外文翻译--WTO对中国房地产市场的影响
中国的对外贸易外文翻译及原文
外文翻译原文Foreign T rade o f ChinaMaterial Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka1.IntroductionOn December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing:•In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44%•In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1•In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2•In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province•In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere2.Evolution of China’s Trade RegimeEqually remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a muchfaster rate than exports of primary goods.As a result,the share of manufactur ed goods increased t o90.1%,and that of primary good decr eased to9.9%by2001.Also shown in those tables are five subgr oups for manufactur ed goods and primary goods.China’s export was highly dependent on its exports of coal, petroleum,and petr oleum products until mid-80s.The large export volume of petr oleum was also support ed by a sharp rise in oil prices during the period.In1985, the share of mineral fuels is26.1%.In1986,the su d d en decline in the share of primary goods in total exports occurs,which is largely associated with the decline in the export volume of mineral fuels.The price reforms coupled with the declined world petr oleum price areattributable t o the decline.Domestic agriculture production expanded during the1980’s in response to the higher prices thr ough the price reforms and mo r e opportunities given t o the producers to market their products.Although the share of food and live animals in total exports has declined over time,China has become a net exporter of such products since1984.T urning to the manufactur ed goods,the large increase in the share of the manufactur ed goods in the total exports since mid-80s is largely accounted for by the increase in the export in the textile category and the miscellaneous products category.These two gr oups include labor-intensive products such as textiles,apparel, footwear,and toys and sporting goods.During the1990s,the category that exhibited the mos t significant surge in exports is machinery and transport equipment.Its share exp anded from9.0%in1990t o35.7%in2001.3.China’s Processing Trade and Trade by For eign Invested FirmsChina established the legal framework for processing and assembly arrangements in1979.Since then,China has built up considerable strengths in assembling and processing of industrial parts and components.It covers a wide range of industries such as electric machinery,automobile,aerospace,and shipbuilding.T able3a and T able3b demonstrate the amount of processing exports and imports and the importance of stateowned enterprises(SOEs)and foreign-invested enterprises(FIEs)in such forms of trade for1995-2001. Throughout the period from1995to2001,the shares of these two types of processing exports exceed more than half of China’s total exports.In2001，processing exports account for55.4%of the total exports.As is seen in T able3a, process&assembling was dominat ed by SOEs in1995.However,the tr end has been changing.The share of SOEs in process&assembling has been steadilydeclining over the years from84%in1995to62%in2001.The other type of trade, process with imported materials was largely conducted by FIEs and their shares have been gradually increasing from81%in1995to88%in2001.In China’s imports(see T able3b),processing trade is relatively small comp a r ed to exports. After it peak ed at49%in1997,processed imports decline to39%in2001.The decreasing importance of SOEs can be seen in China’s imports as well.Shares by SOEs decr eased from81%in1995t o58%in2001for process&assembling,and from18%to7%for process with imported materials.The decr eased role for SOEs in processing trade may reflect the inefficiency in conducting their business.Since 1997,the Chinese government decided t o implement the shareholding system and t o sell a large numbe r of medium-and small-sized SOEs to the private sector.A n u mbe r of larger enterprise gr oups will be established in various industries thr ough mergers,acquisitions,and leasing and contracting.The restructuring of SOEs is intended to increase profits and to improve their competitive edge.4.China’s Tr ade by Provinces and RegionsA regional breakdown of exports and imports reveals important characteristics of the foreign trade in China.In1997,89.1%of the total exports came from the Eastern region of China(Beijing,Tianjin,Heibei,Lioaning,Guangxi,Shanghai, Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Fujian,Shangdong,Guandong and Hainan).Within the East,the Southeast region accounts for76.3%of China's exports in1997.4Gu ang dong alone pr oduces41.6%of the total exports for the sa me year.Such regional imbalances in exporting activities persist to the present day.In2001,Guandong's share of the national exports is36.0%.For the Southeast and the East,the shares are respectively 79.0%and91.1%.This imbalance of the regional growth in foreign trade may partially be attributed t o the various geographic-specific and sequential o pen-d oo r policies China has exercised thr oughout the last twenty years.The strong growth of th e export sector in the coastal area has been support ed by the massive use of foreign direct investment(FDI).FDI was first attracted by the creation of the Special Economic Zones(SEZ).FDI was concentrated in the provinces of the Southeast coast,namely,Guandong and Fujian.The multinational enterprises that are export-oriented or use adv anced technologies are able to enjoy various preferential policies in the SEZs,such as r educed or ex empt e d corporate income tax,exemption from import tariffs on imported equipment and raw materials.In1984,fourteen coastal cities were opened and were grant ed similar policies as SEZs.Out of thosefourteen cities,ten are located in the Southeast coast regions and four are in the rest of the Eastern regions.Furthermore in1985,similar preferential policies were grant ed t o other coastal economic regions,Pearl River Delta,Y angtze River Delta and Minnan Delta which is t o the south of Fujian.In1990,Pu d o n g in Shanghai was opened and was grant ed extensive preferential policies.Since1984,the Chinese government established thirty-two national-level Economic and T echnological Development Zones(ETDZs).The share of exports in The Y angtze River Delta,the home of Shanghai and two provinces,Jiangsu and Zhejiang has grown steadily during the period1997to 2001.The share of those three regions grew to10.1%,11.0%,and9.1%in2001 from8.1%,7.9%and5.9%in1997,respectively.As the role of high-tech industry beco mes mo r e significant in China’s output and China’s comparative advantage in skilled-labor and capital-intensive industries beco mes higher,the Y angtze River Delta be co mes a new magnet for investment by foreign enterprises.These foreign investments in turn lead to mo r e export and trade.5.Foreign T rade by Major World RegionsUsing China’s official statistics,Table4a and4b highlight merchandise export s and imports t o and from major world regions for1993-2001:Asia,Africa,Europe, Latin America,North America and Oceania.As we see from Table4a,China’s most important export region has always been Asia,which absorbs53%of China’s exports in2001.However,their share of absorption declines from almost62%,their peak level of1995.The importance of North America and Europe in China’s exports, however,has been increasing since1998.In2001,North America takes in mo r e than22%of exports and Europe takes in mo r e than18%.6.China’s Merchandise Exports and Imports by Major Trading PartnersTable5a and Table5b document China’s merchandise exports to and imports from its major trading partners,using China’s official statistics.According to Tabl e 5a,the major exports markets for China in2001are:the United States(20.4%), Hong Kong(17.5%),Japan(16.9%)and the European Union(15.4%).It is well-known that a large proportion of Chinese exports to Hong Kong are re-exported elsewhere so that the true size of the Hong Kong export market has t o be estimated. T o save space for this paper,we will just rely on the official Chinese figures.6Even without adjusting for re-exports,the United States in2001is the largest export market for China.Thus,from an international trade perspective alone,the most important bilateral trade relationship for China is the relationship with the UnitedStates.T ogether t he United States,Hong Kong,Japan and the European Union take in70.2%of China’s exports in2001.Within ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations),Singapore has been the largest export market for China.In2001, 31.5%of China’s total exports to ASEAN is destined for Singapore.Within the European Union(EU),Germany is the largest market with23.8%of the total Chinese exports going to the EU.9.ConclusionIn the future,we see that there are at least two challenges facing China in the area of international trade.First,with China’s competitiveness growing,many countries will perceive that their producers will no t be able to c o mpe t e with the Chinese exports,either in the third market or in their own domestic market.The backlash will take the form of an increased use of anti-dumping duties and safeguards.W e have already seen the use of such trade instruments against China from a variety of countries,including Japan,the European Union and the United States.A relatively new development is that even developing countries such as India and Mexico are using anti-dumping measur es against Chinese exports to their countries.The difficulty with anti-dumping duties is that they are generally WT O-consistent.Thus joining the WTO d o es no t mean that other countries will reduce their use of anti-dumping duties against China.A second challenge facing China is how t o manage its trade relationship with the United States.The United States is the largest economy on earth.The United States is China’s largest export market.It is also a critical source of technology.A stable and healthy relationship with the United States is important for China’s economic development.It is always a difficult adjustment process for countries to accept a newly e mer gen t economic power.The United States as well as other countries may perceive China as a potential economic threat.Judging from the experience of the relationship betw een the United States and a rising Japan in the 1970s and the1980s,it will n o t be too har d to imagine that there will be difficulties in the trade relationship betw een the United States and China.Managing and smoothing such a relationship should be an important goal for China.译文中国的对外贸易资料来源:万方数据库作者：Hitomi Iizaka1、简介2001年12月11日，中国正式加入世界贸易组织（WTO），成为其第143个成员，中国在世界经济中的作用将继续增强和深化。
国际贸易对碳排放的影响外文文献翻译中英文
外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)英文原文The effects of international trade on Chinese carbon emissionsB Wei ，X Fang ，Y WangAbstractInternational trade is an important impact factor to the carbon emissions of a country. As the rapid development of Chinese foreign trade since its entry into the WTO in 2002, the effects of international trade on carbon emissions of China are more and more significant. Using the recent available input-output tables of China and energy consumption data, this study estimated the effects of Chinese foreign trade on carbon emissions and the changes of the effects by analyzing the emissions embodied in trade between 2002 and 2007. The results showed a more and more significant exporting behavior of embodied carbon emissions in Chinese international trade. From 2002 to 2007, the proportion of net exported emissions and domestic exported emissions in domestic emissions increased from 18.32% to 29.79% and from 23.97% to 34.76%, respectively. In addition, about 22.10% and 32.29% of the total imported emissions were generated in processing trade in 2002 and 2007, respectively, which were imported and later exported emissions. Although, most of the sectors showed a growth trend in imported and exportedemissions, sectors of electrical machinery and communication electronic equipment, chemical industry, and textile were still the biggest emission exporters, the net exported emissions of which were also the largest. For China and other developing countries, technology improvement may be the most favorable and acceptable ways to reduce carbon emissions at present stage. In the future negotiations on emissions reduction, it would be more fair and reasonable to include the carbon emissions embodied in international trade when accounting the total emissions of an economy. Keywords: input-output analysis, carbon emissions, international trade, ChinaIntroductionGlobal warming has been considered an indisputable fact. The main reason is that the warming of the global climate system is due to the continuous increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the result of human activities (IPCC, 2007). In order to avoid the possible negative impact on human society's global warming, a series of measures have been taken to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to slow down global warming. However, around the CO2 emission reduction and the future allocation of carbon emission rights, the game plays a different interest group.With the development of globalization, the impact on the international trade of the environment is becoming more and moresignificant, including the potential impact of carbon emissions from geographical relocation. Many researchers estimate that it is reflected in international trade in certain countries as well as in the world economy (Wykoff and Rupp, carbon emissions in 1994; Schaefer and Lealdesa, 1996, Machado et al., 2001 Year; Munksgaard, Peder and Sen, 2001; Ahmed and Wykov, 2003; Sanchez-Chóliz and Duarte, 2004; Peters and Hess, 2006, 2008; Mäenpää et al, 2007; Keman et al., 2007). The general conclusion is that in a more open economy, the impact of large foreign trade on the carbon emissions of a country. In addition, all these studies have pointed out that import and export trade cannot ignore a relatively open economy; otherwise, energy and carbon emissions figures may be seriously distorted by this economy (Machado et al., 2001). In terms of total volume, the value of China’s trade surplus increased from US$30.43 billion in 2002 to US$261.83 billion in 2007 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). The rapid growth of China’s