中文组背景文件【塞浦路斯问题】
巴以冲突的背景文件
鲁东大学模拟联合国鲁东大学2014年度协会内部交流会LUDMUN2014安全理事会背景指导第一部分，主席致辞（略）第二部分：委员会与议题介绍一、委员会介绍安全理事会根据《联合国宪章》，安全理事会负有维护国际和平与安全的首要责任。
安理会有15 个理事国，每一理事国有一个投票权。
所有理事国都有义务履行安理会的决定。
安全理事会率先断定对和平的威胁或侵略行为是否存在。
安理会促请争端各方以和平手段解决争端，并建议调整办法或解决问题的条件。
在有些情况下，安全理事会可以实行制裁，甚至授权使用武力，以维护或恢复国际和平与安全。
安全理事会还建议大会任命秘书长和接纳新会员国加入联合国，与大会一起选举国际法院法官。
成员国常任理事国中国法国英国俄罗斯美国非常任理事国（附任期截止年份）：阿根廷（2014 年）澳大利亚（2014 年）大韩民国（2014 年）立陶宛（2015 年）尼日利亚（2015 年）卢森堡（2014 年）卢旺达（2014 年）乍得（2015 年）智利（2015 年）约旦（2015 年）备注：由于此次交流会目的是学术的交流和大家能够对问题的积极探讨，所以对于出席国家的名单有较大的更改，出席国家名单及代表如下:美国刘功继英国于媛媛中国徐梦然法国蒋之豪俄罗斯李威骏约旦孙甲磊土耳其董贝贝伊朗赵敏黎巴嫩刘瀚阳叙利亚刘翔宇以色列徐浩巴勒斯坦刘雅玫德国邵双双沙特于帅埃及陈祥梅日本石天炜职责与权力为保证联合国行动迅速有效起见，各会员国将维持国际和平及安全之主要责任，授予安全理事会，并同意安全理事会于履行此项责任下之职务时，即系代表各会员国。
安全理事会于履行此项职务时，应遵照联合国之宗旨及原则。
根据《联合国宪章》，安全理事会具有下列职能和权力:依照联合国的宗旨和原则来维护国际和平与安全；调查可能引起国际摩擦的任何争端或局势；建议调解这些争端的方法或解决条件；制定计划以处理对和平的威胁或侵略行为，并建议应采取的行动；促请各会员国实施经济制裁和除使用武力以外的其他措施以防止或制止对侵略者采取军事行动；就接纳新会员国以及各国加入《国际法院规约》的条件提出建议；在“战略地区”行使联合国的托管职能；就秘书长的任命向大会提出建议，并与大会共同选举国际法院的法官。
希腊土耳其的领土争端
希腊互为邻邦，但历史积怨很深。
时至今日，两国在爱琴海岛屿归属和塞浦路斯问题上存在严重分歧。
希腊是欧洲文明的发源地，有过灿烂的克里特文明和迈锡尼文明。
自15世纪起，希腊地区被奥斯曼土耳其占领统治，直到1822年希腊获得独立，奥斯曼土耳其统治长达300多年。
统治期间该地区的文化、经济等遭受严重的摧残。
1821年3月，希腊爆发起义，并迅速得到响应。
1822年1月1日，希腊宣布独立。
1830年4月，土耳其在压力之下，宣布承认希腊独立。
第一次希土战争1897年希土战争或称第一次希土战争，三十日战争，指的是于1897年，爆发在希腊王国和奥斯曼土耳其帝国两国之间的战争。
其直接导火索是克里特岛的归属问题。
此次战争以希腊的战败宣告结束。
1897年12月4日，希腊土耳其双方缔结和约。
希腊向土耳其支付巨额赔款，并且割让色萨利亚的部分地区。
土耳其军队则需撤出克里特岛，克里特岛成为国际保护地，1898年，克里特岛建立了自己的自治政府。
1913年，克里特岛与希腊合并。
第一次巴尔干战争1830年希腊王国独立大大鼓舞了南斯拉夫各民族，至于帝俄也一直为了夺取地中海出海口，而发动第十次俄土战争，奥斯曼帝国战败求和，签订《圣斯特凡诺条约》当中获准塞尔维亚、黑山独立，罗马尼亚则由瓦拉几亚及摩尔多瓦合并，另外建立一个大保加利亚公国、波斯尼亚获得‘自治’(实际上由奥匈帝国托管)。
在俄国支持下，泛斯拉夫主义成为巴尔干半岛主流思想，巴尔干半岛诸国也积极扩军及进行外交工作，谋求得到欧洲列强的支持，希望夺取奥斯曼帝国在巴尔干半岛的领土。
1912年3月，塞尔维亚和保加利亚结盟；5月、黑山和希腊也参加；组成巴尔干同盟。
1912年10月8日，门特利哥罗向奥斯曼帝国宣战，10月14日塞尔维亚、保加利亚、希腊联合向奥斯曼帝国发出最后通牒，10月17日土耳其向保加利亚和塞尔维亚宣战，18日希腊向土耳其宣战。
结果土耳其战败。
原属土耳其的马其顿被塞尔维亚、保加利亚及希腊瓜分，塞萨洛尼基则被并入希腊。
英文组背景文件最终发布版
Model United Nations Conference 2015General Assembly Third Committee Social, Humanitarian and Cultural (SOCHUM) Topic: Protection of civilians in armed conflictBackground GuideAll rights reserved. This publication should not be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Organizing Committee of Bosi MUN背景文件版权归山东省博思模拟联合国组委会所有，未经允许，不得以任何方式出版，影印。
WELCOME LETTERDear delegates,It is with distinct honor that we welcome you to Bosi Model United Nations 2015. The dais is looking forward to meeting you all July 2015 MUN conference serves as a platform where students step into the shoes of ambassadors, discuss real issues and convene to debate and vote on resolutions. It is an opportunity for students to certify that “We have a voice!” and impress the world with practical actions.MUN has always committed itself to demonstrating to students the importance of the concepts of peace and the power of individuals and nations to come together and share ideas, fostering impression of and respect for different points of view, inseminating the value of solving problems through dialogue over force and creating an atmosphere of mutual trust that facilitate communication, negotiation and collaboration.It is with these principles in mind that we select the topics for this conference:Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict (GA-SOCHUM)Food Security (FAO)Please note that this background guide offers rudimentary knowledge concerning the topic. It is advised that delegates carry out their study with this reference and support your viewpoints with much more details. Thus, this background guide cannot be all-inclusive. Your extra devotion is a must in order to gain a thorough understanding of our topics.There will certainly be difficulties in your preparing days, but the way to leadership positions always entails hardship and frustrations. Meanwhile, should you come across any difficulties in your preparation, please do not hesitate to contact