胡壮麟语言学Chapter sound
胡壮麟.语言学第二章题
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第二章：语音您所查看的帖子来源于考研加油站考研论坛() Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative以下内容跟帖回复才能看到==============================Key:I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme neveroccur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.。
语言学胡壮麟第三版第二章笔记
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds The definition of phonetics & phonology Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages. Distinction: The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order. Ⅰ How speech sounds are made? A. Speech organs 1. 3 cavities pharynx oral cavity nasal cavity 2. vocal folds apart: voiceless Close: voiced Close tightly: glottal stop 3. uvula B. The IPA The The first first first version version version of of of the the the International International International Phonetic Phonetic Phonetic Alphabet Alphabet （the the IP A IP A chart chart ）was was published published published in in August,1888. Ⅱ Consonants and vowels 1. Definition Consonants Consonants are are are produced produced produced ““by by a a a closure closure closure in in in the the the vocal vocal vocal tract, tract, tract, or or or by by by a a a narrowing narrowing narrowing which which which is is is so so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction ”. A vowel is produced without such “stricture stricture”” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. 2. Three factors to describe the features of consonants 1) V oicing: voiced & voiceless 2) Manner of articulation: It refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. Classification according to manners of articulation stop/ plosive fricative lateral tap/ flap nasal approximant trill affricate3) place place of of of articulation: articulation: articulation: It It It refers refers refers to to to the the the point point point where where where a a a consonant consonant consonant is is is made. made. made. Practically Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal fold. Classification according to place of articulation bilabial dental post alveolar palatal uvular glottal labiodental alveolar retroflex velar pharyngea3. V owels 1) cardinal vowel: The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are are a a a set set set of of of vowel vowel vowel qualities qualities qualities arbitrarily arbitrarily arbitrarily defined, defined, defined, fixed fixed fixed and and and unchanging, unchanging, unchanging, intended intended intended to to provide provide a a a frame frame frame of of of reference reference reference for for for the the the description description description of of of the the the actual actual actual vowels vowels vowels of of of existing existing languages. 2) Classification of vowels the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense Vs. lax or long Vs. short) lip-rounding (rounded Vs. unrounded) Ⅲ From phonetics to phonology1. Coarticulation: Coarticulation: When When When simultaneous simultaneous simultaneous or or or overlapping overlapping overlapping articulations articulations articulations are are are involved, involved, involved, we we we call call call the the process coarticulation. Two types of coarticulation 1) Anticipatory coarticulation If If the the the sound sound sound becomes becomes becomes more more more like like like the the the following following following sound, sound, sound, it it it is is is known known known as as as anticipatory anticipatory coarticulation. 2) Perseverative coarticulation If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation. 2. Phone: The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are phones. Phoneme: It ’s a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phnemes. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pair. Allophone: Variants of the same phonemes. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. Ⅳ Phonological Process, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features1. Assimilation: It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristic of a neighboring sound. Two possibilities of assimilation 1) regressive assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. 2) Progressive Progressive assimilation: assimilation: assimilation: It It It is is is the the the converse converse converse process process process in in in which which which a a a preceding preceding preceding sound sound sound is is influencing a following sound. 2. Distinctive Features The idea of distinctive features was first developed b Roman Jacobson in the 1940s. Ⅴ SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone and intonation. 1. Syllable onset rhyme nucleus coda 2. MOP(maximal onset principle) When there is a choice also where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. 3. Stress It refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. 4. Intonation Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. 5. Tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words Supplement articulatory phonetics: is the study of the production of speech sounds. acoustic phonetics: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. 。
胡壮麟Chapter 2 Speech sounds
Chapter 2 Speech soundsI. For each question, there are four choices of answers. In some cases, only one choice is correct while in others more than one should be chosen. Choose ALL the correct ones. 1．AB D 2.B 3. A 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. ABC 8. AC D 9. B 10. D11. B 12. C D 13. C 14. A 15. B 16. D 17. B 18. C 19. D 20. B21. AC 22 C D 23 ABC 24 C D 25 ABC 26 C 27 B C D 28 C 29 C 30 B31 C 32.A 33.B 34.D 35.A 36.D 37.C 38.C 39.D 40.DII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1 T2 F3 F4 T5 T6 F7 F8 F9 F 10 T11.T 12.F 13.F 14.F 15.F 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.T21.F 22.F 23.F 24. F 25. T 26. F 27. T 28. T 29. F 30. FIII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Aspiration2.Articulatory3. bilabial4. tongue5. place6. stop7. Suprasegmental8. sequential9. narrow 10. intonation11. Phonology 12. oral 13. Tone 14. sentenceIV. Written work.1. Discuss the phonological rule that underlies the third person singular present tense forms of verbs in English. Keep in mind the following forms: 1) He works eight hours a day, six days a week. 2) The girl comes here every Saturday. 3) She uses the computer at night.The 3rd person singular present verb suffix, -(e)s in written form, is pronounced in three different ways: [s], [z], and [әz] .Through analysis of data, we can see that /z/ appears after voiced sound [m], /s/ is found after voiceless consonant [k], while /әz/ occurs after sibilant [s]. If we examine more words, we find that they follow the same kind of pattern. It is easy to see that (1) /s/ is used when the preceding sound is a voiceless consonant other than the voiceless sibilants, (2) /z/ occurs when the preceding sound is a vowel or a voiced consonant other than the voiced sibilants, and (3) /әz/ follows any of the sibilants.Now, the three variants of the 3rd person singular present verb form in English are applied in the following fashion:(1) a. The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds.c. The /әz/ appears after sibilants.In order to bring out the rule that governs this pattern, we need to say that /z/, which occurs in the most cases, is the basic form and the other two forms are derived from it. The basic form is technically known as the“underlying form” or “underlying representation(UR)”. The derived form is the “surface form” or “surface representation(SR)”.Therefore, /s/ is a mat ter of devoicing and /әz/ is a case of epenthesis. The two rules are represented as follows:(2) z → s / [-voice, C] _____ (Devoicing)(3) Ø →ә / sibilant _____ z (Epenthesis)With these two rules at hand, we can see if we can derive the correct SRs from the URs. Consider the derivations in :(4) a. //si:t + z// b. //bєd + z// c. //keıs + z//s N/A s DevoicingN/A N/A N/A Epenthesissi:ts bєdz keıss OutputClearly, something has gone wrong. The problem is that Devoicing will always apply to /z/ after a voiceless consonant and then there is never the environment for Epenthesis to apply. The obvious solution is to say that Epenthesis will always apply before Devoicing, as in :(5) a. //si:t + z// b. //bєd + z// c. //keıs + z//N/A N/A әEpenthesiss N/A N/A Devoicingsi:ts bєdz keısәz OutputThus, in this particular case, we have to follow a specially stipulated “ruleordering”. If this order is disturbed, incorrect derivation will result .2. Discuss the concepts of …coarticulation‟ and …assimilation‟.答案要点和分值：1) Coarticulation is a term of phonetics while assimilation is a term of phonology.2) Cause: speech is a continuous process…3) Types: anticipatory/perseverative coarticulation, regressive/progressive assimilation.4) Appropriate examples, esp. nasalization, velarization, & dentalization; cross syllabic and cross word boundaries; English fricative devoicing.注：本题要求学生对教材中分属语音学和音系学的两个几乎完全相同的概念（协同发音和同化现象）进行统一的讨论。
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》章节题库(语 音)【圣才出品】
第2章语音I. Fill in the blanks.1. The sound /p/can be described with “______, bilabial, stop”.【答案】voiceless【解析】/p/是双唇音，爆破音，清音。
2. According to ______, when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.【答案】The maximal onset principle【解析】当一个辅音既可放在节首也可放在节尾时，根据最大节首原则应将其放在节首。
3. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of ______ and manner of articulation.【答案】place【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。
