报告应在合理期 限内完成并提交给争端各方。
世界贸易组织概论
世界贸易组织概论第一章世界贸易组织（WTO）的建立和操作机制1.1 WTO的建立1.1.1《关税与贸易总协定》(GATT) 年：从哈日那到马拉喀什1.1.1.1 GATT的多轮谈判在“二战”以后，世界贸易组织于1995年1月1日成立，这标志着国际贸易的重大变革。
“世界贸易组织”这个现代化的模式使1948年没能成立的“国际贸易组织”成为现实。
GA TT的那47年的很多历史发生在哈日那。
但是它也记录了一个跨越大陆间的旅行，从1948年哈日那（古巴）那个踌躇不定的开始，经过安纳西（法国）、托基（英格兰）、东京（日本）、埃斯特角（乌拉圭）、蒙特利尔（加拿大）、布鲁塞尔（比利时），最后1994到马拉喀什（摩洛哥）。
在那段时期，贸易体制从那个夭折的建立国际贸易组织（ITO）的尝试下降到签订GA TT的尝试。
GA TT帮助建立了一个经过多轮贸易谈判变得越来越宽泛、不拘泥的强大的、繁荣的多边贸易体制。
但是到了20世纪80年代，这个多边贸易体制需要一个彻底的检修。
这个导致了乌拉圭回合，最终促使了WTO的建立。
这一现象在表1-1可体现出来。
1.1.1.2 GATT的地位：“几乎半世纪的暂定”从1984年到1994年，GA TT提供了大量世界贸易的规则并且主持、管理了见证一些最高增长率的国际贸易时期。
GA TT看起来是得到确认的，但是贯穿那47年，它都是一个暂定的协议和组织。
GATT的第一轮多边谈判建立关贸总协定最初的意图是建立一个与布雷顿森林体系下两大组织（世界银行和国际货币基金组织）并驾齐驱的第三组织，以解决国际经济合作当中的问题。
超过50个国家参加了那些谈判，目的是成立一个作为联合国专有机构的ITO。
ITO的宪章草稿是热望的。
它扩大了世界贸易准则的范围，包括就业规则、商品协定、限制的商业惯例、国际投资和服务项目。
实际上在会谈结束之前，50个参加国中的23个缔约方就决定在1946年谈判下调关税。
随着第二次世界大战的刚刚结束，他们就想早的解放国际贸易，并且开始纠正那个从20世纪30年代就存在的贸易保护措施。
世界贸易组织(WTO)概论期末复习资料
世界贸易组织（WTO）概论期末复习第一章关税与贸易总协定1. GATT产生过程The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade布雷顿森林会议Bretton Woods Conference古巴的哈瓦那召开的联合国贸易和就业会议United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment, held in Havana, Cuba, in 1947the Havana Charter for the International Trade Organization was adopted. 哈瓦那宪章没有被美国国会批准the Havana Charter never entered into force.a group of countries engaged in tariff negotiations and in 1947 agreed on substantial tariff reductions一些双边的关税减让协定the Chapter on Commercial Policy of the Havana Charter →the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).Protocol of Provisional Application was developed. 临时适用→the GATT was born, a provisional agreementThe Protocol of Provisional Application stated that the governments involved would apply Parts I and III of the GATT, however. Part II (mostly on non-tariff barriers) would apply only to the fullest extent "not inconsistent with existing legislation".Entered into force: 1 January 1948Terminated on 31 December 1995Eight "rounds" of multilateral trade negotiations乌拉圭回合：125个参加方在协议上签字，8年谈判。
1.WTO概述
2、第二轮多边贸易谈判
1949年4月－10月，法国安纳西 目的：给欧洲经济合作组织提供进入多边 贸易体制机会，促使这些国家为响应欧洲 经济合作组织的号召，为承担各成员之间 的关税减让而作出努力。 主要成果：谈判方增加了瑞典、丹麦、芬 兰、意大利、希腊、海地、尼加拉瓜、多 米尼加、乌拉圭和利比里亚等10国。美国 关税水平大幅下降。达成147项关税减让谈 判，涉及减税商品5000余项，平均降低关 税35％。
5、第五轮多边贸易谈判
1960年9月－1962年7月，日内瓦，共有45 个国家参加。 欧共体的统一关税取代了欧共体国别的关 税，欧共体对由此导致的任何单一国家 （包括欧共体以外成员）的收支不平衡都 将予以补偿。 关税减让商品涉及4400多项，平均降低关 税20％。欧共体六国统一对外关税达成减 让，平均税率降低6.5%。
8. Government Procurement
9. Agreement on Agriculture 10. The Law System of Tentiles and Clothing 11. The Law System of Preshipment and Inspection(PSI)
一、世界贸易组织成立背景
乌拉圭回合谈判开始时，15个议题未含建 立WTO问题，只设立关于修改和完善 GATT体制职能的谈判组，但新议题很难在 GATT旧框架内谈判，有必要创立正式国际 贸易组织来分别谈判解决。 1990年初，意大利首先提出建立多边贸易 组织（MTO）的倡议，1990年12月布鲁塞 尔部长会议上作出正式决定，1991年12月形 成了一份“关于建立多边贸易组织协定草 案”，形成“邓克尔最后案文”。 在1993年12月15日乌拉圭结束时根据美国 的动议把“MTO”改为“世界贸易组织”， 缩写为WTO，得到各方同意。
WTO词汇(中英翻译对照)
QQuads 四方集团（指美国、欧盟、日本、加拿大）Qualification of Suppliers 供应商资格Qualification Procedures 资格审查程序Qualification System 资格审查制度Qualifications 资格Quantitative Ceiling 数量上限Quantitative Restriction 数量限制Quantity Commitment Levels 数量承诺水平Quantity trigger level 数量触发水平Quantum of International 国际贸易总量Quarantine Measures 检疫措施Quarantine Treatments 检疫处理Quasi-judicial 准司法Quota Period 配额期限Quota Price 配额价格Quota Restrictions 配额限制Quota System 配额制度quota-free products 非配额产品Quota-Hopping 配额跳过RRate of Subsidization 补贴率Reasonable Expectation 合理预期Reasonable Means 