英语语言学期末考试重点
第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language① Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study (共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1．What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to formsentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words , such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech , the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realized in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective（完成体）and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words, especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences① Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics 3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：①Performatives and Constatives②A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is called a performative(行事话语)。
语言学期末考试重点
语言学期末考试重点What is language?“ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”System: linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.Arbitrary: e.g. bookSymbolic: people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.V ocal: language is primarily vocal, rather than writtenHuman-specific:Design features of language语言的本质特征Arbitrariness （任意性）Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪”in Chinese. Onomatopoeia: words that sound like the sounds they describe Duality （二重性）Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds which combine to form meaningful units (morphemes, words, such as he, left) which constitute a higher (primary) level.Productivity or Creativity （创造性）Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and canbe instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement（移位性）One can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.e.g. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.e.g. a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.e.g. a Chinese baby born and brought up in Londonan English child brought up in BeijingInterchangeability（互换性）It refers to that man can both produce and receive message.One can be a speaker or a hearerSpecialization （专门性）It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communicationFunction of language(语言功能)Phatic function/communion（寒暄功能）Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.e.g. Greetings, farewell and commentsDirective function （指令功能Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.e.g. open the doorInformative function（信息功能）Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out.Declarative sentences:e.g. I saw her yesterday on the streetInterrogative function （疑问功能）Language is used to ask for information from others.All questions expecting replies serve this function.e.g. what’s your name?what time is it now?Expressive function（表达功能）Language is used to reveal the speaker’s at titudes and feelings.e.g. Oh, my God!Evocative function（唤起功能）Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.e.g. Jokes, advertising, and propagandaPerfomative function（施为功能）Language is used to do things or to perform acts.e.g. I now pronounce you husband and wife.Descriptive and prescriptive grammars （描写式和规定式语法）Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.e.g. A: who is that?B: It’s me. / It’s I.Synchronic and diachronic linguistics （共时与历时语言学）When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developmentsthrough time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.Langue and parole （语言与言语F. de Saussure make an important distinction between langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performance （语言能力和语言应用）According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.Chapter 2The Sounds of LanguagePhoneticsThe study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The study of sounds can be divided into three main areas: Articulatory Phonetics; Acoustic Phonetics; Perceptual or Auditory PhoneticsClassification of English speech soundsSpeech sounds of all languages are broadly classified into vowels and consonants.V owels: there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.Consonants: we are making it difficult or impossible for theair to pass through the mouth.ConsonantsEnglish consonant can be classified according to the manner of articulation and the place of articulation.The manner of articulation: it refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).The place of articulation: it refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).The manner of articulationPlosives /stops (爆破音)——/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/Fricatives （摩擦音）——/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /e/, /∫/, /?/, /h/ Affricates (破擦音) ——/t∫/, /d?/Liquids （流音）——/l/, /r/Nasals （鼻音）——/m/, /n/, /?/Glides (median approximants) （滑音）——/j/, /w/The place of articulationBilabials （双唇音）: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/Labiodentals （唇齿音）: /f/, /v/Dentals （齿音）: /θ/, /e/Alveolars（齿龈音）:/t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/Palatals （上颚音）: /j/, /∫/, /?/, /d?/, /t∫/Velars （软腭音）: /k/, /g/, /?/Glottal （声门音，喉音）: /h/Phonology （音系学/音位学）Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Minimal pairs 最小对立体Minimal pairs: are pairs of words which differ from each otheronly by one sound (occurs in the same place).Minimal sets 最小对立体集Minimal sets: when a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.On the vowel phonemese.g.feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, footOn the consonantse.g.big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wigSuprasegmentals（超语段音位学）Suprasegmental features refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of sound segment. The major suprasegmental features in english include word stress, sentence stress, tone, and intonation.STRESS TONE INTONATION。
英语语言学期末考试重点
第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2。
Design features of language①Arbitrariness（任意性）refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning。
(sounds and meanings）②Duality（二层性）：The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization。