foreign trade will have a significant effect on China’s carbon emissions.As one of the countries with the highest carbon emissions, China is facing increasing pressure to reduce emissions. However, China is also a big country in international trade. The rapid development of China’s economy has led to steady growth in foreign trade. From 1997 to 2002, China’s total import and export value increased by an average annual growth rate of 14.35%. Since joining the World Trade Organization, theaverage annual growth rate of China’s trade has jumped to 28.64%. From 2002 to 2007, the value of exports compared with 2002, it increased by 2.7 times in 2007 to reach US$1.2177.8 billion. Imports also soared to US$955.95 billion in 2007, which was 2.2 times higher than the 2002 imports. In terms of total volume, the value of China’s trade surplus increased from US$30.43 billion in 2002 to US$261.83 billion in 2007 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). The rapid growth of China’s foreign trade will have a significant effect on China’s carbon emissions.However, quantitative assessment of the impact of China's international trade in energy use and carbon emissions has only recently begun. Estimates from the IEA (2007) show that China's domestic production and export of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions account for 34% of total emissions, and if it is used in 2004, the weighted average carbon intensity of commodity countries imported from China is estimated. China's net exports of EM-rich CO2 may be more than 17% of total emissions in 2004 (Levin, 2008). Using a single-area input-output model, Pan et al. (2008) estimated that their production of energy and emissions in 2002 accounted for 16% and 19% of China’s net exports of primary energy consumption, respectively, in 2002. In the input-output analysis, China reported that the discharge volume of pre-grid discharges to the United States accounted for about 5%. Weber et al. (2008), ESTI mating production exported from China's carbon dioxide emissions from1987 to 2005. In 2005, about one-third of China's emissions were due to production exports, and this proportion has risen from 12% in 1987 to 21% in 2002. In developed countries, consumption is driving this trend. Wei et al.'s estimation (2009a) also found that the presence of emissions in China's economy in 2002 reflected significant export behavior; in addition, subsequent exports (processing trade played by EMIS--) were total imports of 20 %the above. In addition, using a multi-area input-output model, Peters and Hewei (2008) also found that export emissions represented 24.4% of China's domestic emissions, and the proportion of imports in 2001 was only 6.6%. A similar study by Atkinson et al. (2009) also shows that China is a net exporter of carbon emissions in international trade. In recent years, using ecological input-output based on physical access programs, MOD-Y eling, Chen and Chen (2010) estimated that in 2007 China's export of carbon dioxide emissions and total energy were respectively 32.31% and 33.65% of total emissions.Both the United States and European countries are major importers of China’s export carbon emissions. Using the economic input-output life cycle assessment software, Ruihe Harris (2006) found that about 7% of China’s carbon dioxide emissions from exports to the United States during the period of 1997-2003 were produced by 14% of the total; the US’s CO2 emissions will At 3%-6%, if increased imports from Chinahave been produced in the United States. AP-walking a similar approach, Lee Hewitt found that bilateral trade between the United Kingdom and China (2008) produced about 4% of CO2 emissions. In 2004, China's CO2 emissions were for the UK market to produce goods and the UK trade decreased. About 11%. Weber et al. (2008) also found that most of China’s recent export emissions went to developed countries, approximately 27% of the United States, 19% of the EU-27, and 14% of the remaining Annex B countries, mainly Japan and Australia. And New Zealand. Recently, Xu et al. (2009) studied the impact of energy consumption and exhaust emissions on the environment. From 2002 to 2007, the use of environmental input-output analysis and adjustment of bilateral trade data reflected trade in the East (from China to the United States). Zhang (2009) has also obtained similar results. Energy and CO2 account for about 12% and 17% of China's energy consumption, and China's CO2 emissions are 8% and 12%, respectively.Although China's international trade is a meaningful research on carbon emissions, further related research is necessary because of the rapid development of China's foreign trade, especially the development of processing trade. According to statistics (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008), the export share of processing trade has been more than 50% of total exports since 1996. In 2002 and 2007, the share of processing trade reached 55.26% and 50.71%, which will be processing trade. Thenecessary distinction between the impact of general trade and China's carbon emissions.Since China's input-output table is only 5 years, we have chosen from 2002 (entry to the WTO) to 2007 (the latest issue), and China's international trade input-output table has impact on carbon emissions with the view of the last requirement of this paper. Influence changes. In addition, we distinguish between domestic processing trade and import investment in the assessment of production processes (import emissions and re-exports), which will help us to further understand the impact of international trade on emissions status. In this study, we tried to answer three questions: 1) What is the net emissions generated by foreign trade in China as a big country's foreign trade? 2) China from 2002 to 2007, International How does trade affect carbon emissions? 3) From 2002 to 2007, which departments were the major emitters of China's import and export trade and their roles?Uncertainty in the calculation of carbon emissionsThe calculation of emissions from China's trade reflects a certain degree of uncertainty. One is that the input-output analysis itself has many inherent uncertainties (more discussion in Lenzen, 2001). Based on an input-output table for China's single region, it allows us to obtain a relatively accurate assessment of the emissions that are reflected in China's exports, but this error may be more pronounced when estimatingthe emissions of goods and services exported to China. (Lenzen , 2001; Lenzen et al., 2004). Another important factor of uncertainty is that the calculations come from different regions, which may underestimate the method of importing the carbon intensity factor that is reflected in the import of larger proportion of finished product producing countries and tertiary industries, and the smaller proportion of secondary industries. In addition, the method of pro-grade introduction of the column will inevitably result in some errors in order to obtain a matrix from the inlet of the original import and export table.At present, for reasons of data availability, we cannot fully quantify the accuracy of our calculations, but preliminary estimates suggest that the use of more accurate data results from research will not significantly change the conclusions of this analysis. These restrictions will be improved through the use of multi-zone import and export tables and out-of-zone more detailed industry carbon intensity and sector-to-sector production processes in the future for detailed analysis.Understand the impact of international trade on carbon emissions in ChinaFrom 2002 to 2007, the impact of foreign trade on China’s carbon emissions has greatly expanded. It may be largely related to two factors. The first is the coal-based energy consumption structure. The secondary industry-based production structure will maintain high domestic energyintensity. In 2002, the coal consumption exchange was only 66.3% of the total energy consumption. The 44.8% of China's gross domestic product (GDP) is due to the secondary industry in 2002 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). In 2007, related stock prices rose as high as 69.5% and 48.6%, respectively, which will lead to the fact that the unit exports are higher than the carbon emissions reflected in unit imports. The second factor, which may be a more important factor, is the rapid growth of export trade. From 2002 to 2007, China’s exports increased by 246.80%, while imports increased by 199.97% (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). Export growth is significantly higher than imports, which may lead to a sharp increase in net exports. Decomposition analysis using input and output structures, Liu et al. (2010) also found that the total export expansion of export and energy-intensive products tends to expand, reflecting the export of energy from 1992 to 2005, but the improvement and change of energy efficiency in the primary energy consumption structure can offset part of the impact on export energy. The above driving force is implemented.Although, based on the coal-based energy consumption structure, the carbon dioxide emissions produced by the secondary industry-based production structure, the more important role, it may be difficult for China to adjust because of its endowment characteristics, and in a very short time Its structural characteristics and its current economicdevelop ment stage. In addition, the expansion of China’s foreign trade, including the expansion of the trade surplus, is mainly the result of the market economy’s maximizing its comparative advantage. The development-replacement of China's economy not only provided many of the world's goods and services, but also reduced the nation's production-based relative costs in developed countries. China’s foreign trade has always played an important role in the development of the world economy, due to its huge market, stable government system and abundant cheap labor. Therefore, it can be argued that at the current stage, for China's better methods to reduce the impact of international trade on national or global CO2 emissions should be to improve its production technology, reduce the intensity of energy consumption as a whole, not only to control China The amount of foreign trade. In addition, the imported goods from China should take part in China's carbon emission responsibilities, because the CON-consumer demand of foreign consumers has generated a large amount of China's carbon emissions, especially for consumers in developed countries.ConclusionDespite some uncertainties in this study, most areas produced from the details of the data, we can conclude that international trade has a significant impact on China's carbon emissions, and changed the impact of time on going. Compared with 2002 emissions, domestic exportemissions in 2007 increased from 267.07 MTC to 718.31 MTC, with a speed increase of over 160%; net exports also increased correspondingly, from 204.08 MTC up to 615.65 MTC, over 200% growth rate Now. From 23.97% in 2002, the share of domestic emissions from domestic emissions jumped to 34.76% in 2007. The share of pre-net transplants that exceeded domestic emissions also rose from 18.32% in 2002 to 29.79% in 2007. The results show that more and more significant net export behaviors of implied carbon emissions exist in China's economy and processing trade have more and more significant effects on carbon emissions.Regardless of the emissions of imported emissions or exports, most industries showed a growth trend in 2007. Compared with 2002, emissions although the sectoral emissions have changed for the entire economy from 2002 to 2002, The impact, of which the largest percentage of imported major department or China's export emissions remain unchanged. The largest import emissions (all or actual imports) come from the industries of electrical machinery and communications electronics, chemicals, smelting and rolling plus metals. Electrical machinery and communications electronics equipment, chemicals, textiles and other sectors are the largest emitters of exports, net exports of which are also the largest. Technological progress may be the most favorable and acceptable way for China and other developing countries toreduce their carbon emissions. Considering that the world’s largest carbon emissions and the recent increase in emissions are in developing countries, the historical responsibility for the current responsibilities, developed countries should also take more efforts to help developing countries reduce their carbon emissions. Economic growth through technical assistance And financial support. In the car's list of future emissions reductions, which include the total economic output, the carbon emissions reflected in international trade will be fair and reasonable.中文译文国际贸易对中国碳排放的影响: 一份具有经验性的分析作者：B Wei ，X Fang ，Y Wang摘要国际贸易是一个国家碳排放量重要的影响因素,自2002年加入世贸组织,中国对外贸易的快速发展对碳排放的影响越来越显著。
英文论文关于金融危机对房地产的影响的论文英文版完美版