合理方法Reasonable Period of Time 合理期限Rebuttal Evidence 反驳的证据Rebuttal Submissions 书面辩驳Recidivist Dumping 习惯性倾销Recipient Country/Region 受援国/地区Reciprocal Trade 互惠贸易Reciprocity 对等Recommendations （争端解决）建议Recommendations of Findings 建议或裁决Recovery of Costs 成本收回Red Box 红箱Reduction Commitments 削减承诺Reference years 参考年（基期）Refund of Duties or Taxes 退税Regional trade 区域贸易Regional Trade Agreements 区域贸易协定Registration of a Trademark 商标注册Registry 登记处Regular Channels of Trade 正常贸易渠道Regulatory Duty 调节关税Regulatory Requirements 管理要求Related Persons 有关联关系的人Remedies 经济措施Remission or Drawback 减免与退税Renewal of Registration 注册续展Rental of Phonograms 录音制品出租Rental Rights 出租权Reporting system 申报制度Representations or Proposals 交涉或建议Representative Office 代表处Representative Period 代表期Request for a Waiver 请求豁免义务Request for Conciliation 请求调解Requirments of Use 使用要求Res Judicata 一事不再理Reservation Clause 保留条款Reserved Negotiations 保留谈判Residual Tariffs 剩余关税Residual Value 剩余价值Resource Rent 资源租金Responding Party 应诉方Restraint of Trade 贸易限制Restrictive Clauses 限制性条款Resumed dumping 继续倾销Retail Store Restriction 零售店限制Retailing Services 零售服务Retaliation 报复Retaliatory Measures 报复措施Retaliatory Subsidization 报复性补贴Retrospective Remedies 追溯性救济Revenue 税收Reverse Dumping 逆倾销Review 复审Review Session 审议会议Revocation 撤销Right Holder 权利持有人Right of Appeal 上诉权Right of Establishment 设立权Right of First Refusal 首次拒绝权利Right of Priority 优先权Right of Reproduction 复制权Right to Use a Trademark 商标使用权Risk assessment 风险分析Round 回合Routine Notification 例行通知Royalties 特许权费/使用费Rules of Origin 原产地规则Rules of Procedure 议事规则Rural Development 农村发展SSafeguard Agreement 保障措施协定Safeguard(SG) 保障措施Safe-Haven Agreement 安全港协定Safety Requirements 安全要求Sale for Export 出口销售Sales Tax 销售税Sanitary Inspection 卫生检查Scale of Contribution 会费分摊比例Schedular Tax 分类所得税Schedule of Commitments(GATS) 承诺减让表Schedule Price 价目表价格Schedules of Bindings 约束关税表Schedules of Concessions 减让表Schedules of concessions 减让时间表Scheduling 减让表制作Scientific Evidence 科学证据Scientific Justification 科学上的正当性Scientific Tariff 科学关税Scope of Appellate Review 上诉审查范围Screen Quota 反映限额Screen Time 反映时间Screwdriver Operations 改锥业务Secondary Dumping 二级倾销Second-Level Obligations 第二层义务Sectoral Commitments 部门承诺Sector-Specific Commitments 部门具体承诺Security 担保Security Exceptions 安全例外Security Services 证券服务Selection Procedures 选择程序Selective Safeguard 选择性保障措施Selective Safeguard Clause 严重损害Self-Certification 自我认证Self-Regulatory 自律组织Sellers’Price List 卖方价格清单Selling Price 销售价格Semi-Generic Wine Names 半通用酒名Separate Customs Territory 单独关税区Sequencing 先后顺序Serious Adverse 严重不利影响Serious injury 严重损害Serious Prejudice 严重侵害Service Address 送达地址Service Industry 服务业Service Mark 服务商标Service Market Access 服务贸易市场准入Service Regulations 服务管理Services 服务Services Supplier 服务提供者Settlement of Claims 权利请求的解决Shrimp Case 虾案Similar Goods 类似货物Singapore Agenda 新加坡议程Singapore Issues新加坡议题Single Approach 单一方式Single Tendering 单一来源采购Single Unified Market 单一统一市场Situation Complaints 情势之诉Small Economies 小经济体Social Dumping 社会倾销Social Labeling 社会标签Social Services 社会服务Social Subsidies 社会补贴Social Welfare Charges 社会福利费用Sole Agent 独家代理人Sole Concessionaire 独家受让人Sole Distributor 独家经销人Special Economic Areas 特殊经济区Special Import Measures Act 特殊进口措施法Special Safeguards（SSG）特殊保障措施Special Treatment（ST）（农业协议）特别处理Specialist 专家Specialist in Accounts 会计账目专家Specific Duty 特别关税Specific License 特种许可证Specific Measure 具体措施Specific Subsidy 专向性补贴Specific