③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users。
④Displacement（移位性）：Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present （in time and space) at moment of communication. （p7）3.Functions of language① Informative（信息功能)：to give information about facts。
英语语言学复习总结
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2、The design/defining features of human language Charles Hockett1 Arbitrariness----No logical motivated or intrinsic connection between sounds and meanings.----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words.2 Productivity/creativityWe can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurringException: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.3 Duality▪Lower level----sounds meaningless▪Higher level----meaning larger units of meaningException: the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fishcrap, or a public place for rest and amusementpark.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.Exception: Yesterday which book did you read5 Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception；an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation1CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag2 DerivationIt refers to the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize3 BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾4 Abbreviation1cutting the final part or with a slightvariation advertisement-----ad2 cutting the initial part aeroplane -----plane3 cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator ---- fridge5 AcronymIIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronymIIThis process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税6 Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor ------edit7 BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, .that is . for example etc. et ceteraChinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish8 InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rulerule: specifier + head + complement2. XP rule: SpecifierX’X’à Xcomplement3. XP rule :Specifier X Complement4. XP rule:Spec Mod X Complement ModComplement: in grammar that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features:Ø one or more complements are permittedØ eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purple umbrella …Ø words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CPØ. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplaceØ A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.Ø. come to school; go to bed; look through itModifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position exampleAP Precedes the head a very careful girlPP Follows the head open with careAdvP Precedes or follows thehead read carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义：Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S__Tang Wanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, represented by the capital letters, which gives rise to a verbal responser to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”I’m thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky represented by the small letter S. This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. synonymy同义现象Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1 Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects 地区方言autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline 地方2 Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,文体风格上不同kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3 Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningexamples in Mandarin情感上和评价判断上的不同合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结4 Collocational synonyms搭配意义上的不同A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5 Semantically different synonyms语义不同surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act,perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window” ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.作业本You have left the door wide open① the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean② the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. . asking someone to close the door.③ The perlocutionary act refers to the effect result of the utterance. It can be “the hearer clos e the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP IThe maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation----Be relevant make your contribution relevant.The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.先判断在分析,先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题Conversational implicature会话含义,言外之意；会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, . both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.填空,definition 判断选择Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to establishment of phoneticsPhonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processesSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: it examines how meaning is encoded in language. It is concerned with 1meanings of the words. 2 levels of language below the word and above itPragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchPsycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how…. , how…Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”--------speakingAcoustic phonetics声学语音学；----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.-------soundingAuditory phonetics听觉语音学----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”--------listeningClassification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: ▪The manner of articulation▪The place of articulationBroad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, . clear l , pitNarrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, . dark l , aspirated pSemantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.Naming theory’s Limitations1 Applicable to nouns only.2 There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.3 There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions.Conclusion on semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements words and phrases; The referent refers to the object in the world of experience; Thought or reference refers to concept.Relations:The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.7. Antonymy反义现象Antonymy: refers to the oppositeness of meaning.1. Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Old-young, hot-cold, tall-short2. Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Alive-dead, male-female, …3. Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two itemsHusband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, employer-employee, give-receive…8. Homonymy同形异义Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling. tearn.-tearv., leadn.-leadv., …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, ballE,F, bank, watch, scale, fast, …Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning.▪“table” may mean:▪1. A piece of furniture▪2. All the people seated at a table▪ food that is put on a table▪4. A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.▪5. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.……X entails Y蕴含关系▪X: John married a blond heiress.▪Y: John married a blond.▪X: Marry has been to Beijing.▪Y: Marry has been to China.▪Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.▪If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y预射关系▪X: His bike needs repairing.▪Y: He has a bike.▪Paul has given up smoking.▪Paul once smoked.▪If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.The Relatedness between Language and SocietyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.1. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships2. The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. social class, age, sex, education level, etc.3. Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. “snow” for Eskimo4. As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social the postvocalic r .Predication analysisIII1 The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.2 There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, .Green clouds are sleeping furiously.Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …Two-place predication: like, love, sa ve, bite, beat,…Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …No-place predication: It is hot.I like youtwo placeIt is hot no place…Performatives’Features Austin’s“I declare the meeting open.”1. first person, singular subject2. simple present tense3. indicative mood4. active voice5. performative verbs基本上所有的动词都是perfomativesSearle’s Classification of Speech Acts 1969判断出是那一种Assertives/representatives陈述---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, .I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…I think it is good.Directives指令---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, .I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life…Sit down, please.Commissives承诺---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, such as promise or a threat. .I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.If you do not stop fighting, I’ll call the polic e.I promise to come.Expressives表达----Expressing the speaker’s psychological statefeeling and attitudes about something,such as an aplology, a complaint, to thank someone, to congratulate someone. .I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…You are so wonderfulDeclarations宣告----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…I now pronounce you man and wife.Note: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, .1I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer..2In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, pleaseCan you open the doorDo you mind opening the doorOpen the doorThe door pleaseLanguage changeperiods1 449—1100: Old EnglishBeginning: English-speaking Anglo-Saxon and Jutes invaded into the British IslesThe End: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersGlæs; guma; gat----glass ---man ---goat“Beowulf”---England 8century poem,brave warrior2 1100—1500 Middle EnglishBeginning: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersThe End:“European Renaissance Movement”Latin and French“The Canterbury Tales”----Geoffrey Chaucer 1345-14003 1500—the present Modern EnglishBeginning: “European Renaissance Movement”The End: the presentDiphthongs appears: ai, au, ei, eu, ou, oiBecause of pressing industry overspreading, the spelling forms are determined/less changes.Regional dialectReason: This differentiation is accounted for the lack of communication in the old days when travel was difficult.Female Speech’s Features1. Women are usually more status-conscious than men in theEnglish-speaking world; therefore, their speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men.2. The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation.3. Female speech is, on the whole, less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech.Register: a Speech Variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation . doctors, lawyers or the same interests . stamp collectors, baseball fans.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:▪field of discourse,▪tenor of discourse,▪mode of discourseField of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose why and subject matter about what of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.Tenor of discourse:the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.Mode of discourse:the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. oral, written, on the line…Standard Variety:=standard dialect=standard language:the variety of a language which has the highest Status in a community of nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, . different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.文化影响语言,语言影响文化The inadequacy of behaviorist view1. What they imitate must be based on what the children have already known instead of what is “available” in the environment.2. They imitate words selectively and according to their own understandings of the sounds or patterns.3. how children acquire complex language system.Language acquisition device: LAD the capacity to acquire one’s First language, when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechanism or apparatus.Universal Grammar: a theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. 