ChapterⅠ Introduction1.1 Brief Introduction of the Financial CrisisThe sub-loan crisis is also called as the subprime mortgage crisis and translated as the subprime lending crisis. It refers to a financial storm that occurred in the United States due to the bankruptcy of the sub-mortgage agencies, the forced closing of the investment funds, and the severe turbulence of the stock market. It led to the crisis in lack of liquidity at the world's major financial markets. The U.S. "Sub-Loan Crisis" began to emerge from the spring of 2006. From August of 2007, it started to sweep through the United States, the European Union, Japan, and other major financial markets in the world.Sub-loan means "subprime mortgage loan". “Sub” means the poor side corresponding to “high” and “excellent”, while in the "sub-loan crisis" it refers to the low credit and low debt-repaying capacity.Subprime mortgage loan is a high-risk and high-yield industry, which refers to the loans offered by a number of lending institutions to the borrowers with poor credit and low income. Comparing to the traditional standard mortgage loans, the subprime mortgage loans demand low levels on the borrowers’ credit history and repaying ability, but its corresponding lending rate is much higher than the normal mortgage loans. Those who are refused on high-grade mortgage loans by the bank for their bad credit history or weak repaying ability may apply for the subprime mortgage loans to buy houses.When the house price is going up, the subprime mortgage loans business is booming. Even if the borrower’s cash flow can not repay the loan, they may obtain re-loans from the value-added real estate to fill the gap. However, when the house price maintains or goes down, there will be a funding gap and then the bad debts.The subprime mortgage loan is a kind of housing mortgages abroad, to supply loans to the people with less income or lower-level credit history. The reason for supplying loans to these people is that the lending institutions can receive a mortgage interesthigher than the good credit mortgage. When the house prices rise, the loans will have no problems as a result of adequate value in pledge; but when the house prices fall, value in pledge is no longer sufficient, while the mortgager has less income, thus the loan contract may be breached and the house may be returned to the bank. It will cause the increase in the bad debts of the mortgager, the collapsed cases of the mortgage providers and the risks in the financial markets.1.2 Importance of Real Estate Industry on Beijing's GDP(Proportion)The added value of real estate industry accounts for more than 5% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in our country. As a pillar industry, it has played an important role in the national economy.Yu Xiuqin, the spokeswoman of Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics said on October 14, 2004, that Beijing’s GDP in the first quarter increased 13% over the same period of the previous year. The released Real Estate Investment Report by the Fixed Assets Investment Division of Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission on October 15 indicated that the investment growth rate in the first three quarters reduced to 20.3% from 40.6% in the first quarter, "ranking in a more reasonable range." But the Report also pointed out that the great dropping in the real estate investment "leading indicators (land development, etc.)” undoubtedly affected the potential growth of investment in real estate. The delayed impact from macro-control measures shall be paid attentions to." This Report obviously reminded that the development and investment in real estate may maintain the downward trend due to the impact of macro-control, and it may further have a certain impact on Beijing’s economic growth.What impact can macro-control br ing on Beijing’s GDP? Ding Xiangyang, Director of Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission, said when he reported to Beijing People's Congress Standing Committee on the implementation of nationaleconomic and social development plan during the first half year, that a series of land policies in Beijing such as the moratorium on agricultural land requisition, the ceasing of agreed land transfer, and the clean-up of investment projects in development zones, as well as the macro-control, had probably effected an investment of about RMB 120 billion yuan, with about 2-3 percentage points on affecting the annual economic growth in the next few years. The Report of the Fixed Assets Investment Division finally showed that from the investment in recent years, the proportion of real estate investment had always been maintained at above 55%, which did not match the direction of industrial restructuring on developing high-tech industries and modern manufacturing sectors. In order to maintain the consecutive and stable economic growth of the city and optimize the industrial structure, it is necessary to intensify the investment structure adjustment and increase the proportion of industrial investment, especially under the circumstances that the potentials in the real estate industry are affected."We can see such a logic relationship: the real estate investment maintains a high proportion in recent years, while the macro-control reduces the real estate investment growth rate, which will annually decrease several p ercentage points of Beijing’s GDP in the next few years. Real estate has an extraordinary impact on Beijing's economy. The proportion of real estate investment is too large? According to the planning of National Development and Reform Commission, Beijing City has cleaned up the fixed assets projects in the city. From the information of Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission, there are more than 6000 projects being cleaned up, in which more than 600 projects involved in violations. Among them, there are 53 projects being stopped the construction or cancelled and 554 projects being suspended the construction for rectification, with a total investment amount of RMB 164 billion yuan, accounting for 1/5 of the total number in our country. From the project clean-up situation, there is still more than 50% of investment concentrated in the real estate field among all the city's investment projects being constructed or planned for construction. Figures show that the real estate investment in Beijingaccounts for 56.5% of the total investment in the entire society, far exceeding the national average level of 18%. The Report of the Fixed Assets Investment Division of Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission suggests that the proportion of real estate investment is too large, "and this does not match the direction of industrial restructuring on developing high-tech industries and modern manufacturing sectors."However, Ren Zhiqiang, President of Huayuan Group who researches much on the economic indexes said, "Beijing originally has a lot of lands for use, but the Capital has not implemented constructions for a long time, and now the construction develops after conquering great difficulties, a higher proportion of real estate investment is normal." Professor Y e Jianping, Head of the Land Management Division of Renmin University of China, considered that demands for housing and the supply in Beijing in recent years had promoted the proportion growth of investment, although this proportion of 56.5% was much higher than the international average level. However, it is very difficult to evaluate whether it is right or not at special stages in a specific period." Nevertheless, there must be problems if such proportion maintains in a long period." Someone in the Fixed Assets Investment Division of Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission said that a higher proportion in real estate investment has certain rationality at the present stage on accelerating urban transformation, urbanization and economic growth. And now all aspects of the real estate industry are still within the safety line in general. A large number of bubble phenomenon such as housing vacancy or price skyrocketing have not occurred. But he also pointed out at the same time that it was very easy to emerge bubbles as the real estate industry was greatly affected by the policy. Therefore Beijing, as a large-sized city, if the proportion of real estate investment is too large, the city’s whole economy will accordingly become more vulnerable.Who is the largest contributor to GDP? The official data from Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission show that the direct pulling role of real estate on Beijing’s GDP is between 5% and 10%. Experts believe that the direct contributionof the real estate industry to GDP completely results from the demand growth in the real estate market. It is reported that the volume of demolition in Beijing reduces at the annual rate of 20% for 5 consecutive years. There were about 100,000 removing households in Beijing 5 years ago, but in 2004 there were only 20,000. In the past a considerable portion of the demand in Beijing real estate market consists of urban renewal, infrastructure construction as well as a large number of demolitions invested by the government. Now although the government demolitions decline a lot, the consumption amount has not reduced, thus the real estate market remains a strong demand. "With this demand, the relatively high proportion of real estate in GDP is quite normal, because Beijing's real estate is not for Beijing City only, but for the whole country and even the world."In addition to the pulling role of the strong demands in real estate market on Beijing’s GDP, it is well known that the real estate industry drives its upstream and downstream industries. Someone in Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission disclosed: "According to the sales estimation, the proportion of real estate and the relevant industries such as its driven raw materials and service industry is about 1:1.2." "Real estate investment can drive a dozen of or a hundred of related industries." Ren Zhiqiang had his personal experience. He considered that from an investment view, the real estate industry could stimulate many affiliated industries, thus it had a great impact on the whole GDP. But he also said that the current method of calculating GDP was on the basis of the net investment amount, excluding the consumption, whereas the related consumption of real estate such as second-hand housing transaction was a very important part of the real estate industry. Therefore he thought that the statistical methods on GDP was not entirely correct, which could not calculate accurately the specific contribution value of the real estate industry. What he implicated was that: the present statistics were incomplete, and the polling function of the real estate industry on GDP had been underestimated.Macro-control on the balance beam: more than one expert warned that the long-term development of a city could not rely on continuous investment though real estateplayed an important role in driving the fixed assets investment and GDP. It should develop more industries. Only the driving industries can bring sustainable development, no matter what it is the first, second or third industry. Someone in the Investment Division of Beijing Municipal Development and Reform Commission introduced that for the adjustment of investment structure, the Municipal Development and Reform Commission at present had established a long-term guideline aiming at reducing the proportion of real estate in the fixed assets investment in Beijing: to change the structure with so large real estate investment at present by increasing the investment on other industries and fields, rather than limiting the current real estate projects, in order to increase the growth points of the city and avoid large effects on the whole economy resulted from the changing real estate industry. At the same time, we shall strengthen market monitoring and analysis, guide the restructuring of real estate products, focus on developing the mid-priced residential houses, and expand the size of second-hand housing market etc. "But the government has the responsibility to control the real estate for avoiding major fluctuations." The staff in the Investment Division of the Development and Reform Commission said that people in the real estate industry were more psychologically vulnerable to the effects of the outside world. Therefore the misconduct may result in insufficient investment in real estate, declining engineering volume, effecting the development of the relevant service and raw material industries, and finally directly or indirectly affecting the entire GDP growth." So the real estate investment, no matter it is up or down, should be a smooth process. It shall follow the principle of ensuring a smooth and stable development in real estate, to prevent the sharp ups and downs." The information on our country’s real estate and construction of 2007 shows that there are 63,000 real estate development enterprises in 2007, with a total employment of 1,720,000 people; the completed investment on real estate development is RMB 2.5289 trillion yuan, with an increase rate of 30. 2%.Statistics show that the asset-liability ratio of China's real estate development enterprise in 2007 was 74.4%; the real estate development enterprises realized a totalprofit of RMB 290 billion yuan, with an increase rate of 48.4%.The released information also shows that China's real estate industry in 2007 still has problems such as irrational housing supply structure, high housing prices and so on. Statistics show that in 2007 the affordable housing investment accounts for 4.6% in the commercial residential investment, reducing 0.5 percentage points; residential housing under 90 square meters only accounts for 23.3% in the commercial residential housing; the real estate sales areas reduced a lot at the end of the year.ChapterⅡ Financial CrisisThe real estate industry is the leading industry of China's national economy, which ranks a decisive position in the modern social and economic life. After more than ten years of development, China's real estate industry is in the transition period towards to a large-scaled, branding and standardized operation. The growth means of the real estate industry is changing the focus on from speed and scale to benefit and market segmentation, and the relied aspects from the government’s policy c ontrol to market regulation and corporate self-regulation. In the first half of 2006, the rigid housing demand in Beijing released a lot, and the supply in the commercial forward delivery housing market turned on a recovering trend. There were four features showed in Beijing’s real estate market in 2006: the investment growth in real estate recovered and the residential investment increased a lot; new construction area increased fast, but the completion area of residential buildings reduced; the sales in the housing market boomed, but the vacant space lessened; the residential price index continued to increase, but at a stable rate.Beijing’s investment in real estate increases rapidly. From January to June in 2006, the completed investment in real estate development in Beijing was RMB 64.01 billion yuan, increasing 20.8% over the same period in the previous year, with an increased rate of 12.7 percentage points. From January to June in 2006, the completedland development area of the real estate development enterprises in Beijing reached 1,964,000 square meters, increasing 130% over the same period in the previous year; the vacancy space decreased for the flourishing market demand and supply reduction. At the end of June in 2006, the vacancy space of commercial housing in Beijing covered an area of 9,652,000 square meters, with 4,090,000 square meters less