us.Director of academicsINTRUDUCTION TO THE COMMITTEEThe General Assembly was created in 1945 under Chapter IV of the Charter of the United Nations. It is the “main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the United Nations.” ①The Social, Humanitarian Cultural AffairsCommittee (Third Committee) is responsible for agenda items relating to a range of social, humanitarian affairs and human rights issues that affect people all over the world.An important part of the work of the third committee is to focus on theexamination of human rights questions, including listening to reports of Human Rights Council and hearing, interacting with special rapporteurs, independent experts, and chairs of working groups of the Human Rights Council. “The Committee also discusses the advancement of women, the protection of children, indigenous issues, the treatment of refugees, the promotion of fundamental freedoms through the elimination of racism and racial discrimination, and the right to self- determination. The Committee also addresses important social development questions such as issues related to youth, family, ageing, persons with disabilities, crime prevention, criminal justice, and international drug control.”②①General assembly of United Nations. /en/ga/②Social, Humanitarian & Cultural(2012) /en/ga/third/index.shtmlINTRODUCTION TO THE TOPICThe Nature of Contemporary ConflictsFrom the viewpoint of international law, armed conflicts are different from wars.Both armed conflicts and wars involve the use of military force, but for armed conflicts, there is no formal declaration, no application of international law of war.Armed conflicts are much more common than wars. Although there has been a decline in the number of conflicts around the world, ① a large number of civilians remain at risk. Some are just in the wrong place at the wrong time. Others are deliberately targeted and subjected to atrocity. In the Report of the Secretary-General on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, Ban Ki-moon pointed out three natures of contemporary armed conflicts.②First, the majority of conflicts today continue to be non-international. These conflicts are marked by the imbalance of capacity of warring parties. The weaker sides have resorted to strategies that seriously violated international humanitarian law to overcome their inferiority in conventional military strength. Second, counter-terrorism operations become a severely affected area where the injuring of civilians takes place. While the rights of every state to protect the inhabitants are respected, it is essential that their operations against terrorism should be in compliance with international laws. Third, functions traditionally pe rformed by states’ security and military department are contracted out to private security and military companies. In Iraq, for example, in March 2006, there were an estimated 181 such companies, with 48,000 employees, undertaking functions for multinational forces.③Activities undertaken by such security and military companies put their employees at direct contact with local civilians. Much more is needed to be done to promote the compliance and accountability of employees and hiring states.The principle of distinctionThe principle of distinction is a core principle in Law of Armed Conflict. Focusing on the distinction of combatants and civilians, military facilities and civil facilities, its purpose is to protect civilians in armed conflicts. The First Additional Protocols of Geneva Conventions explicitly supported the principle of distinction. In reality, this principle has been caught up in dilemma. According to the principle of distinction, only the military targets can be subjected to attacks. But many civil facilities such as transport infrastructure, power