了解一下UGprototype原型It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of Parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, . English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.Motherese’s Features1. shorter utterances than speech to other adults2. grammatically simple utterances3. few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition4. clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated Intonation patterns CommentBehaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects;The innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system;And the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Critical Period Hypothesis CPH---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. Support in Victor’s and Genie’s casesVocabulary development1 Under-extension 外延缩小2 Over-extension外延延伸3 Prototype theoryGrammatical development1 Telegraphic speech 22 Sentences of three main elementsContrastive analysis CAthe comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions1. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language. language transfer2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference1970s, it declined and was replaced by Error Analysis▪Language transfer：the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur.▪“I am here since Monday.”▪“ I have been here since Monday.”▪Because of the transfer of the French pattern▪Je suis ici depuis lundi▪Negative transfer,负向转移 also known as interference, is the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an Error orinappropriate form in the Target Language. For example, a Frenchlearner of English may produce the incorrect sentence ▪“table, transport,restaurant, surprise”▪Positive transfer,正向转移 is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target languagehave the same form. For example, both French and English have theword ‘table’, which can have the same meaning in both languages.Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,a. Substitution of t for W and d for T: threeàtree, thisàdis.b. Shortening of long vowels: sheepàship, meetàmitIntralingual errorsThe intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.▪Two types of errors have been well exploited:overgeneralization & cross-associationTrue or False1. In an exciting argument, the speakers could express themselves fluently2. In an exciting argument, the speakers have grammatical expressions all the time3. After your listening others’ speech, could you repeat it totally4. About pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can identify the noun and verb in speaking “an apple” is a thing; “run” is an action5. And also about pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can define the term “noun”三、pairPrescriptive vs DescriptiveHe love that picture. We see a film yesterday.Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using languagetradition grammar“Give me that cup.” “ Could you bring me that cup”“ Cup”Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use modern linguisticsSynchronic vs diachronicA Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespear’s EnglishSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of timeLangue vs parole F. de SaussureLangue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Langue is the lexical, grammatical, and phonological constitution of a language to be implanted in the native speaker’s mind or brain in childhood as the collective product of the speech community envisaged as a supra-individual entity in its own right. In speaking his language thespeaker could only operate or perform within this langue; what he actually uttered was parole, and the only individual control he could exercise was when to speak and about what to speak.The aim to distinguish them is to abstract langue from parole. The reason to distinguish them is that parole is simply a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation.Langue Parole 1.abstract concrete 2all the members in actual use 3 linguistic competence of the speaker actual phenomena or data oflinguistics utterance4 not accessible5 social individual6 essential accidentalconclusion S ocial bond constitutes languageActive use of speakingCompetence and performance ChomskyCompetence ---- the i deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.distribution2. Phonemic contrast;pair.Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts. They never occur in the same context.Phonemic contrast----similar sounds, meanwhile can be used to distinguish the two phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Minimal pair----two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound one Phoneme and which also differ in meaning.Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemekindness; international; friendlyroot & affix----- Derivational morphemesfriendlytalks; talking; talked; boy’s; applesstem & affix----- Inflectional morphemesfriendsLexical meaning---basic notion of meaningsense: a dog: a domestic canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.Reference: the dog. a particular dog, we all know which one it is.vs. SemanticsPragmatics Semantics 1Study of the language in use The study of meaning 2Concerning the context Intrinsic, inherent 3More indeterminate, sth extra More constant 4Related to the context Inherent side of meaning 5Pragmatics = meaning – semanticsContext---- occurs before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etcTypes:1. context of situation: Do you prepare enoughof culture: Jane Eyremeaning vs. utterance meaningSentence meaning utterance meaning1 Abstract and context-independent meaning concrete and context-dependentmeaning2 literal meaning of a sentence i ntended meaning of a speaker3 What does X mean What did you mean by X。
成人教育《英语语言学》期末考试复习题及参考答案