than that at the beginning of the year, with a decreasing rate of 29.8%. From January to June in 2006, the fund in place of Beijing’s real estate developmen t enterprises was RMB 126.52 billion yuan, increasing 20.3% over the same period in the previous year, in which the financial loans was RMB 33.95 billion yuan, increasing 40.1% over the same period in the previous year. It accounted for 26.8% of the fund in place that year, raising 3.8 percentage points.Since 2006, the housing sales price index in Beijing City showed a slight upward trend. From January to June in 2006, the total price index of newly-built commercial houses accumulated at 107.7%, increasing 0.6 percentage points than that of the previous month, and increasing 1 percentage point than that at the same period of the previous year; of which the residential price index accumulated at 108.5%, increasing 0.5 percentage points than that of the previous month, and increasing 1.3 percentage points than that at the same period of the previous year; the second-hand residential price index accumulated at 109.5%, almost the same as that of the previous month, and increasing 3 percentage points than that at the same period of the previous year. The price increasing rate of ordinary residential housing exceeded that of the high-grade residential houses. From January to June in 2006, the average residential price index in Beijing’s newly-built residential houses accumulated at 110%, exceeding 4.2 percentage points than that of the high-grade residential houses.The competition in Beijing’s real estate industry has become increasingly fierce and white-hot. As for the developers, Sunco’s entry into Beijing, the establishment of Beijing Capital Development Holding Group, together with the macro-control policy of the past two years, the rising interest rates, 8.31 Land Revolution (The agreed land transfer was prohibited since August 31, 2004), the introductions of the State’s 8Articles and 6 Measures on controlling the real estate market, the entry of overseas real estate funds, all of these made the competition war even more interesting. Accompanied by the clank of horns, the developers are making every effort to win in the real estate market. The agency industry has also begun the price war. In the future the industries will be fully integrated, which is a general trend.ChapterⅢ Overall Conditions of Beijing Real Estate after theFinancial CrisisComparing with the previous two years, Beijing’s real estate market in 2008 had much more challenges. The Olympic opportunity existed with the financial crisis and the real estate market advanced slowly in the year. In the first half of the year, the theory of the turning point in real estate market was very popular, "the concept of the Olympic Games" deeply rooted in people’s hearts did not bring about the active transactions in the real estate market. "Wait-and-see" has become the pronoun of the real estate market. In the second half after the Olympic Games, the real estate transactions had not fully warmed up, and the global financial crisis came. Thus the second-hand housing prices began to fall, and the government decreased the deposit and lending rates to stimulate the market consumption. The redemption and reform policies in the second-hand housing transaction taxes and fees came out, but they had no obvious effects on the one-year sluggish real estate market. In a word, the Olympic Games opportunity and the financial crisis existed together in 2008, and Beijing’s second-hand housing market was on the fence.In 2009, the global economy may appear the first negative growth after the Second World War. In addition, the economic recession, low inflation, the release of potential risks in the economic and financial fields and so on, reveal that the world’s economic recession and risk are amplifying step by step. In order to stabilize the financialmarkets and stimulate the economic growth, each country has introduced measures. However, the economic recovering signs in major economic unions are still rare. From the latest data of 2009, the economic recession of major developed economies is deepening, and the financial crisis is sweeping rapidly from the developed countries to the developing countries with a growing impact on the global real economy. Confronted with the changing economic situation and the unprecedented challenges brought about by the international financial crisis, China has begun a new round of macro-controls with unprecedented efforts. The implementation of an active fiscal policy and an appropriately loose monetary policy conveys a clear signal: the macro-controlling measures on expanding domestic demand, maintaining the growth and adjusting the structure will help China's economy come out of the woods and enter into the new stage of development. On September 15, 2008 the central bank announced that the lending rate was firstly down after 6 years. In November of 2008, ten measures to expand domestic demand were made out. The Central Economic Work Conference reaffirmed the goal of guaranteeing the growth. The revitalization policies on ten industries policy were intensely approved. Facing the crisis, China is taking a decisive and strong action.ChapterⅣ The Real Estate Industry in Beijing the FinancialCrisis4.1 The Impact on House Prices and Sales V olume4.1.1 People’s Living StandardsBeijing residents have a proximate RMB20, 000 average total incomes for household, specially speaking, it is RMB19, 533.3, which goes up 14.1% than the previous year. The working salaries are the major one in household income, and it has a RMB13,666.3 working salaries per capita.4.1.2 Macro-ControlHere comes on the "inviting, auction, and nominating" policy from government, all the land should be through the inviting public bidding, auction and nominal quotation before joining the market in the "831 the end".1). 2004 in land policy, there are two forms of constructional land, one is allocation, and the other is making agreement to sell.From August 31st, 2004, all the operational land must be sold by public auction. In other words, before in August 31st, 2004, every provinces, regions and municipalities are banned to use the historical legacy issues to sell the usufruct of the national land in the agreement way, protocol selling the land is prevailing once, but it was prohibited by the government. The document also stipulates that after 31 August, 2004, developers are required to pay the land transfer payments in time, and if the lands are not developed within two years, the government will withdraw it. “8.31" is also treated by the public opinion in China as "the real estate sector of the agrarian revolution" and "Sunshine of Lands".2).Financial policy: the People's Bank put into practice the purposes of including raising deposit and loan rates, increasing the statutory reserve rate as well as other industry-specific credit policy and other means to tighten the flexibility of the market, and also reducing the monetary supply thereby curbing inflation so as to achieve the purpose of tightening monetary policy.3). Sales policy: the pre-sale system is practicableThe overall circumstances of macro-manipulation:<1>.The circumstance is squeezing at the two ends: the standards of land and thepurchase of houses are undergoing the compression, for example, less than 70 percent houses are constructed under 90 m2 according to the requirements.<2>. Middle-squeeze: For example, tightening monetary policy.4.1.3 Developers:The prices of commercial houses are formed by land, construction and raw materials. After 2007, it costs RMB10, 000 to buy 1m2 of lands, which give rise to4.2 The Effect of Financial Crisis to Consumers, Policies and Developers:4.2.1 Consumers:The restriction of people who purchase the economically affordable houses. The listed trades, however, have a limit of the autonomy of more than five years, in the past, the original real estate is treated as an investment, but now it can be only used as personal residences.4.2.2 The Current Policy (After the Financial Crisis)1).Land policy: reducing the land supply, majority of them are policy-based houses (both affordable housing and limited room)2).Financial policy: which is used to control the loan. Facing the outbreak of the serious financial crisis, the financial sectors should try their best to reduce the risk and preserve their original property.3). Sales policies: which is aimed at the developers, they are not allowed to sale inadvance. After 2008, if meeting the demand of the national pre-sale conditions, which is, obtaining the evidence of the land, land permits, planning permits and construction permits are qualify to apply for the pre-sale permit.Secondly, restrictions on second-hand housing market are indispensible, such as, people should own the affordable housing more than five years before they can conduct transactions, which controls of the market, the phenomenon of real estate speculation and building speculation, and thus prices will decline.4.2.3 Aiming for Developers:After the outbreak of the financial crisis, great changes have taken place in consumers’ mind, they unconsciously develop a minds et of waiting to buy with cash in hand, developers are also holding a breath and waiting for the rise of the prices by rare sale, because if the original land cannot be sold, it will certainly have the impact on the return of funds, thereby they are unable to develop new properties, which results in a vicious circle. That is, the originally land bought from the market with a price will not be able to develop, which caused cash flow difficulties. Since October, with the financial crisis becomes increasingly intense, the consumers have more seriously wait-and-see attitude to the real estate market, meanwhile, the government, however, lowers the loan interest rate twice, moreover, it simultaneously issued a policy about the reform of taxation expenses of second-hand houses, which, to some extents, stimulates the recovery of property market.ChapterⅤ Conclusion5.1 Consequences and T endencyThere are three years that Beijing housing sale market has been undergoing declining. Nevertheless, thanks to the consecutive reduction of the interest for five times last second half year and a series of provoking house-purchase policies from government, the growth of the first-quarter appears this year.In 2008, the Wall Street crisis in the United States was not only quickly spread to the global financial markets, but also extended from the virtual economy to the real economy. What is worse, the unprecedented financial crisis was most likely to expand into the American dollar crisis and the economic recession, the worst pa rt is that the risks, which the global economy may get caught into a severe recession, are skyrocketing day by day. With the huge effect of the American Financial Crisis, on the one hand, the global financial markets were fiercely shaken, one the other hand, the primary stocks were overwhelmed in a vast scale, fear and a crisis of confidence over the whole market. Although the United States carried out a large-scale rescue package, it might still failed to prevent the slump the global stock markets. Under the U.S. financial crisis, the world's major financial institutions have experienced several consecutive quarters of declining profits and growing for asset write-downs and credit losses. More seriously, the current major economies decline in extremely high speed, signing the obvious economic recession over the world.Because of the effects of the global financial crisis, Chinese economy was decelerating the growth rate. Besides, there are still some factors, such as increasing cost and decreasing profit etc., have already have impact on the investment willingness and ability of some enterprises, thus restrict the rising consuming. As far as now, some essential Chinese industries are running down, just like steel, electric power, vehicle industries. In order to resist the adverse effect of international。
外文翻译--反倾销和竞争法
本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目：Anti-dumping And Competition Law出处：The World Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis 2005, Part III pp68-72作者：P. J. Lloyd译文：反倾销和竞争法一、WTO反倾销措施中存在的问题自从乌拉圭回合谈判之后，我们可以观察到反倾销措施在数量上快速上升。
WTO（以及之前的GATT）反倾销委员会半年度的报告中给出了一些数据关于被世贸组织成员国接受的反倾销调查和措施。
直到1980年代中期，只有美国、澳大利亚、新西兰和欧盟的成员国经常采取反倾销措施。
在1990一年中只有9个成员国采取了反倾销措施。
WTO报告中指出在2002年1月1日到6月30日这6个月期间，有27个成员国采取反倾销措施，主要的使用者是墨西哥、巴西、南非、印度和韩国。
尽管在WTO规则下他们没有这个义务，更多的国家将反倾销税引入立法。
这些国家包括发展中国家和经济转型国家，如中国。
在2002年10月5日WTO 的报告中，已经有75个国家将反倾销措施列入法律。
从此，反倾销措施成为一个国际贸易政策中的标准工具。
与措施频率一样重要的是由措施带来的隐形关税的重要性。
关于这方面没有系统的数据可以提供我们参考。
Messerlin 和Reed计算出美国和欧盟的有效倾销利润平均高出普通关税的2～3倍。
Blonigen 和Prusa指出美国在过去的几十年中平均倾销利润为60%。
澳大利亚的倾销税率也提供了相似的结果；例如一个样本为反倾销关税的货物在1994年的未加权平均反倾销税率为35%，然而相同货物的未加权平均关税只有6%。
与实施税率一样，措施可以采用价格承诺的形式。
对于消费者/买方，价格承诺有与反倾销税相同的效果。
不过不同的是，价格承诺提高了货物的到岸价格。
出口商或进口商有可能在倾销检查之前就提高产品价格。
经济全球化对中国城市房地产市场的影响
经济全球化对中国城市房地产市场的影响经济全球化是当今世界最为重要的发展趋势之一，其对于中国城市房地产市场的影响也不容忽视。
在全球化的推动下，城市房地产市场呈现出了一系列新的发展趋势。
那么，究竟经济全球化对中国城市房地产市场带来了哪些影响呢？一、经济全球化加速了城市房地产的发展经济全球化背景下的中国，城市化进程不断加速，各大城市的人口规模不断扩大，同时城市工商业的发展也呈现出了蓬勃的势头。
这些因素进一步推动了城市房地产市场的发展。
在这种情况下，城市房地产市场不仅成为了各地政府实现城市发展的手段，同时也成为了各类资本的重要领域。
二、经济全球化对城市房地产市场的投资有所影响随着经济全球化的不断深入，越来越多的国际资本涌入中国。
这些资本在国内各大城市中的投资活动也逐渐加剧。
这种情况下，城市房地产市场不断成为资本投资的一个重要领域，同时也成为各级政府吸引外来投资的重点项目。
三、经济全球化加剧了城市房地产市场的拓展在全球化的大背景下，中国各大城市的发展不再局限于国内市场，越来越多的城市开始把目光转向国际市场。
在这种情况下，城市房地产市场开始向着国际化方向发展。
例如，中国的一些大城市在海外购置了一些商业地产或是建立了国际化的房地产产业园区，这些举措也有助于城市房地产市场的长足发展。
四、经济全球化对城市房地产市场的价值观有所影响在经济全球化的背景下，消费者的需求和市场变得更加多元化。
随着消费水平的提高，越来越多的消费者开始对于房地产市场有了更高的要求，对于房地产市场的真实价值提出了更高要求。
这也意味着城市房地产市场需要在不断更新和提升自身的核心价值，才能适应全球化发展的趋势。
总之，在经济全球化的背景下，城市房地产市场正面临着诸多挑战和机遇。
城市房地产市场需要不断适应全球化发展的趋势，不断更新和提升自身的核心竞争力，才能在市场竞争中立于不败之地。
中国和世界贸易组织外文翻译