stations, satellites and industrial facilities can also be used for military purpose. Moreover, civil facilities can be used as a disguise for military ones, making it harder to tell which ones are military facilities. Meanwhile,a more difficult task is to distinguish those who are combatants from those who are civilians, including local inhabitants, humanitarian workers journalists, etc. The difficulties in the distinction of “military” and “civil” greatly limit the application of international law. The features of contemporary conflicts combined with the limitations of the principle of distinction put the civilians at a vulnerable position in armed conflicts.PAST RESOLUTIONS AND ACTIONSThe vulnerable position of civilians in armed conflicts urged the United Nation, the International Red Cross and regional organizations to pay more attention and take practical measures.From 1999 to 2012, the Secretary-General has delivered nine reports on the protection of civilians in armed conflicts, summarizing new features of conflicts, evaluating UN’s performances and coming up with suggestions. Progresses in UN’s actions to protect civilians have been no table in this period. In the years from 2000 to 2004, in line with Security Council resolution 1296 (2000) of 19 April 2000, “mandates of peacekeeping operations have been broadened to allow troops to physically protect civilians under imminent threat of violence. The stronger protection focus in peacekeeping mandates has been complemented by swifter deployments of peacekeeping troops when needed to avert an immediate crisis of protection and to restore order. The speed and quality of response has improved through the involvement of new peacekeeping contributions.”①①New achievements have been made in the next three years. Resolution 1888 (2009) led to the appointment in February 2010 of the Secretary-General’s Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict. The Council’s adoption of resolution 1882 (2009) further enhances children protection by expanding the listing of parties to include those who kill and maim children or commit rape and other forms of sexual violence against children. Moreover, “there has been more frequent reference to the obligations of parties under international humanitarian and human rights law. In situation-specific resolutions, the Council has increasingly called for protection to be prioritized in the implementation of peacekeeping mandates. Missions have been requested to develop protection strategies.” ②Up to 2012, there had been some important developments in the Security Council’s actions to enhance the protection of civilians. In March 2011 the Securit y Council responded decisively to the escalating violence and use of explosive weapons in populated areas of Côte d’Ivoire. In its resolution 1975 (2011), the Security Council recalled its authorization for the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire (UN OCI) to use all necessary means to carry out its mandate to protect civilians, including preventing the use of heavy weapons against the civilian population. What is more, actions taken by the Security Council have its shown greater willingness “to use targeted sanctions against those who violate international humanitarian and human rights law.”③UN’s willingness to protect civilians in armed conflicts is becoming more and more determined.①S/2007/643 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, October 27th 2007.