tariff 从量税Specificity 专向性Specificity Principle 专向性原则Specificity Test 专向性测试Sporadic Dumping 零星倾销Spurious Dumping 假倾销Square Brackets 方括号Staff Regulations 职员条例Staff report 工作人员报告Staff Rules 职员规则Stamp Tax 印花税Standard of Review 审查标准Standardization 标准化Standardization Activities 标准化活动Standardizing 标准化机构Standards 标准Standards Code 标准守则Standing Appellate Body 常设上诉机构Standstill Commitment 维持现状承诺Standstill Provisions 维持现状规定Stare Decisis 遵循先例Start-Up Period 投产期间Start-Up Situation 投产状态State Pricing 国家定价State Responsibility 国家责任State Trading 国营贸易State Trading Commitment 国营贸易承诺State Trading Countries 国营贸易国家State-Owned Enterprises 国有企业State-Trading Dumping 国营贸易倾销Statism 国家主义Stockpiling Exception 储存例外Strategic Duping 战略倾销Subheading 子目Subject Matter of a Patent 专利的客体Submission 递交材料Sub-National Obligation 地方政府义务Subsequent Practice 嗣后做法Subsidiaries 独资子公司Subsidiary 从属性Subsidiary Bodies 附属机构Subsidies 补贴Subsidized Goods 补贴产品Subsidizing Member 进行补贴的成员Subsidy 补贴Subsidy Practice 补贴做法Substantial Improvement 实质性改善Substantial Interest 实质利益Substantial Transformation 实质性改变Substantive Disciplines 实质性纪律Substantive Meeting 实质性会议Substitutable Products 替代品Sunset Clause 日落条款Sunset Industry 夕阳产业Sunset Review 日落复审Supplemental Information 补充信息Supplementary Criteria 补充标准Support Price 支持价格Surrogate Country 替代国Suspend concessions 暂停减让Suspension of an Investigation 中止调查Suspension of Concessions 中止减让Suspension of Release 中止放行Sustainable Development 可持续发展Swiss Formula 瑞士公式Symmetrical Comparisons 对称比较Sympathetic Consideration 积极考虑TTargeted Dumping 目标倾销Tariff Act 关税法Tariff Anomaly 关税异常Tariff Bindings 约束关税/ 关税约束承诺tariff classification 关税分类Tariff Concessions 关税减让Tariff Consolidation 关税合并Tariff Equivalent 关税等值Tariff Escalation 关税升级Tariff Increase 提高关税Tariff Item 税号Tariff Laws 关税法规Tariff Level 关税水平Tariff line 税号Tariff Line 税则号列Tariff Negotiations 关税谈判Tariff Nomenclature 税则目录Tariff peaks 关税高峰Tariff Policy 关税政策Tariff Preferences 关税优惠Tariff Protection 关税保护Tariff Quota 关税配额Tariff Range 关税范围Tariff Rate 关税税率Tariff rate quotas （TRQ ）关税配额Tariff Schedule 关税表Tariff Structure 关税结构Tariff Union(CU) 关税同盟Tariff valuation 关税估价Tariff War 关税战Tariff Zone 关税区Tariff-Cutting Formula 关税减让公式Tariff-Free Quota 免税配额Tariffication 关税化Tariff-Only Regime 单一关税机制Tariffs 关税Tax Credit 税收抵免Tax Subsidy 税收补贴Taxation Services 税收服务Taxed Product 国内征税产品Technical Expertise 技术专长Technical Regulation 技术法规Technical Specifications 技术规格Technical Sub-Committee 技术小组委员会Telecommunication Services 电信服务案Telecommunications 电信Telecommunications Annex 电信附件Telecommunications Services 电信服务Television Services 电视服务Tendering Documents 招标文件Tendering Procedures 招标程序Term of Patent Protection 专利保护期Terms of Reference 职权范围条款Test Methods 检验方法Test Value 测试价格Testing and Inspection 检验和检查Textile Committee 纺织品委员会Textile Designs 纺织品设计Textile Trade 纺织品贸易The Contracting Parties 缔约方全体The contraction in demand 需求萎缩Threat of Injury 损害威胁Threat of Serious Injury 严重损害威胁Threshold 最低限额Threshold Price 门槛价Threshold Value 最低限价Tied Investment 捆绑式投资Tiered Formula 分层公式Time-Limited Exceptions 有时限的例外Time-Schedules 时间表Tokyo Round 东京回合Tolerances for Contaminants 污染物允许量Top-Down Approach 自上而下的方法Torquay Round 托奎回合Total AMS 综合支持总量Total AMS Commitment 综合支持总量承诺Total Eligible Costs 可计入总成本Tourism Satellite Account 旅游卫星账户Tourist Guides Services 导游服务Trade and Environment 贸易与环境Trade Defence Measures 贸易防御措施Trade Diversion 贸易转移Trade diversion inquiry 