江汉大学文理学院College of Arts & Science of Jianghan University毕业论文外文翻译外文来源Daniel H. Rosen.China and the World Trade Organization. Peterson Institute中文译文中国和世界贸易组织部（系）：商学部专业：国际经济与贸易姓名：学号： 200701030327指导老师：2011年 3 月 20日China and the World Trade OrganizationOpportunitiesAccession to WTO is China deepening reform, expanding opening up and establishing a socialist market economic system, the inherent requirements of China's economic development needs. To developing countries join the WTO, China's economic development both advantages and disadvantages, but generally speaking, more good than harm.Conducive to further expand exports and attract foreign investment. Join the WTO, China will enjoy the members of most favored nation treatment. This will not only enjoy in other countries and regions the benefits of open markets, so that the major trading countries to phase out discriminatory practices, and make our products more favorable competitive conditions, which can promote China's export trade, especially China comparative advantage industries export development. Join the WTO, China must fulfill WTO obligations and gradually opening up the domestic market, which will further improve the foreign investment environment, strengthen our market attractive to overseas investors, is conducive to more foreign capital, technology and management experience.Help to speed up industrial restructuring and optimization. Industrial structure adjustment and optimization of the economic development of China is an important and urgent task. Join the WTO, the implementation of this strategic task will create a favorable international environment. By other WTO members to open markets in China, we can move out of some excessive supply and the industrial shift; by opening up our markets to other members, can use foreign funds, technological transformation of our traditional industries, accelerate the development of high-tech industries and services to improve the overall standard of our industry.Beneficial to continue to deepen economic reform in China. WTO rules are essentially a market economy in the use and development worldwide. China's economic reform objective is to establish a socialist market economic system, itsbasic requirement is to fully exploit the market competition mechanism. WTO accession will promote China's reform process. At the same time, will promote the reform of state-owned enterprises, establishing a modern enterprise system; will also promote foreign trade, banking, insurance, securities, commerce and so deepen the structural reform, in order to meet the needs of gradually opening up these areas.Conducive to China's participation in the formulation of new rules of international trade, safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of our country, and enhancing our international status. China, as permanent members of the United Nations, the World Bank and IMF, to join WTO, the multilateral trade rules, can fully express and reflect the views of China and the developing countries and demands further play our part in international economic affairs role, and enhance China's international status. Meanwhile, China can also use the multilateral dispute settlement mechanism to reduce friction with other countries facing conflict and to uphold China's legitimate interests.Benefit China in the world economy globalization. Economic globalization is an inevitable historical trend, and economic globalization on developing countries, both opportunities and challenges. In order to adapt to the new situation of economic globalization, we need to seek stable, transparent and predictable multilateral trading system of protection, participation in the process of economic globalization while avoiding disadvantages to better protect and strengthen ourselves. Join the WTO, China and the other members shall be in strict accordance with international rules and open their markets. This will help China to participate fully in international competition and international cooperation, give full play to our comparative advantages. Meanwhile, China's accession to WTO will also help carry out extensive cooperation with multinational companies, introducing multinational capital, technology and management experience, using their sales channels and networks to expand exports. WTO accession is also conducive to the establishment of our own multinational companies go abroad to set up factories in other countries to do business, and enhance China's international competitiveness.ChallengesOf course, join WTO, we will both enjoy their rights, but also undertake corresponding obligations, which will inevitably bring some pressure and challenges.First, further opening up markets will cause a number of products, businesses and industries to face competition. Past market openness, China's under the requirements of economic development and economic reform processes to independently determine market access, tariff reduction and removal of non tariff measures. Join the WTO, China must comply with WTO provisions on market opening, which is the speed of opening up our market and will put some pressure on. With the expansion of market access, tariff reduction and non-tariff measures, foreign products, services and investment are likely to enter the Chinese market, domestic enterprises will face more intense competition, especially those high costs, technical level low and backward management, will face more severe challenges.Second, China's foreign trade management will be to some extent by the WTO rules. China's existing foreign-related economic laws, regulations and policies do not fully comply with WTO rules, provisions although this is also our country deepen foreign economic management reform, an important task, but we change the concept and Tizhi always existed Xuduo not adapt to the Di Fang, Zheng Fu authorities and business management staff also means there is a big gap.Third, the multilateral dispute settlement ruling may also have unfavorable results. WTO's multilateral dispute settlement mechanism is a double-edged sword, used properly, parties benefit; used properly, will suffer losses. Since China's market economy is imperfect, there are policies and regulations and corporate behavior is inconsistent with WTO rules, coupled with inadequate understanding of the WTO rules, inexperienced, even if we put a lot of manpower and material resources, we may be in the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism "come off worst."ConclusionHow to understand the advantages and disadvantages Dialectical China's accession to WTO? We use comprehensive development and dialectical perspective on the issue of reform and opening to standing, economic development and modernization of overall and strategic perspective to analyze China's accession toWTO, the advantages and disadvantages. We must look at individual industries and the entire industry; we must look at present and also at long-term.Analysis of pros and cons of China's accession to WTO, not only at one or a few industries, but should focus on the economic development. From single industries, WTO accession will have a comparative advantage in the industry, some of bringing development opportunities, such as agriculture, fruit, meat and vegetables, machinery and electronic products industry in general and light industry products and textiles, consumer electronics, services in the construction and tourism, will gain more international market share. However, accession to WTO will also have some impact on some domestic industries and pressure, such as agriculture, food, automotive industry, services in the banking, insurance, etc., will face competition from developed countries. Whole industries, to join WTO to the opportunities our industry is greater than the impact of the majority of our industry will be more opportunities for development. Join the WTO, not only on the recent positive economic growth, but also far-reaching long-term economic development. In the short term, WTO accession can expand our comparative advantage of textiles, mechanical and electrical products production and export, you can attract more foreign capital, especially transnational corporations, which are conducive to economic growth and expansion of employment; joined the WTO although some of the time being will not comparative advantage to competitive pressure on certain industries, and even caused some impact, but if we respond properly, these industries are in competition and development. In the long run, to join WTO on China's economic reform, adjusting the industrial structure, enhancing international competitiveness and raise its international standing would have a positive impact. We have a dialectical view of advantages and disadvantages of accession to WTO.中国和世界贸易组织机遇加入WTO是我国深化改革、扩大开放和建立社会主义市场经济体制的内在要求，是我国经济发展的需要。
绿色贸易壁垒及其对中国对外贸易的影响外文文献翻译__中英对照
绿色贸易壁垒及其对中国对外贸易的影响外文文献翻译—中英对照毕业论文外文资料翻译题目绿色贸易壁垒及其对中国对外贸易的影响学院经济学院专业国际经济与贸易班级国贸0712学生李聪敬学号20072205031指导教师刘玉刚二?一一年四月二十二日Journal of Economic Surveys, 2006, 11: 24-25・Green Barriers Trade and its Influences on Chins's Foreign Trade Thomas J ・ SargentABSTRACT In recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumption in many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmental protection.Key words:Green Barriers; products; TradeIn recent years, green consumption has become a main trend of the consumptionin many developed countries and these countries began to make strict standards to restrict the entry of foreign products below their standards of environmentai protection. These regulations have many unfavorable influenceson the export of developing countries and are generally known as ，z Green Barriers to trade'"・ In accordance with the provisions of the Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade of WTO, ，z Green Barriers to Trade" is defined as the compulsory and arbitrary Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures of the importing countries in the name of the protection of human health and environment that actually form barriers to trade with an aim to protect its home market and domestic products・1・ Analysis on the causes of formation ofGreen Trade Barriers^ Firstly, the worsening of ecology is the major reason for "Green Barriers^・With the development of industry and technology, the economy increases very fast and the human life has been improved・ But at the same time, the development of economy is at a cost of the destruction of environment・ The environmental problems have aroused public attention and the international society has begun to make laws to protect environment・In June, 1972, the United Nations published the Stockholm Declaration and stressed the importance of the protection of environment・ From then on, more and more people concern about the environmental problems・ The concept of environment has influenced the life of humankinds in every layer and the developed countries began to make very strict environmental protection rules under the pressure of public, which forms a barrier to the international trade・Secondly, the differences between countries in technology, environmental standards and investment directly cause the "Green Trade Barriers^・ As we know, developed countries surpass the developing countries in science and technologyEven if they make very strict environmental standards, theirdomestic products can reach the requirements of strict environmental standards while such standards may constitute barriers to products from developing countries・ In fact, these standards may become discriminations against products from the developing countries and constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between country.Thirdly, the rise of protectionism in some developed countries contributes much to the formation of Green barriers・ In modern market economy, competition is more severe than before・ The domestic industries are directly facing competition from the products of other countries, and they will urge their governments to take effective measures to protect them from the foreign productsWhile because of the multilateral negotiations of WTO, the tariffs have been greatly cut down and the use of non-tariff measures has also been restricted ・ Therefore, many developed countries have to resort to some legal restrictions ofimportation such as Green barriers to protect their home industries, which gives rise to the increase of Green barriers ・2. The main forms of Green barriers tradeIn accordance with the related provisions of WTO Agreement on Green Barriers to Trade, the Green barriers are usually in the forms as follows: Green TariffSome developed countries would impose import surtax on products that may cause pollution or harms to the environment ・ If such measure is abused, it will constitute a Green barrier to trade ・Green StandardsGreen standards refer to those compulsory Green standards providedthrough legislation. With their superiority in economy and technology, tend to make higher Green standards with no interests of the developing countries ・ Such high in factconstitute a barrier to the products from which areinferior in technology.2. 3 Package RequirementsCertain developed countries stress too much on the protection ofenvironment and require the products should be packed with materials that will have no harm to the environment ・ If the products are not packed in this way, they will not be allowed to sell in the developed countries ・ If such requirements are unnecessarily strict, they will be a barrier to the international trade ・developed countries consideration on the Green standards will developing countries2.4 Sanitary and quarantine inspection systemOn the excuse of the protection of the health of human, animals and plants, developed countries tend to use very strict sanitary and Quarantine inspection to restrict the importation of the products from the developing countries and protect their domestic industries・3.Influences of Green barriers on China's foreign tradeChina has suffered great loss due to the "Green barriers〃・In 2002, vegetables from Taizhou were prevented from entering Japan because of Japanese strict inspection and the price was greatly cut down・ Also in 2002, the aquatic products from Ningbo were restricted by European Union EU because they could not reach the sanitary standards of EU・ Due to Green trade barriers, 60 kinds of Chinese agricultural chemists were banned by EU because they could not reach the Green standards of EU・In accordance with the statistics of United Nations, China has suffered a loss of $7.4 billion in 2002 due to "Green barriers trade"・China's export to EU, Japan, Korea and other countries decreases notably. Generally speaking, agricultural products and foodstuff, textile products and mechanical and electronic products are the three main industries which suffer great loss because of the strict Green barriers・Since these three products constitute the majority of Chinese exportation, we can easily draw a conclusion:"Green barriers to trade" has become one of the major obstacles in Chinese exportation.4・ Countermeasures to the Green barriers of the developed countriesAs mentioned above, it is a fact that the Chinese export products are facing Greenbarriers of the developed countries and has suffered great loss・ Therefore Chinese exporters should think carefully about the countermeasures to eliminate the unfavorable influences of such measures・ First, we should make full use of the preferential treatment to the developing countries stipulated in the Agreement of Green trade barrier・ According to the provisions of the Agreement of Green trade barrier, developed countries should take account of the special development, financial and trade needs of developing country members with a view to ensuring that such Green regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures do not create unnecessary obstacles to exports from developing countries・So, as a developing member of WTO, China is entitled to such preferential treatment. Secondly, China should make use of the Dispute Settlement System of WTO to protect her interests・ Different from GATT, WTO has set up a powerful dispute settlement system to solve the disputes between the members ofWTO. So, if our interests are harmed by the unfair Green barriers of other WTO members, we can resort to Dispute Settlement Body to set tie t his dispute and urge other members to change their unfair practices so as to protect our interests ・ Thirdly, China should stress the protection of environment and take measures to improve the quality and Green level of her export products to meet higher Green standards, which will fundamentally solve the problem of Green barriers・References[1Z John, Smith・2007, Green trade protectionism to Chinese agricultural product export influence Economics , 4, 34-56・[2^ Anderson, J・ L・,2001, The Greening of World Trade Issues, Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 347-356・[31 Gallagher, R・，2003, International Trade in Agricultural Products, Journal of General Management, 3, 1, 43-62・经济研究杂志，2006, 11: 24-27.绿色贸易壁垒及其对中国对外贸易的影响萨金特莱斯大学经济管理学院摘要:近年来,绿色消费在许多发达国家中已成为一个主要的消费趋势，这些发达国家开始采取严格的措施来限制一些国家的产品进入其国内市场。