②S/2010/579 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict November 11th 2010③S/2012/376 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict November May 22nd 2012CURRENT SITUATIONDespite all the efforts that have been taken by United Nations, regional organizations and each state, there are still many challenges lying in the way, among which four aspects calls for our special attention.Protection of and assistance to the conflict-affected populationConflict-affected population mainly refers to the local inhabitants whose living conditions are greatly influenced by the conflict. They tend to be victims of mutilation, cruel treatment and torture; enforced disappearances; outrages upon personal dignity; and rape. Apart from uncertainties in personal safety, their basic human rights are easy to be violated due to a lack of order and supervision. Arbitrary deprivation of liberty; taking of hostages; corporal punishment; collective punishment; and the passing of sentences and “the carrying out of executions without previous judgments pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all judicial guarantees which are generally recognized as indispensable”①are frequent to be seen in armed conflict.The recruitment or the active use of children in hostilities by parties to armed conflictin violation of applicable international law becomes a main reason for premature death. In those areas where the confrontation of religion and ideology is tense, persecution on political, religious, racial or gender grounds is more tedious and brutal. Adverse distinction in the application of international humanitarian law and human rights law based on race, color, sex, language, religion or belief, political or other opinion, national or social origin, wealth, birth or other status②is also common in armed conflict.①OCHA Aide Memoire on the Protection of Civilians, 2011②OCHA Aide Memoire on the Protection of Civilians, 2011DisplacementDisplacement, often referred to as homelessness, is one of the most serious consequences of armed conflict. The civilian population, in whole or in part tends to be deported, or transferred forcibly by the occupation force. Also, it is a serious problem to ensure civilians who have moved out of their habitats should be received under satisfactory condition of shelter, hygiene, health, safety and nutrition and that member of the same family are not separated and that basic needs are met during displacement. Their freedom of movement and to leave on e’s country and to seek asylum cannot be guaranteed. Even though, many of them may find themselves asylums, the living conditions there are by far satisfactory. Taking the refugees inAfghanistan as an example, over one third of its population became refugees because of the war. No place would be suitable to accommodate the 11 million people. Most of the refugees, including children were left without proper shelters. To make thing worse, newly-occurred wars would force them out from their temporary asylums and make more people homeless. For the states, it is their primary responsibility to respect and maintain the security of camps for refugees and internally displaced persons, including disarming armed individuals, separatingcombatants, curbing the flow of small arms in camps and preventing recruitment by armed groups in and around camps. For peacekeeping and other relevant missions authorized by the Security Council, it is a must to take allfeasible measures to ensure security in and around such camps and for their inhabitants.Safety and security of humanitarian workersHumanitarian workers play an active role in providing help in armed conflict. AsMs Navi Pillay, U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights, has said, there are humanitarian workers from all over the world offering help to those in need every day.It is honorable that they work hard in danger and ask for nothing in return. Despite their humanitarian spirit, they are exposed to attacks deliberately targeting humanitarian workers. It is our duty to respect and protect relief personnel and installations, material, units