一、单项选择题1.The manager would rather his daughter _____ in the same company.DA、would not workB、will not workC、does not workD、did not work2.Mike promised to keep me ______ how our business was going on.BA、informedB、informed ofC、to be informedD、to be informed of3.I have no objection ______ for a hike on the mountains with Cynthia.CA、to goB、goingC、to goingD、of going4.____ a teacher in our college, it is necessary to have at least a master’s degree.AA、To becomeB、One becomesC、Becoming ofD、Who becomes5.All the task ______ ahead of time, we planned to go on holiday for a week.DA、had fulfilledB、having fulfilledC、were fulfilledD、having been fulfilled6.Not until the game had begun ______ the sports ground.AA、did Peter arrive atB、Peter arrived atC、didn’t Peter arrive atD、Peter didn’t arrive at7.I didn’t send out my application form last week, but I ________.DA、had toB、might have toC、have hadD、should have8.I will give the ticket to _______ wants to have it.BA、whomeverB、whoeverC、some oneD、anyone9.The reason _______ I did not go to the lecture yesterday was that I had something important to do.DA、whichB、for thatC、becauseD、why10.Be careful with those explosives _______ end up killing ourselves.CA、then we won’tB、but we won’tC、or we willD、and we will11.The two scholars worked at the task of writing a preface to the new dictionary for three hours ____ last night.CA、at lengthB、in fullC、on endD、in time12.I don’t play basketball any more, _________ when I was a child.AA、but I used toB、I used toC、but I used to doD、I used to do13.Living here at the top of the mountain with no one else near, the old man must be very ____. DA、onlyB、aloneC、loneD、lonely14.I can’t read the marks and notes Jim made in the margin. They are too____.AA、faintB、foggyC、transparentD、misty15. A highly organized system of irrigation is ____ Chinese agriculture.AA、typical ofB、consistent withC、famous forD、subject to16.Jack is very ____ about wines.BA、awareB、knowledgeableC、learnedD、informed17.As for Ann, I am not sure about her ____ in Italian.AA、fluencyB、clarityC、coherenceD、excellency18.It was _____ that we went for a picnic in the country.CA、such nic e a dayB、such nice dayC、so nice a dayD、so nice day19.By the end of next month I ______ here for five years.DA、will workB、have been workingC、have workedD、will have been working20.Much research _______ into the possible causes of the disease in the past few years.AA、has been doneB、was doneC、have been doneD、were done21.The teacher told us that we didn’t have to _____ every new word we ran into when reading. CA、look overB、look throughC、look upD、look into22.When he wrote to his father that he wanted to ____ his education and get married, his father cut off his allowance.AA、give upB、give outC、give inD、give away23.His speech was warmly received. It was several minutes before the applause _______.AA、died downB、died ofC、died outD、died off24.Mr. Zhang makes _____ a point to keep up with the latest development in his field.CA、thisB、thatC、itD、these25.In many countries now seat belts are _____ for the driver and front seat passengers at least.。
语言学-期末考试考点一览
Chapter 1 Linguistics定义Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.▲Language distinguishes human beings from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.Linguistics: the scientific study of human languages.It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.★注：语言学研究的是所有人类的语言，并不是局限于如英语等某一门语言。
Language is vocal1) The primary medium for all languages is sound.2) Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance.词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位Design features 语言的定义特征Design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. （定义填空题）▲语言的四个Design features 也是区别人类语言好动物语言的特征A、Arbitrariness 任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.语言形式的符号与所表示的意义无天然的联系。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammarwhich studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties. It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language. 2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules forpeople to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and th e i r f i n d d i f f e r e n c e s . / p > p > P h o n o l o g y d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o u n d s y s t e m s o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s a n d h o w s o u n d s f u n c t i o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h m e a n i ng . / p > p > A p h o n e t i c i a n w o u l d b e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s c o s s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l n o t c o s d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g . / p > p > 2 . W h a t i s p h o n e ? H o w i s i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m a p h o n e m e ? h o w a r e a l l o p h o n e s r e l a t e d t o a p h o n e m e ? / p > p > P h o n e i s a p h o n e t i c u n i t , i t h a s n o m e a n i n g . / p > p > P h o n e m e i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e v a l u e . / p > p > T h e p h o n e m e / l / c a n b e r e a l i z e d a s d a r k / l - / a n d c l e a r / l / , w h i c h a r e a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e p h o n e m e / l / / p > p > A l l o p h o n e s - - - a c t u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f a p h o n e m e i n d i f f e r e n t p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t s . / p >。
语言学考试复习重难点
语言学考试复习重难点Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
《英语语言学概论》期末考试doc