贸易转移调查Trade Facilitation 贸易便利化Trade in goods 货物贸易Trade in Services 服务贸易Trade in Services Statistics 服务贸易统计Trade Name 商号Trade or Business Association 同业公会或商会Trade Policy 贸易政策Trade Policy Review 贸易政策审议Trade preferences 贸易优先Trade Regulations 贸易法规Trade Relief 贸易补救Trade Remedies 贸易救济Trade Rules for Services 服务贸易规则Trade Secrets 商业秘密Trade Statistics 贸易统计Trade Surplus 贸易盈余Trade, Debt and Finance 贸易、债务和金融Trademark 商标Trading Rights 贸易权Traffic Rights 航空权Training Services 培训服务Transaction in Services 服务交易Transaction Value 成交价格Transfer Duties 转让税Transfer of Liabilities 债务转移Transfer of Payments 转移支付Transitional Safeguard 过渡性保障措施Translation Issues 翻译问题Transparency 透明度Transport Subsidy 运输补贴Transshipment 转运Treaty Interpretation 条约解释Trigger Clause 触发条款Trigger Level 触发水平Trigger Price 触发价格Triggering Point 触发点Turnover Tax 营业税UUnder-Invoicing 低报出口Undertaking 承诺Undisclosed Information 未披露信息Unforeseen Development 不可预见的发展Uniform Tariff 统一关税Unit Amount of a Subsidy 单位补贴额Universal Services 普遍服务Unrequited Export 无偿出口Upstream Dumping 上游倾销Upstream Subsidy 上游补贴Urban Planning Services 城市规划服务Urgent Circumstances 紧急问题Uruguay Round 乌拉圭回合Use in Good Faith 善意使用Use of a Trademark 商标使用User Member 用户成员VVagueness of Claims 权利请求模糊Valuation Basis 估价基础Valuation Effect 估价效果Valuation of Contracts 合同估价Valuation Option 估价选择Valuation Procedures 估价程序Valuation System 估价系统Value Added Tax System 增值税制度Value Added Tax（VAT）增值税Value-Added Telecommunications 增值电信Variable duties 差价税Variable Duty 可变税Variable Import 进口差价税Variable Levies差价税Verification 核实Vertical merger 垂直兼并Veterinary Services 兽医服务Violation Claims 违反之诉Visible Balance 有形收支余额Visible Export and Import 有形进出口Visible Trade 有形贸易Visible Trade Balance 有形贸易余额Voluntary Export Quota 自愿出口配额Voluntary Restraint of Export 自愿出口限制Voluntary Standard 自愿性标准Voluntary Undertakings 自愿承诺WWaiver （WTO 义务）豁免Water Transport Services 水运服务Welfare Services 社会福利服务Well-Known Trademark 驰名商标Wheat Flour 面粉案Wholesale Trade Services 批发服务Withdraw 撤回Withdraw concessions 撤销减让Withdraw from the Agreement 退出协定Withdrawal 退出Withdrawal of the Measures 措施撤回Withholding of Concessions 停止减让Witness statement 证词Work of Applied Art 实用艺术作品Working party 工作组Working Procedures 工作程序Wrongful Detention of Goods 错误扣押商品WTO Agreement WTO 协议WTO Secretariat 世界贸易组织秘书处YYearly Updates 年度更新ZZero Binding 零关税约束Zero Duties 零关税Zero-for-Zero Approach 零对零方法Zero-for-Zero Principle 零对零原则Zero-for-Zero Proposal 零对零建议Zeroing 归零Zero-Margin Harmonization 零差别协调。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
• The least developed countries fear that agricultural reforms may lead to increases in world prices, which could have adverse impacts on poor food-importing countries. • Increase in world prices of primary pntries increase their export earnings
73% 98%
78%
21% 73%
(These are tariff lines, so percentages are not weighted according to trade volume or value) Source: The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations: Market Access for Goods and Services — Overview of the Results, Geneva, 1994.
• A country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could lead to compensation for losses in trade.
• For developed countries, the bound rates are generally the rates actually charged. • Most developing countries have bound the rates somewhat higher than the actual rates charged, so the bound rates serve as ceilings.
Introduction to the World Trade Organization (WTO)