and vehicles involved in humanitarian assistance.Statistics in the United Nations shows that, in 2009 260 humanitarian workers were kidnapped and attacked worldwide, among which 122 were dead. In the past three years, the world has seen an annual increase of 60% in the number of attacks targeting humanitarian workers.Back in 2003, U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights Sergio Vieira de Mello died from a suicide bombing of UN’s Baghdad headquarters on August 19th. In memory of him, along with other 21 people that were killed in that bombing, the General Assembly decided that August 19th should be memorized as World Humanitarian Day. The United Nations calls for parties to armed conflict to contribute, as requested and within capabilities, to create the necessary security conditions for the provision of humanitarian assistance. Control of small arms and light weaponsPresence of arms, in particular small arms among the civilian population greatly increases potential risks in guaranteeing the safety and security of civilians in armed conflict. Specifically speaking, problems concerning small arms and light weapons include, illicit trafficking and cross-border movement of small arms and light weapons; disposal of illicit and/or surplus small arms and light weapons as well as surplus ammunition stockpiles; removal and destruction of mines and ERW(explosive remnants of war); risk education, the marking, fencing and monitoring of territory affected by mines and ERW; the providing of technical, financial, material or human resources assistanceto facilitate the marking, clearance, removal or destruction of mines and ERW.①①For more information, please refer to Aide Memoire on the Protection of Civilians, published by OCHACase StudyIraqThe scale of the crisis in Iraq has increased dramatically since my previous report (S/2013/689) as targeted attacks on civilians, sexual and gender-based violence, and intimidation, often along ethnic and sectarian lines, have soared over the past year and continue unabated. The crisis of ISIS is becoming increasingly severe recently .The number of Iraqis requiring humanitarian assistancehas risen sharply to more than 8.2 million people, an increase of 3 million in the past five months. More than 12,000 people were killed and 23,000 injured in 2014. The use of explosive weapons in populated areas remains a major cause of civilian deaths, injuries and displacement. The rapid expansion of armed groups, in particular Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), has also had a devastating impact. Children have been targeted and recruited by armed groups, while thousands of women and girls have been abducted, forcibly married and subjected to sexual and gender-based violence. All parties to the conflict have been accused of perpetrating sectarian andethnically motivated abuses and killings. Almost3million people, half of them children, have been internally displaced since the conflict began in Anbar Governorate in January 2014. Internally displaced persons reside in substandard shelters with limited water and sanitation. The return of internally displaced persons is hampered by the widespread use of booby traps and improvised explosive devices, damaged public infrastructure, lack of basic services and access limitations imposed by security forces. Internally displaced males are often denied entry to safer governorates. Iraq also continues to host some 248,000 refugees from the Syrian Arab Republic. Humanitarian access remains a key challenge, with ongoing violence and insecurity affecting humanitarian operations, particularly for the 2.3 million Iraqis in need of humanitarian assistance who live in areas outside government control in northern and western Iraq, including areas under ISIS control. Across