中美贸易战对中国房地产市场的影响与风险
中美贸易战对中国房地产市场的影响与风险随着中美贸易战的升级，全球经济秩序发生了重大的变化。
中国房地产市场作为国民经济的重要组成部分，受到了直接的影响与风险。
本文将探讨中美贸易战对中国房地产市场的具体影响和可能带来的风险。
首先，中美贸易战导致的经济不稳定使得国内房地产市场出现了一定程度的不确定性。
贸易战所引发的经济波动，使得消费者信心下降，购房者对未来经济走势持观望态度，从而导致房地产市场交易量减少。
这种不确定性也加剧了投资者的谨慎情绪，导致投资购房的风险加大。
其次，贸易战对中国的出口企业造成了一定的冲击，特别是制造业。
这使得一些企业面临关门倒闭，劳动力失业，从而使其无法购买房产或支付当前的房贷，导致房地产市场的供给过剩。
供需失衡会导致房地产价格的下跌，给已经购房的业主和房地产开发商带来重大的财务压力。
此外，中美贸易战导致了汇率波动，这对中国房地产市场的供需关系产生了影响。
如果人民币贬值，那么对海外资金进入中国市场形成了一定的吸引力，但同时也加大了出口企业的购置成本。
同时，汇率波动也使中国购房者面临更高的购置成本，降低了他们的购房能力和购房意愿。
受中美贸易战影响最大的行业之一是房地产建材业。
美国对中国的贸易限制措施导致建材企业的原材料进口成本上升，这不可避免地推高了房屋建设成本。
由此，房地产开发商的利润被压缩，进而减少了他们对新项目的投资。
这对整个房地产市场的规模和发展产生了负面影响。
此外，中美贸易战给中国房地产市场的监管带来了诸多挑战。
为了缓解中美贸易争端对房地产市场带来的不利影响，政府部门可能会采取一系列的监管措施，例如加强市场准入的条件，强化房地产市场的稳定监管等。
这对于原本已经面临调控政策的房地产市场而言，可能带来更加严峻的形势。
在中美贸易战的背景下，中国房地产市场也面临着诸多风险。
首先，房地产泡沫的风险进一步加剧。
由于经济不稳定，购房者和投资者的信心下降，房价的下跌可能引发房地产市场的恶性循环，进而引发泡沫破裂的危机。
外文翻译--建设工程质量检测行业现状及发展对策
外文文献：Construction Quality Testing Industry Status and Development Strategies AbstractWith China's accession to the WTO, the foreign advanced detection of a large number of institutions will enter the domestic, For long-term protection of the domestic state of the detection unit is an unprecedented challenge. Therefore, this paper analyzes the status of the industry, the development of the industry to identify existing problems and challenges, as well as the development of the industry's response are discussed.Keywords detection, industry, strategy1. ForewordThe construction industry is one of the pillars of the national economy and infrastructure industries. Particularly as China is in a rapid development stage, the whole nation is increasing infrastructure construction. Meanwhile coupled with the construction industry as a driving force for economic development speed of the important forces that the construction industry is in a phase of great development. While China's construction market is in a very active stage, but also at extremely competitive market norms and plagued with problems : The first is to downgrading prices, kickbacks, Loaning "three knives," the prevalence of local protectionism, the rise of trade protection; Second, the construction sector's lack of a scientific management system,legal documents and document management do not match and the advanced foreign relatively big gap between the model; three construction teams is a serious imbalance in supply and demand. construction teams technical content and the quality of personnel is generally not very high [1].With China's accession to the WTO, the impact on the construction industry as a whole will have a far-reaching impact. WTO construction industry is an important aspect. Mainly related to the construction industry, the survey design and consulting, real estate, urban planning, cities with municipal utilities and construction fields related to the intermediary services. In the WTO agreement, the cause of building a service belonging to the scope of trade agreements. From the trade in services agreement connotation, At present, China's current building in the field of international trade at the basic level of labor-intensive services, while developed countries have technology, knowledge and capital-intensive service levels. Generally speaking, the gap is relatively large. China's accession to the WTO must be in accordance with the WTO agreement on the rights and obligations of the principle of balance to the enjoyment of certain rights, we must also fulfill its obligations, commitments, open markets and the risks facing pressure.The construction industry as an integral part of quality testing with the quality of people and raise awareness of the people to keep. Detection of emerging industries from the beginning of development today, as the construction industry is a subsidiary portion : A construction enterprises isthe internal laboratories; A scientific research institutions within the nature of the teaching and research laboratories; One is the quality of supervision and management at all levels established by the government with the supervision of color detection room. Three forms of detection units have been in accordance with their respective fields of work and testing work, and has been affiliated to the parent body in accordance with the department for operation is not yet in independent operation of enterprises idea. However, as the impact of the WTO, according to international testing organizations general requirements must become independent corporate qualifications, should be an independent third-party intermediary services, the position becomes clearer, Detection of various units have started to carry out changes. In a transitional stage, it should be seriously from the perspective of the development of the industry in how to gradually standardized, regularization of the market economy into successful adaptation to changes in the market, the rapid growth and development.Industry Overview2.1 Background industry2.1.1 Testing Industry StatusDetection industry from the formation of today approximately 15 years of experience -- 20 years of history, 10 years has made detection by the small-scale industries in turn, the type of work to a single integrated, Detection market concept from scratch, from covert to overt, variousconstruction projects throughout the country now testing nearly 5,000 institutions, corporate laboratory quantity of approximately 40%, oversight agencies detected 30%, research institutions detection force for 30%.The large number of enterprises belonging to the first laboratory to laboratory, which means that enterprises in order to guarantee the quality of their products and the establishment of the laboratory, Due to its nature to a large extent, limited their testing to the market and As a subsidiary body within enterprises in a position of economic strength, the ability to detect, size and technical strength sessions at a disadvantage in the market testing the market share of about 20%.The establishment of oversight bodies at all levels of detection Room With a policy of absolute advantage because of their government background, it formed a short time to overcome the disadvantages of monopoly through inspection missions in the form of rapidly in size and detection capabilities to gain the upper hand. Detection become mainstream market forces detection. However, the side effects of monopoly behavior is at its long-term policy to protect the state, compared with other inefficient institutions,technical level is not high, poor sense of service, their competitive ability.Research institutions with institutional reform of public institutions and to keep stepping up the detection of operational inputs, it becomes the main development of the industry. and the gradual transition to an independent third party for the detection of corporate enterprises. They rely on theoriginal national scientific research strengths in technical strength, hardware equipment and share office space due to the advantages. Since they first enter the market, and competition in the market has summed up the experience of many.2.12.1.3 detection industry characteristicsDetection industry policy is a strong industryThe testing organizations as the quality of construction projects related to the regulation came into being. Detection market and the formation and development of policy guidance directly affected. Detection of accreditation and quality management industry itself is the government policy adjustment means Detection of the size of the market is the same quality management policy decision directly, it Detection market is not fully open market, detection industry is a strong policy-oriented industries.Detection industry with a strong regionalAs the test industry is highly policy-oriented industries, Therefore local administrative departments will be in accordance with the actual formulation of their own places of special local regulatory requirements, special departments in charge of the industry is the ability to set up a registration system to review the decision directly detect the scope of services to the main location and overseas institutions to enter the local market under strict restrictions. Another quality of the project itself needs to detect large-scale testing equipment, and sample analysis with cleareffectiveness, and Judging from the traffic, cost, operational convenience considerations, and testing work carried out with difficulty across regions, so as to determine the jurisdiction of the market's independence.Testing Industry current threshold is not high technologyDetection of long-term because the industry is monopolized by the government, the degree of market testing poorer. A long time under the protection of the testing agencies often subsidiary departments or sections operation, not formed a separate set of operational development management, in particular with foreign advanced detection comparison, Detection of the lack of management of the scientific system of internal management systems and experience. Due to the above reasons, the usual detection units to the venue and other hardware equipment and technical training hardware input, the extent of the long-term stagnation of low-level redundant development momentum, thus causing the current policy, the element of monopoly, But technical threshold of the low status.Detection of a single institutional tradesDetection industry because of strong government color, it is often lock system in state-owned enterprises or enterprise units Private capital and foreign capital has been watching this area, but the policy has been limited by lack of access. Thus the detection system of a single industry. However, with the reform of state-owned utilities, testing organizations may become joint-stock reform, With China's accession to the World Trade Organizationin-depth, open architecture market has become inevitable, and we can see that the pattern is very unstable, The policy change immediately break the existing balance.Chapter II trades plight3.1 industries facing difficulties and challengesThe construction industry as an integral part of quality testing with the quality of people and raise awareness of the people to keep. Detection of emerging industries from the beginning of development today, we are faced with difficulties and challenges from all quarters.3.1.1 policy risksDetection of industries affected by the policy is the high level of the industry. The emergence and development of policy-oriented results. And the first to face the problem is the policy risk. Our analysis category of standards and standardize the development and implementation of international standards is not that high. China's current testing standards used several decades ago are old standards, those standards with international standards is far below With China's WTO accession, the various standards and are facing a convergence problem. In this evolving standards of the original equipment, and technical forces, methods of operation will be larger changes. Detection industry must face from the above policy changes bring risks.3.1.2 WTO ChallengesFrom the formation of industry development today, institutions aretesting the construction industry as part of the subsidiary there. have formed an independent operation of the management system. However, as the impact of the WTO, according to international testing organizations General Requirements - Guideline 25 to laboratory management [2] For the detection of domestic institutions in terms of Guide 25 of regulatory requirements is not only stranger things More importantly for the management thinking which is completely new system, Our testing organizations in the management of this very lack of experience. The entire industry isFacing industries in the transition stage.3.2 sector the main problemsDetection of businesses are facing not only a variety of risks and challenges, there should be a clear understanding of trade issues and inadequate, only be achieved targeted.3.2.1 currently testing the market very confusing. As part of the construction unit of the sense of the quality of information to stay in the clearance stage, and the current detection unit is a passive acceptance of the construction unit entrusted Thus the detection and the detection of not only the relationship between the commission has been tasked also is testing and testing, In economic relations