《英语语⾔学概论》期末考试docI．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.Adjectives belong to open class words.3.John Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning the context of use is considered.5.English is a typical intonation language.6.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.7.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.8.There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regionaldialects.9.Transformations are the rules which can change the meaning of sentence.10.Sense and reference are two different notions of semantics, and they are related toeach other.II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1.The word “and” is a c____________ conjunction.2.Linguistic c__________ is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.3.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a________.4. A m________ is the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning.5. A sentence is formed by phonological rules, m______ rules, syntactic rules andsemantic rules.6.The most recognizable difference between American English and British English arein p________ and vocabulary.7.Speech v________refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers.8.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.9.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.10.As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, i_______ is a product of L2 training,mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner..III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)1. Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of study?A. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Sociolinguistics.2. ________refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. DialectB. IdiolectC. PidginD. Register3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop?A.[w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].4. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy5. Which of the following words is NOT formed by blending?A. Smog.B. Botel.C. Brunch.D. Edit.6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speak?A.V oicingB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality7. The word boyguard is a ______.A. compound wordB. complex wordC. derivational wordD. free morpheme8. All words contain a _________.A. rootB. bound morphemeC. prefixD. suffix9. Of the following sound combinations, only ______ is permissible.A. kiblB. hkilC. ilkbD. ilbk10. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A. pho.B. no.C. lo.D. gy.11. Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme12. The plural affix in the word tables is a(n) _______.A. inflectional suffixB. derivational suffixC. free morphemeD. root13. Language is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed”serves___.A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?A. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find15. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experienced the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of ______________.A. linguistic determinationB. linguistic relativismC. linguistic nativismD. linguistic behaviorism16. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.17. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic18. According to Krashen ______ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communication.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisition19. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguistics?A. Phonology.B. Psycho-linguistics.C. Sociolinguistics.D. Anthropology.20. The relationship between “flower” and “tulip” is _________.A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymyIV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1. acoustic phonetics 6. 应⽤语⾔学2. closed class words 7. 格语法3. componential analysis 8. 积极迁移4. distinctive features 9. 历史语⾔学5. Critical Period Hypothesis 10. 声调语⾔V. Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)The man saw a horse.VI. Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1. Define phoneme. (4 points)2. Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3. What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)4. Analyze the following conversation by applying the Cooperative Principles.(7points)A: Teheran is in Turkey, isn’t it, teacher?B: And London is in France, I suppose.VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. Write the one proper description from the list under B for the underlined part of each word in A. (5 points, 1 point each)A B(1) terroriz ed a. free root(2) un civil ized b. bound root(3) terror ize c. inflectional suffix(4) luke warm d. derivational suffix(5) im possible e. inflectional prefixf. derivational prefix2. Consider the following sentences in Swahili, and anwer the questions:(15 points) mtu amelala The man has slept. mtu analala The man is sleeping.mtu atalala The man will sleep.watu wamelala The men have slept.watu wanalala The men are sleeping.watu watalala The men will sleep.visu vinaanguka The knives are falling.kikapu kimeanguka The basket has fallen.watoto watafika The children will arrive.1)toto in Swahili means ______ in English.2)The meaning of the morpheme wa- in Swahili is _______.3)______ in Swahili means “sleep” in English.4)Translate mtoto anaanguka into English.5)Translate vikapu vimefika into English.台州学院_____学年第___学期___级____专业《英语语⾔学概论》期末试卷A卷（闭卷）参考答案及评分说明I．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1. coordinate2. competence3. arbitrary4. morpheme5. morphological6. pronunciation7. variety8. performance9. scientific 10. interlanguage III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)1. 声学语⾳学 6. applied linguistics2. 封闭词类7. case grammar3. 成分分析8. positive transfer4. 区别性特征9. historical linguistics5. 临界期假说10. tone languageV. Draw a tree diagram for the sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)SNP Infl VPDet N pst V NPDet Nthe man saw a horseVI. Answer the following questions. (20 points)1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable by rules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2. The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）e.g. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3. the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)4. According to the Cooperative Principle, the participants of the conversation should obey the four maxims of the principle: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner. (2 points) In this conversation, B’s reply deliberately violated the maxim of quality, (2 points) because B wanted A to infer the information that Teheran is not in Turkey. The main purpose of B is to let A know that it is absurd to make such a mistake.(3 points)VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. (1) c (2) a (3) d (4) b (5) f (1 point each)2. 1) child （2 points）2) human, plural （3 points）3)lala （2 points）4)The child is falling.（4 points）5)The baskets have arrived.（4 points）。