the country, nearly 7 million people, or 20 per cent of the population, are unable to gain access to essential health, water and sanitation services.AfghanistanIn Afghanistan, the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA)documented 3,021 civilian deaths in 2011, with an annual increase of 8 percent, compared with 2010. Of these fatalities, anti-government forces were responsible for2,332 civilian deaths, an increase of 14 percent from 2010, and pro-government forces caused 410 civilian deaths, which accounted for 14 percent of all conflict-related civilian deaths, a reduction of 4 percent from 2010. Civilian deaths from aerial attacksincreased in 2011, despite a decrease in the number of such attacks. More than 185,000 people were displaced by conflict in Afghanistan last year, bringing the number of internally displaced persons to approximately 500,000. This includes hundreds of families displaced in the Kunar and Nangarhar Provinces by shelling in the neighboring Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan. Since January 2012, some 200,000 people have been displaced in Pakistan, by security operations in the Khyber Agency.Hundreds of families displaced in the Kunar and Nangarhar Provinces by shelling in the neighboring Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan. Since January 2012, some 200,000 people have been displaced in Pakistan, by security operations in the Khyber Agency.ISSUES OF THIS SESSIONThe dais hopes you focus on the issues of ISIS and Ukraine. To realize the better protection of civilians in armed conflict, all-round efforts need to be made. During this session, these following questions should be paid special attention to.Enhancing compliance and the rule of law International humanitarian law requires parties to conflict to spare the civilian population from the effects of hostilities. All of the challenges and problems concerning the protection of civiliansin armed conflict involve the compliance and the rule of law. Sparing civilians from deliberate attacks requires compliance by parties to conflict with international humanitarian law and, in particular, the principles of distinction. Parties to armed conflict are required to take all feasible precautions①S/2012/376 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict November May 22nd 2012 both in attacking and in defending. It is also clear that under no circumstances are the violations of humanitarian law justified.The Security Council has always called upon states to ensure equal protection of civilians under humanitarian law and equal access of justice for victims, including women and children, and take necessary measures to guarantee the protection of victims and witnesses. Thus, provision of assistance in monitoring, restructuring and reforming the justice sector is also a must in the conflict-affected area. Qualified and well-trained civilian police is another tool to ensure the protection in armed conflict. The establishment of appropriate and locally-adapted mechanism for truth and reconciliation will serve as a platform to provide technical assistance and funding, and to reintegrate the civilians within communities.REFERENCE1. S/2012/376 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict November May 22nd 201222. OCHA: Accountability and Fact-finding Mechanisms for Violations ofInternational Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law November 1st 2011.3. OCHA Aide Memoire on the Protection of Civilians, 20114. S/2007/643 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, October 27th 2007.5. S/2010/579 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict November 11th 20106. S/2004/431 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, May 28th 2004.7. S/2007/643 Report of the Secretary-General on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, October 28 2007.8. Zhou Jiang The application of the Principle of Distinction in armed conflict, 20149. William Solis, Director, Defense Capabilities and Management, June 201310. General assembly of United Nations. /en/ga/11. S/2015/453 Report of the Secretary-General on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, UN, 18 June 2015Written by Owen Tu。