Chapter 4 Tariff Concession 4.1. The Contents of Tariff Concession
4.1.1. Definition of tariff concession
2. The determination of the initial negotiation rights
• When a tariff concession is modified or withdrawn on a new product the member possessing initial negotiating rights on the tariff line where the product is or was formerly classified, shall be deemed to have an initial negotiating right in the concession in question.
• There will also be fewer products charged high duty rates. • The Uruguay Round package has been improved. • Developed countries increased the number of imports whose tariff rates are "bound" (committed and difficult to increase) from 78% of product lines to 99%.
• The results of tariff negotiations are known as tariff concession or tariff bindings. A concession tariff or a tariff binding is a commitment not to increase customs duties on a product above an agreed level.
4.1.2.2. Understanding on the interpretation of article XXVIII of GATT 1994
1. The determination of the principal supplying interests
• For the purposes of modification or withdrawal of a concession, the Member which has the highest ratio of exports affected by the concession to its total exports shall be deemed to have a principle supplying interest if it does not already have an initial negotiating right or a principle supplying interest.
• In the WTO, when a country agrees to open their markets for goods or services, means that this country "bind" their commitments. These consolidations in the goods market amount to ceilings on customs tariff rates.
• Developed countries agreed to reduce tariffs on industrial products in 40% by 2000. Then about 44% of all products exported to developed countries will have a duty-free treatment. Besides this, 40 industrialized countries agreed to eliminate tariffs on industrial products by the year 2000. • Least developed countries are not required to reduce their tariffs.
• The trade of the product concerned which took place under conditions of noncontractual preference also will be considered under the following premise: if the transaction in question has ceased to gain preferential treatment (thus becoming MFN), at the time of the negotiation for the modification or withdrawal of the concession, or will do so by the conclusion of that negotiation.
• Although industrialized countries agreed to give developing countries access to their markets through tariff reduction, there are still products like fish and textiles, which still have high tariffs.
Table 4.1: Percentages of Tariffs Bound before and after the Uruguay Round
Before Developed countries
Developing countries Transition economies
After 99%
• When a member believes it has a major interest in terms of paragraph 1 shall communicate its claim in writing, with supporting evidence, to the Member proposing to modify or withdraw a concession, and at the same time inform the Secretariat.
• The largest results of Uruguay Round are the 22,500 pages listing the commitments of individual countries on certain categories of goods and services, these include commitments to reduce and consolidate its customs duties on imports of goods and in some cases, tariffs are reduced to zero.
• The TRIPS Agreement mainly protects the intellectual property of large multinational companies, exacerbating inequalities between countries.