语言学教程[第四章句法：从语词到篇章]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
第四章句法：从语词到篇章复习笔记I.句法1.定义句法就是研究语言不同成分组成句子的规则或句子结构成分之间的关系。
2．句法关系(1)位置关系位置关系或词序指的是一门语言中词语的排列顺序。
位置关系是任何人类语言中的基本句法关系，也是语言的句法可接受性和语义可理解性的要求。
(2)替代关系替代关系指在相同的句子结构中，语法上可以互相代替的词类或语词的集合，它还可指由多个词组成的词组，语法上代替特定集合中的单个语词。
(3)同现关系共现关系指不同词类的不同词汇集合允许另一个词类或集合的词出现构成一个句子或句子的某一特定成分。
II.传统语法学派传统语法认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词的功能的描写等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
1．数、性和格(1)数是用来分析词类的语法范畴，有单数、双数和复数等。
在英语中，数主要是名词的范畴，包括两种形式：单数和复数。
数还体现在代词和动词的屈折变化上。
(2)性指的是依照性别把名词分成不同类别的语法范畴。
性主要也是名词和代词的范畴。
在英语中，性的差别是自然的，由动物本身的生理性别决定。
然而准确地讲，性在这里指的是语法性，语法性主要有阴性、阳性和中性三种。
(3)格主要是名词的屈折范畴，它典型地标识着它们和句子其他部分之间的关系。
在英语中，代词一般有三种格。
即：主格、宾格和属格；名词只有两种格：普通格和属格。
2．时态与体时态与体是动词的两个重要范畴，传统语法没有对它们加以区分。
时态与体之间的区别在于：时态是指示性的，也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关；体则不是指示性的，指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系，却与叙述中描写或暗示的另一个事件的时间相关。
3．一致关系与支配关系一致关系是指在一个给定的语言结构中，词和短语之间利用至少它们中的一个所携带的屈折形式互相匹配的句法关系。
支配关系是指句法结构中某些词的形式受另一种其他类型词的控制。
语言学期末复习总结
5. What is Linguistics?⏹The scientific study of human language⏹Aims of linguistic theory:⏹What is knowledge of language? (Competence)⏹How is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition)⏹How is knowledge of language put to use?(Performance/languageprocessing)⏹ A grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’slanguage:⏹Phonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the sound system orpatterns)⏹Lexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)⏹Morphology (the structure of words)⏹Syntax (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints onwell-formedness of sentences)⏹Semantics (the meaning of words and sentences)Semantics⏹The following are what the key concepts look like:⏹semantic components⏹denotation of words⏹sense relations between words such as antonymy andsynonymy⏹sense relations between sentences such as entailmentand presupposition and others⏹The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge thesynchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles?⏹ 1. English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.⏹ 2. Protean Shape: A study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.⏹ 3. Pejorative Sense Development in English.⏹ 4. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.⏹ 5. Language in the inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Synchronic: 2, 4, 5.Diachronic: 1, 3.⏹Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or realizationof langue.⏹As a social product, langue is a set of conventions that members of a speechcommunity seem to abide by. It can be thought of as the generalized rules ofthe language. Parole, on the other hand, is the concrete use of the conventions or application of the rules.⏹We can compare them along the following dimensions. Langue is abstract;parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs. Langue is not actuallyspoken by anyone; parole is always a naturally occurring event. Langue isrelatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints.⏹Parole is a mass of confused facts and not suitable for systematic investigation.What the linguist has to do is to abstract langue from instances of parole —that is, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and makethem the subject of linguistics.⏹For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly onlywithin a collectivity. In separating language (langue) from speaking (parole)we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual ;and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental. Competence and performanceThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965).Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.⏹Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinitenumber of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.⏹ A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced bypsychological and social factors.⏹Chomsky’s distinction and Saussure’s distinction are not exactly the same.Saussure’s langue is a social product, a set of conventions for a speechcommunity. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of eachindividual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological point of viewwhile Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.8.5 Linguistic potential and actual linguistic behavior⏹Another similar distinction is made by English linguist M. A. K. Halliday inthe 1960s, the distinction between linguistic potential and actual linguisticbehavior.⏹Halliday looks at language from a functional point of view, he ismore concerned with what speakers do with language.⏹With language, there is a wide range of things a speaker can do inthe culture he is in. There are many things he can say, for example, to manypeople, on many topics.⏹What he actually says on a particular occasion to a particularindividual is what he has selected from among the many possible things hecould have said.⏹This leads to Halliday’s distinction between linguistic potential andactual linguistic behaviour.⏹His linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s Langue andChomsky’s competence, and his actual linguistic behaviour is similar to thenotions of parole and performance.⏹Among the distinctions, parole, performance and actual linguistic behaviourhave a lot in common; but langue, competence and linguistic potential differconsiderably. They are similar only in one aspect, that is, they all refer to theconstant which underlies the utterances that constitute parole/ performance/actual linguistic behaviour.⏹Their difference is fairly obvious. Langue is a social property while linguisticpotential is something available for the speaker to select from. Competence isa form of ―knowing‖ while linguistic potential is a set of possibilities for―doing‖.