and impartiality of the two seemingly contradictory, and many units it is very difficult to detect good relations. Testing the market to evaluate a detection unit quality standard is not stringent but whether the necessary flexibility and convenience. In such an environment, it isimpossible to cultivate brand reputation based on the detection units.3.2.2 current detection unit faced the question of how to most from the mother, separated from the survival of future troubles. Some units have already moved away from the essence of the name of the detachment, from the administration and from the economy still is not independent. Therefore, as the true sense of the operation of the independent testing organizations how to manage, How to survival and development have not too much experience to draw on.3.2.3 detection units in the subsidiary as a long-term position in technology, human resources, capital investment is insufficient, and So compared with other industries or fields with other testing organizations, the technical content is not high, and technological development at a slow pace. With the vigorous development of industry, especially China's accession to the WTO, right as soon as possible to improve detection units the technical capacity and technical requirements of urgency.Chapter III sectoral responsesConstruction industry in China is in the stage of rapid development, with the heightened awareness of the national quality, Detecting the development of the industry is full of potential and hope.The community of detection to the more urgent. The same time, higher demands. Therefore detection industry as a way of testing must become industrialized, eventually become a true sense of the impartiality of thethird-party intermediaries. As testing organizations in order to adapt to future developments must also :Improve the monitoring and quality awarenessIntroduce a comprehensive international Guideline 25 generic laboratory management requirements become the trend of the times. My test industry is most lacking is that through the operation of the quality system to ensure detection of justice and authority. Detection of domestic institutions and the international community must continue to implement the guidelines of the 25 requirements, Guideline 25 and the core is a comprehensive quality management. My test industry generally detection quality awareness is not high, the internal quality management experience little, But not because of the current difficulties in implementing abandoned but should on the one hand to the efforts of their counterparts abroad to study advanced laboratory management experience, While local conditions and gradually explore a suitable condition of the quality of its management. Through continuous learning and exploration as soon as possible to reduce our foreign counterparts and the gap between them.Establish the concept of service and find their true positionOur detection industry will be a long time before the detection of impartiality and seriousness and testing service in opposition. Detection also accustomed to "check" for its role, but along with the test industry and the international community. Detection of the advancement of the market, usedto do before "the inspection team" role in the detection staff must change their attitudes. Detection of the future because of the positioning is service, a special technical service, since the service must lay stress on the credit, attitude and the quality of services, this service does not mean sacrificing justice testing to meet the needs of certain clients, but in ensuring the integrity of the testing for improving the detection level of satisfaction with services. Only provide satisfactory services to the detection units in a fair market environment detection survival and development.Establish modern enterprise management conceptsDetection from institutions attribute to enterprises attribute the changes Detection and subsidiary bodies from the past to the status of independent corporate units changing decision of the detection technology is positioning service enterprise, speaking as a testing organizations must establish a modern enterprise management concepts, refer to and use all the advanced enterprise management tools and methodologies to help detect bodies healthy development. For example, the introduction of ERP to control and reduce the cost and increase the efficiency of detection, use CRM software to improve customer service quality, use of the "5S" management method to strengthen the orderly scene detection, using brand promotion measures to improve detection of reputation, and so on. Once detected the introduction of modern industries advanced enterprise management experience and test industry can truly be "bigger and stronger."Foster talentFuture detection units in the competition is in fact the competition of talents. Once foreign counterparts to enter China first launched the battle for talent. As China's industry in terms of detecting most is the lack of professional personnel, Now, China's construction industry practitioners detection generally low quality and our tertiary institutions has not offered specialized professional, Detection of the training industry as a whole development of detection, the focus it is necessary to raise the detection threshold of industry practitioners, establish a detection mechanism for training internal staff and personnel training mechanism, in advance of reserve personnel, to meet future challenges more severe.SummaryConstruction Quality Testing Industry should serve as a unique industry is facing major changes before and the changing of exploration , as the entire industry in terms of not only have to face the increasingly fierce industry competition, should be a clear understanding of their foreign counterparts from the competition. In the transformation of the WTO encountered greater difficulties and challenges, but the test industry should respond positively, and establish a comprehensive quality awareness, draw on modern enterprise management experience, enhance service and the sense of personnel and Our test industry can adapt to international competition, in order to ensure the healthy development of industries.References[1] Xu Bo, "making great quality supervision institutions conscientiously doa good job of adjustments", "quality", 2002, No. 8 2-5.[2] "Testing and Calibration Laboratories generic requirements" (ISO/IEC17025 : 1999). State Bureau of Quality and Technical Supervision, p. 1.中文译文：建设工程质量检测行业现状及发展对策摘要随着我国加入WTO，国外先进的检测机构必将大量进入国内，对于长期处于保护状态的国内检测单位带来的是前所未有的冲击。
金融危机对中国房地产市场影响的研究
金融危机对中国房地产市场影响的研究一、引言全球金融危机对全世界经济产生了不可估量的影响，而这种影响不仅仅限于金融行业，房地产行业同样也受到了波及。
在中国，由于经济制度的特殊性和位于全球经济的位置，房地产市场一直是许多人关注的焦点。
本文主要研究全球金融危机对中国房地产市场的影响和变化。
二、全球金融危机对中国市场的影响全球金融危机对中国经济的影响不仅局限于国内市场，同样影响了中国企业的海外经营和跨国并购，并对全球市场的流动性和稳定性造成严重影响。
同时，由于中国的大量外汇储备和近年来的经济增长，中国成为全球金融危机爆发后资本的主要吸引点。
与此同时，全球市场对中国业务的信心也得到了提高。
三、房地产市场受到的影响1. 价格金融危机后，银行不再像以前一样愿意贷款给房地产开发商，投资者变得谨慎，房价下跌。
截至 2020 年底，中国房价已连续三年下降。
同时，政府在全国各省市实施了房地产调控政策，如土地政策、房贷政策等措施限制了内地房地产市场。
2.交易量在全球金融危机爆发之前，中国的房地产市场交易量一直处于高位。
然而，由于危机期间产生的财务压力，投资者的需求变得谨慎，不敢冒险，导致交易量下降。
此后，中国房地产市场的交易量逐步恢复。
3.商业地产由于全球金融危机导致许多企业陷入困境，逾期还款或倒闭，商业地产租赁市场受到严重打击，这对整个房地产市场产生了负面影响。
4.高端市场在金融危机中，中国的高端房地产市场的确定性受到了不小的影响。
此时，国内外富人集中出售房地产资产，以应对危机。
导致合同不确定性和交易量的大幅下降。
四、政府应对的政策和策略为提高整个房地产市场的抗风险能力，中国政府开展了一系列政策来引导市场，稳定市场，包括：1. 基础设施建设：中国政府加大了基础设施建设的投资，以带动其他行业的发展，加快了房地产市场的建设。
2. 调控市场：多个市政府驱动了房地产投机市场的规范。
在土地管理、房贷和税收等方面禁止了投机性行为，并对购房人采取了严格的身份证和资产验证措施。
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The Chinese Real Estate Market and the effects of WTOChina’s impending entry in the World Trade Organization (WTO) will be a blessing to the real estate industry in China which has had little to celebrate since the bustling days of the early-mid 1990's.WTO entry sends a positive message to foreign companies about China’s commitment to economic and market reforms. Demand from foreign companies - the primary occupants of top-quality commercial，industrial and residential projects is likely to increase as new companies enter the market and others expand as restrictions are gradually lifted.It is, however, premature to say exactly how much the real estate market will benefit. To predict that WTO entry will mean rising rents and demand for more construction in the short term is, perhaps, misguided. The details of the agreement are not yet known, and it is likely that the impact will be gradual and unevenly spread amongst businesses and in different areas of China. Financial services，telecommunications，distribution and logistics，information technology，agriculture, and professional services industries, as well as Chinese consumers, are likely to be significant winners.Metropolitan areas may see benefits due to easing of restrictions on financial services companies- Banks and insurance companies are a major industry sector in these areas, and the lifting of restrictions on their activities could unleash significant latent demand for real estate as the reforms take hold. The lifting of trade restrictions, the lowering of tariffs and the easing of restrictions on distribution over the next five years will be a boon for warehousing, logistics and distribution real estate in China f s busiest port city, as well as in the rest of China.While WTO entry may encourage a recovery in real estate markets sooner than otherwise expected, almost every major market in the countryremains vastly overbuilt. In the office sector, the vacancy rate for Grade A buildings is presently 30% in Beijing and 38% in Shanghai. Based on recent trends in demand, this vacant office space will take two to three years to be absorbed, and there is more construction underway.China will continue to reap economic rewards from the comprehensive package of housing reforms that the central government has been continually introducing. The most recent development in the new policy is the replacement of monetary subsidies for welfare housing distribution. This new move builds on the 1998 directive, which ended the provision of subsidized housing to public servants. The reforms, coupled with an increased readiness on the part of banks to grant residential mortgages, are expected to promote the sale of housing and facilitate housing construction.While it is Chinese citizens who will benefit most from the housing reforms, foreigners may also have the opportunity to participate in the real estate boom. Foreign banks are seeking permission to compete in the huge mortgage market and purveyors of building materials, furniture, household appliances and interior design services are now honing in on the Chinese market. Any restrictions or conditions to which foreign companies are presently subject are likely to be relaxed or liftedcompletely upon China's accession to the World Trade Organization.This strong socialist principle of state ownership of real property has been somewhat circumvented by the introduction of ’land-use rights’.A land-use right is created when the owner of the land (the State or a collective) separates one or more of the rights of possession，use and benefit from the complete right of ownership and grants them to another legal person. Land-use rights in practice are acquired by way of a grant or by means of allocation by the State. The rights exist for a definite term ranging from 40 years for commercial，tourist and recreational purposes to 70 years for residential purposes-The land-use rights holder may then exercise the rights granted, but the land must be used in accordance with the land-grant contract. An amendment to the Constitution in 1988 confirmed that f the rights to the use of land may be transferred in accordance with law1. Depending on the stipulations of the land-grant contract, and the extent of the rights granted the holder may have a right that is practically the same as ownership, albeit for a limited time.Thus, notwithstanding the socialist tenet that there shall be no private ownership of land, an ordinary Chinese citizen may legally own his house, and, in conjunction with an appropriate land use right，may for all intents and purposes own the land and everything above it. Accordingly，a Chinese real estate market that trades land-use rights coupled with the structures on the land has gradually evolved.Central to the new housing policies is the desire of the Chinese government to facilitate the purchase of housing by Chinese citizens. This deviation from traditional socialist principles is aimed at bringing about increased consumption，a broadening of employment opportunities and the renewed availability of government resources- Most provinces，autonomous regions and municipalities have already formulated schemes for the sale of public housing to individuals. To date, approximately 60 per cent of such housing has been sold nationwide.Political and ideological notions aside, the recent housing reforms have had vast economic ramifications. China?s fledgling real estate market of the early 1990s has now blossomed: over the past two years, investment in real estate has been growing by 20 per cent per year. 401 billion Yuan was invested in real estate development nationwide in 1999. Housing construction has increased dramatically and it is predicted that at least 55 million square meters of floor space will be added year-on-year until 2010.In response to both government initiatives and market trends, banks will endeavor to increase the number of loans granted forreal estate purposes. The balance of such loans by China’s state-owned commercial banks reached 3».6 billion Yuan by the end of 1999. Commercial banks will also focus on making a greater amount of housing mortgage loans available to individuals in 2000. The projected target for such loans is 100 billion Yuan. The People’s Bank of China has pledged to strengthen supervision of the granting of housing loans. The China Construction Bank has gone one step further than its competitors by announcing that the grant of housing loans in China’s central and western areas will be accorded a special priority.Inevitably, the housing reforms are not free from all difficulties. The gradual evolution of a market economy in China has cracked the f iron rice bowl1. With the demise in prominence of state-owned enterprises and the rebirth of the private economy, Chinese workers can no longer expect lifetime employment. And now, with the introduction of a monetary subsidy, Chinese citizens can no longer