4. ______ are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.【答案】Consonants【解析】发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。
5. The present system of the ______ derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967), and his colleagues at University of London.【答案】cardinal vowels【解析】基本元音是指一系列约定俗成、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题——第二章：语音
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第二章：语音Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1~5 ACDAA6~10 DBABB1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantIV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). V arious instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative。
胡壮麟语言学修订版笔记(3)
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the soundsproduced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to theprinciples of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists ofletters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, someare special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract atsome places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in theoral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way inwhich the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (mannerof articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or theobstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the airstream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[] are stops and[] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the airstream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused bybringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreamscompletely. In English,[] arefricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator isclose to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to suchan extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this classof sounds includes [].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced bypartially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by thetongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. []is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate. 2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip andthe upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade andthe upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or bladeand the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip andthe back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip orblade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or bladeforms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hardpalate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongueand the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongueand the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongueand the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle atthe posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of thetongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocalfolds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate.Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (oftendivided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of liprounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and loweredfor vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description ofthe actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[],CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing thelip-rounding for a give position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type outmany of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowelgliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatorycoarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detailis referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicateonly these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a givenlanguage while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speechsounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. theEnglish words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and intheir initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of alanguage, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions causedifferences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal adifference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called itsallophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginningof the word like peak//, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak//, it issaid without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] inpeak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e.they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are bothallophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless.Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at theend of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segmentundergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In eachprocess the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in thecase of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we cansay that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set ofsounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a setof situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/)specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (calledthe focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: avoiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound whenit appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 S yllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’tbe // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音）；音高和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs1. Speech organs2. Voiceless sounds3. Voiced sounds4. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and TriphthongsIV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions1. Coarticulation2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure3. Stress4. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
胡壮麟语言学
2. What is this course about?Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsChapter 2 Speech SoundsChapter 3 LexiconChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 MeaningChapter 6 Language and cognitionChapter 7 Language, Culture, and SocietyChapter 8 Language in useChapter 9 language and literatureChapter 10 language and computerChapter 11 linguistics and foreign language teachingChapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics1. languageDefinitionFeaturesFunctions1) Definition:Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.(语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。
）Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." （语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 语音 语言学胡壮麟
Two major areas of study of speech sounds are:
Phonetics Phonology
II. Phonetics
2.1 Definition Phonetics (the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.
Figure 1: Articulation of bilabial nasal stops.
Figure 2: Articulation of alveolar nasal stops.
Figure 4: Articulation of velar nasal stops.
3) fricatives: The obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage (close approximation of articulators).
The air stream (source of energy) coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. Speech sounds in most languages are achieved by compression of the lung volume causing air flow which may be made audible if set into vibration by the activity of the larynx, and then modified in the oral and nasal cavities.
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Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
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Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.
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Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the widest aperture)
Roca & Johnson (1999: 16)
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Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop
Roca & Johnson (1999: 22)
Speech production (Speaker A)
Speech perception (Speaker B)
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Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.
Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.
Chapter Two Speech Sounds
As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.
Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.
It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.
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One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.
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1.2 The IPA
In 1886, the Phonetic Teachers’ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods.
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1. How speech sounds are made
1.1 Speech organs
MacMahon (1990: 7)
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MacMahon (1990: 7)
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Maห้องสมุดไป่ตู้Mahon (1990: 7)
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Position of the vocal folds: voiceless
Roca & Johnson (1999: 15)
The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886, and
the first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888.
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Its main principles were that
there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’.
In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together.