⏹The competence versus performance distinction is one between what a person―knows‖ and what he ―does‖, while the linguistic potential versus actuallinguistic behaviour distinction is one between what a person ―can do‖ andwhat a person ―does‖.⏹Chapter Two Speech Sounds⏹As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only someof these sounds have become units in the language system.⏹We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two majorareas of study are phonetics and phonology.The sounds of English⏹Received Pronunciation (RP)⏹General American (GA)⏹English consonantsThe consonants of English can be described in the following manner:⏹[p] voiceless bilabial stop⏹[b] voiced bilabial stop⏹[s] voiceless alveolar fricative⏹[z] voiced alveolar fricative⏹The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:⏹the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);⏹the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);⏹the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short),and⏹lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).⏹We can now describe the English vowels in this way:From phonetics to phonologySpeech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.For example, map , lamb .CoarticulationWhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation .If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb , it is known as anticipatory coarticulation .If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation , as is the case of map .[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak .This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h , as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription . The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription .Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets [ ].Phonological rules1. assimilation rule2. sequential rule3. deletion ruleSequential rules : The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, e.g. in English, “k, b, i, l ” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.If a word begins with a [ l ] or a [ r ], then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:a) the first phoneme must be /s/;b) the second phoneme must be /p/ /t/ or /k/;c) the third phoneme must be /l/ /r/ or /w/.E.g.Spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.Deletion rule: The phonological rule, which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, is called deletion rule.For example, in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design,and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. The rule can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.ChapterThree LexiconMorphologyMorphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.Types of morphemesFree vs. Bound morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg-s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root:the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness.Roots may befree: those that can stand by themselves, eg nation+-al.bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg-ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided intoprefix (dis-, un-) andsuffix(-en, -ify).Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly> friendly.Word-formationInflectionNominal forms:boys, boy’sVerb forms: wants, wanted, wantingAdjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallestCompoundingCompound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmillVerb compounds: brainwash, lipread, babysitAdjective compounds:maneating,heartfelt ,dutyfreePreposition compounds: into, throughoutEndocentric & exocentricEndocentric:one element serves as the head, the relationship of ―a kind of‖; egself-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric:there is no head, so not a relationship of ―a kind of something‖, eg ScarecrowbreakneckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation:businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, nooneDerivationClass-changing:N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discardN>A: friendly, delightful, speechlessV>N: worker, employee, inhabitantV>A: acceptable, adorableA>N: meanness, rapidityA>V: deafen, sweetenAdj>Adv: exactly, quicklyClass-preserving:N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, bookletV>V: disobey, unfastenA>A: grayish, irrelevant⏹The base for the affix -ion is opt, the base for the suffix -al is option, and thebase for the suffix –ity is optional.⏹Yes, opt is the root for the entire word.. Lexical changeFormation of new wordsPhonological changeMorphosyntactic changeSemantic changeOrthographic changeTypes of loan wordsLoanwords:au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu, sputnikLoanblendcoconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)Loanshiftbridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte Loan translation, or calquefree verse< L verse libreblack humor<Frhumour noirfound object<Fr objet trouvéLoss of sound:loss of the velar fricative /x/ which existed in O.E.loss of soundin fast speech,egcabinet, postscriptand>’n in connected speech,egrock-’n-rollAddition of sound:English: rascal > rapscallionMetathesis: changing the sequence of soundO.E. brid> bird, O.E. ox/ax> askAssimilation:impossible, immovableirregular, irresponsibleillogical, illegalSemantic changeBroadening:holiday: holy day (religion) > day for restbird: young bird > any kindtask: tax imposed >a piece of workNarrowing:meat: food >girl: young person > young womandeer: beast > a special kind of animalMeaning shift:bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood Class shift:conversion to other word classesengineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase . history:Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.his story>herstoryFake etymology: a kind of folk etymologyManhattan: man with hat onMBA: married but availablePhD: perhaps have divorcedgolf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies ForbiddenOrthographic changeChange of spelling:Iesus> Jesussate> satSunne> Sun。