bank on the security of welfare housing. Will this hold back any foreseeing boom?A real estate boom in China will inevitably fuel the national economy, providing indirect benefits to all foreign investors. But it is overseas real estate developers who are poised to reap the most gains，for they already enjoy preferential treatment by way of exemption from investment regulatory taxes，easy access to fund-raising and freedom to remit profits abroad.High demand and profit potential in China's housing market make the industry a key investment target for foreign financial institutions, who will offer real estate developers financial services ranging from feasibility studies to consulting, the article said.Most investment would go to the residential housing market, and increasingly in China’s medium-sized and smaller cities，the article said. China's idle office construction industry will be a direct beneficiary of the mushrooming of foreign-invested factories and branch offices likely tofollow in the wake of China’s WTO entry, the article saidChina’s domestic building materials industry，however, which has few key products and minimal exposure to international markets, will be negatively impacted by China's entry to WTO.But domestic developers would benefit from the downward pressure on building materials, and China f s accession would lower import tariffs. Cheaper materials will bring building costs down, so housing costs should fall as well.In the medium to long term, the institutionalized reforms required by WTO rules are likely to have a positive impact for real estate investors and occupiers as a result of increased business activity and the more systematic development of China’s economy as a whole.The commercial and residential markets are overbuilt because too many developers rushed into China at the same time, and the strong demand was just not enough to fill the space. WTO will be a boost on the demand side, and may just fulfill some of the hopes that investors had when they came to China.Like the commercial market, the expatriate housing market will be positively affected. While certain companies have been reducing expatriates in the last several years (or at least the proportion of expatriates to overall employees), the wave of new companies coming to China will likely bring more senior expatriate managers，however according to the AmCham 2000 Housing Survey, foreign companies plan not to hire as many expatriates in the upcoming year. WTO will have a positive effect on the market and there will be more expatriates entering China from smaller or medium sized businesses. It’s not all hype.Some economists believe that WTO membership is being over publicized, but others see it as the answer to Beijing’s real estate problems. It is generally believed that China's pending entry into the World TradeOrganization will be a blessing forBeijing's real estate market, which has been depressed since the economic boom of the mid-1990s.As China began competing on the global market, it became clear that meeting international standards for quality and comfort were crucial. The message was clear: You may choose to cut corners, but your competitors may not.The capital’s commercial real estate market has been on a dizzying roller-coaster ride for the past decade. At its peak, roughly around 1994, Beijing's rental market was on par with the world’s major financial centers. But just six years later, prices have plummeted and there is debate over whether the bottom has been reached.Although Beijing seems like it is under permanent reconstruction, it is only comparatively recently that the incessant cacophony of banging and drilling took over the capital.A major government policy change in 1992 provided overseas investors with preferential incentives to invest in Beijing commercial real estate, which quickly resulted in the capital becoming one of the worlds most expensive rental markets. Previously, foreign companies and foreign residents were extremely restricted by the number of hotels, housing and office complexes available to them.However，by late 1994, a surge of new buildings began cropping up across the city and Beijing’s real estate mark et peaked. Early 1995 offices occupied 100 percent and office space was at a premium. Office complexes were charging over US$140 per square meter per month. However, the boom didn't last. After the initial frenzy, rental prices started to slip before plummeting by as much as 30 percent a year.But investors began to tire of China's meager return on investment.11 The decline was triggered by a slew of factors, not the least of which was the Asian financial crisis of 1997-99 and the reluctance offoreign multinationals to continue pumping money into a saturated market.Oversupply remains a problem, with an estimated 20 percent to 30 percent of commercial real estate remaining vacant.But how long before demand equals supply is subject to debate. While some market analysts believe 1999 was one of the most active years in recent memory, others insist that the market is still sluggish. However, overall the advent of WTO membership has brought about a general feeling of optimism* As a result, rental fees are once again expected to rise and vacancies decrease. The commercial sector has turned around very quickly and rents are going up. The 37-story China World Tower II，which opened last October，only has three floors available for rent. The building began with 58,000 square meters of empty space.For domestic companies in real estate, a large and steady inflow of foreign investment will be crucial to reforming state-owned enterprises. Reform is invariably going to lead to the closure of many inefficient enterprises- But the good news is that increasing demand is coming from local private businesses.More and more domestic companies are moving into Grade-A office buildings，which previously had only been occupied by foreign companies. In the second half of last year, 60 percent of the demand for rental space came from Chinese companies. This development was fueled not only by declining rental fees，but also by a pushamong Chinese companies to upgrade their image.In addition to shifts in rental costs, the quality of projects in Beijing has improved considerably over the last several years. Increased competition has made developers realize that there is a demand for quality.Therefore，in addition to modern facades and grandiose，marble-laden lobbies，a significant number of technical improvements have also been made.Higher ceilings，faster elevators，year-round air conditioning，and ample daily and back-up electrical power are just some of the improvements included in newer buildings and renovations. Multinational companies in Beijing can finally see that the office market has matured, maybe not fully，but at least to the point where there is some value for money. So the market is ready for the demand expected from the influx of expatriates resulting from the WTO. It's all a matter of time when the agreement is signed.The signing of the bilateral trade agreement between China and the United States on November 15, 1999 opened the way for China's accession to the World Trade Organization in the near future. Chinas real estate market will greatly benefit once China gains entry into the WTO for the following reasons:1.Low tariffs help to lower construction costs and hence housing prices.Since 1992, import tariffs in China have been lowered five times from an average level of forty-three percent to the present level of seventeen percent. Tariff rates will be further reduced and certain import restrictions will be removed with China’s entry into the WTO. At the moment, most medium to high-end building materials and construction machinery，for example，lumber，interior decoration materials，sanitary ware，insulation materials, elevators and electrical products are imported. Lowering of the tariffs will lower the prices of these products and as a result, the construction cost of buildings will be reduced. Also, more imports of these types of products will improve the quality of houses.2.Residents and non-residents are usually granted different terms for home purchases in most cities in China. It is common that non-residents pay a higher land premium and management fees.With the accession, this kind of restriction is likely to be eliminated. Most non-residents are concerned about the investment value of the homes they purchase. During the past twelve years, home prices have increased almost four times. Many foreigners are aware of this fact, and are attracted to this opportunity, particularly in coastal areas and/or large cities. There is still a lot of room for expansion of the residential market. Therefore, the removal of unequal terms for residents and non-residents will help boost the real estate market.3.By opening up the services sector the vacancy rates in the commercial real estate market will be brought down. China has to open up its services sector with accession to WTO. Foreign companies in the banking, insurance，retail, telecommunications, legal, entertainment and travel sectors, which are refused entry, will be allowed into the China market. All these types of businesses prefer office locations in the cities, often in central business districts. At present, high vacancy rates in the commercial real estate market is a problem in China. The vacant units, readily available at good prices due to oversupply, will help foreign firms to make quick in-roads into China. As a result, opening up services sector will help to improve the office and commercial real estate market.Opening the market to foreign financial companies will help improve the home mortgage market there is a co-relationship between the real estate market and the financial market. At present, the financial market in China has a long way to develop. Entry of foreign financial companies and insurance companies into the China market as a result of China’s accession will help to stimulate the financial market, and in turn the home mortgage and real estate market.4.Automobiles, facilitating mobility of people, will help to improve the real estate market, particularly in the suburban areas. At present, import tariffs for automobiles are 100-150 percent, which are among the highest in the world. Protectionism has resulted not only in a lack of competition in the local automobile industry, it also makesproduction costs and the sales price of the automobiles high. After entering the WTO, China is going to reduce import tariffs by 10 percent every year for six years. As a result, prices of automobiles will go down making automobiles more affordable. With mobility，home purchasers will be more willing to buy homes in the suburban areas, where homes are cheaper5.Expansion of foreign access to the agricultural market will result in more farmers relocating to cities. China has pledged to expand foreign access to its agricultural market, which at the moment is operating with high production costs and, a lack of good management. Foreign competition will possibly drive many farmers out of business, forcing many farmers to relocate to cities. This will bring about a positive effect on the housing market in the cities.Many people are worried that China's accession to the WTO will have a negative impact on its economy and its local enterprises. Some economists are of the opinion that many enterprises will go out of business and that many people will be unemployed. However, I believe that all in all, the impact will be a good one.After the accession，it is true that businesses，which are not competitive，will suffer and that employers of these businesses will have less purchasing power for homes. However, multinational companies, which enter the market, need good workers and they also need to buy raw materials locally. This in fact creates employment opportunities for many people. Some good examples include Motorola which has an office in Tianjin, General Electric which has an operation in Pudong, Shanghai, and IBM which has an operation in Shenzhen. Since many high quality workers will find employment and receive higher incomes, in general, the purchasing power of people will be increased. This will have an overall positive effect on China's economy.Finally, after China's accession, foreign enterprises will be ableto invest and trade in the real estate market. Multinationals, equipped with capital, technology, experience and human resources, will have an advantage over a lot of smaller local companies. Competition will not only help to eliminate the non-competitive companies, but those who survive may merge to form stronger companies. In the end, consumers benefit from getting better quality, prices and services offered to them in the real estate market. WTO will have a positive effect for the consumer.For example, Branded Alliance，Century 21 China and Overseas Investing Group is a best fact. Century 21 China Real Estate and Overseass Investing Group signed a Sole Agency Agreement when China's entry of WTO is impending and when China is accelerating conglomerating of real estate industry.Overseas Investing Group is a world renowned investing enterprise concerning real estate，travel，hotel，textile and import and export business with tens of projects in Lanzhou, Fujian, Beijing and Shanghai in China. It enjoys high recognition in Beijing for several top grade properties including Yayun Garden，Huaao Centre，Zizhu Garden，Royal Garden which gained considerable fame for a time.Century 21 Real Estate is the world’s largest real estate organization founded in California, USA in 1971 with its offices now covering 30 countries and regions world over. Century 21 came to China in 1999 and has been growing since which has three regions nation wide and over ten offices in Beijing providing one stop and shop services in real estate to customers. The aim of Century 21 China is to develop 30 regions，2,000 offices and 14,000 agents in the main land of China.Overseas entrusted rental business of Zizhu Garden and Royal Garden exclusively to Century 21 China so as to carry out branded alliance and jointly promote brand image in China. The related professional inword文档可自由复制编辑Century 21 China said the cooperation will sure to act as an important step to lead real estate market in China under the attracti ons of the world’s famous brandword文档可自由复制编辑W TO 对中国房地产市场的影响中国入世在即，对自从90 年代早中期以来一直处于浑浑愕愕几乎无庆幸而言的房地产行业来说将是一桩赐福。