FSA监管的平台名单FSA监管怎么查
一 FSA监管的外汇公司客户的优势二客户资金安全三受fsa监管的正规平台商名单列表四各个监管机构监管号查询方法以及地址五IronFX铁汇简介FSA监管的外汇公司客户的优势许多其他外汇经纪商不同的是，在签署了受fsa监管的公司客户协议后，您将享有FSA的充分保护和利益。
FSA以及其前身是全世界历史最悠久且享誉盛名的金融监管机构之一，其授权规程十分严格。
只有部分公司能获得FSA授权。
客户将享有以下FSA监管带来的益处：FSA的授权标准非常严格，受监管的公司必须拥有仅用于支持监管业务的资金。
必须每个月向FSA报告其资金状况。
如果公司没有足够资金以维持业务正常运营，FSA将吊销其牌照。
FSA在特定情况下有权随时检查所有公司记录和客户账户，以确保该公司遵守法规。
该监管机构拥有独立于管理层之外的全职合规审核员。
他直接向集团董事长报告，并确保日常投诉、所有监管责任，以及客户受到公平对待，包括客户投诉的处理。
FSA要求受监管的公司公平对待客户以维持系统和运作，需要向FSA证明其平等地对待每一位客户。
受监管的公司需向FSA证明该公司拥有足够的流动资金以支付客户存款和潜在的公司支出。
外部审计师必须独立审查账户和客户资金流程，并直接向FSA报告。
所有执行每个客户交易要求的受监管的公司员工必须受到FSA批准。
在获得批准前，员工的背景需得到彻底审查以确保其达到所需的要求，具备相应的能力和培训。
查询获得FSA批准的详细员工名单可登陆FSA网页。
客户资金安全目前全球主要是三大监管机构：FSA、ASIC、NFA。
1、我们的资金去了哪里？首先我们需要了解一下资金的操作流程，只有这样我们才能放心的存入大量的资金从事外汇保证金的交易。
如图可见，最终资金将汇款到交易商的托管银行，也就是说交易商无法直接接触到客户的资金,而正规交易商的托管银行账户时严格受到该国金融监管部门监管的；另外如果客户要求出金，必须本人通过开户邮箱发送取款申请才可，资金安全从而更有保障。
国外语言规划研究述评
国外语言规划研究述评邬美丽【摘要】As a main part of sociology,language planning has been an important research topic.This paper introduces the theory and practice of language planning in the world in recent years,including the concept,the classification and stages,the actors,the motive,the purpose and the practices of language planning in some countries.%语言规划作为社会语言学中的一个主要内容已成为不少学者关注的主要研究课题。
介绍了近年来国外语言规划的理论和实践研究成果,包括语言规划的概念体系、分类和阶段、行动者、动机和目的研究及近年来部分国家的语言规划实践。
【期刊名称】《天津外国语大学学报》【年(卷),期】2012(000)002【总页数】5页(P20-24)【关键词】语言规划;行动者;动机;目标【作者】邬美丽【作者单位】天津外国语大学国际交流学院,天津300204【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H002一、引言从上个世纪五六十年代开始，语言规划的研究蓬勃发展。
这种发展既有其现实背景，也有学术背景。
二战后许多原来的殖民地国家获得独立，新成立的发展中国家迅速增多，移民也成为当时西方国家面临的一个重要问题。
这些社会问题的出现给经济、政治、文化等领域带来了新的问题，语言问题便是其中一个需要解决的社会问题。
许多学者致力于研究语言规划和语言政策，希冀为恰当地解决语言问题作出贡献。
20世纪下半叶有生成语言学、功能语言学和社会语言学的对峙。
社会语言学研究语言和社会的关系、语言变异，成为不少学者关注的主要研究领域之一。
航运公司SMS内审员培训之NSM规则理解
二、规则产生背景
●ISM规则产生背景
世界海运四大现象与海事的关系 1、船舶老龄化
状况:1993年，全球80655艘100总吨及以上商船 平均船龄近18年原因:船东延长船舶服务年限 船多货少，效益下降
结果: 船东为压缩营运成本 减少维修保养预算 延长老船使用年限
影响：事故发生率上升
二、规则产生背景
–向 国 际 海 事 组 织 呼 吁 ： 必 须 采 取 措 施 ， 加 强 管 理 ， 加强检验
二、规则产生背景
2、船级社
–面 对 保 险 商 的 呼 吁 ， IACS 对 船 级 社 实 行 质量体系认证，加强检验质量的管理
–分析以往发生的事故认为：导致事故发生 的原因中，船舶操作、维护和管理是主要 因素
• 有些开放登记的国家，其主管机关缺乏足够 的专业技术人员，管理能力较差，有的根本 没有检验和监督管理机构，除了每年收取船 舶登记费，很少管理
• 1967—1997年世界55起万吨级以上油轮溢油事 故中，利比里亚籍船舶为17起，约占31%
二、规则产生背景
非标准管理
- 方便旗船：方便旗船管理较松，使管理 严的国家的船队处于非平等竞争地位，因而 尽管有些方便旗船事故发生率较非方便旗船 事故发生率明显要多，仍有许多船东去买方 便旗。虽然方便旗政策遭到许多国家的强烈 反对，状况至今没有明显改变 –单船公司：船东投资规模，或躲避风险和
–公约规定的生效要求 • 1998年7月1日起，适用于客船、高速客 船和500总吨及以上的油轮、化学品船、 气体运输船、散货船和高速货船； • 2002年7月1日起，适用于移动式近海钻 井装置和500总吨及以上其他货船。
一、规则概述
ISM规则生效
–我国规定
欧盟东扩背景下的俄罗斯对欧战略转型
欧盟东扩背景下的俄罗斯对欧战略转型作者：王士威来源：《学理论·中》2013年第05期摘要：欧盟自成立以来，在短短五十多年时间里经历了六次扩大，已从最初的法德联盟发展到如今的27国。
这不仅从根本上改变了欧洲的政治格局，而且将对各大国关系的发展产生重大影响，尤其是对在欧洲地缘政治框架中有着深厚历史文化渊源和重大战略利益的俄罗斯影响巨大。
因此，欧盟东扩必将深刻影响整个俄罗斯对欧战略的制定和实施。
关键词：欧盟东扩；俄罗斯；转型中图分类号：D99 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1002-2589（2013）14-0033-02一、欧盟东扩对俄罗斯对欧战略的影响欧洲一直占据着俄罗斯外交战略制定过程中的优先级别，而中东欧国家更是对俄罗斯有着非同寻常的战略意义。
作为欧亚大陆的中心地带，中东欧地区长期被周边的列强瓜分、掠夺和控制。
冷战期间，美苏两个阵营更是积极争夺对该地区的控制权。
而如今欧盟的东扩使对俄罗斯有着非凡意义的中间地带被整合进了欧盟，这不仅大大改变了欧洲的政治格局，而且对与之利益攸关的俄罗斯产生了重大影响。
在新加入的成员中，除塞浦路斯和马耳他距俄罗斯比较远以外，其他各国都是原苏联的盟友，有些国家甚至还是前苏联的加盟共和国。
在心理上，这无疑使俄罗斯的民族自尊心受到一定的伤害和冲击。
一方面，苏联的解体并没有改变俄罗斯传统的欧亚情节，俄罗斯仍认为自己是地跨欧亚两洲的国家；另一方面，苏联解体和东欧剧变给曾经地跨欧亚的帝国带来的失落和惆怅将长期伴随俄罗斯。
并且随着北约和欧盟的东扩，这种因为衰弱带来的失落感将会更加明显。
在地缘安全上，俄欧在欧洲的地位此消彼长，欧盟东扩使俄罗斯失去了昔日的盟友和回旋地带。
这些中东欧国家位于欧盟和俄罗斯之间的中间地带，对俄罗斯国家安全的部署和防御有着重要的战略意义。
因此，欧盟对中东欧国家的深入，将大大挤压俄罗斯在中东欧的战略安全空间，严重威胁着俄罗斯传统的地缘安全。
在经济上，冷战结束后，曾经作为俄罗斯“传统的贸易伙伴”的中东欧国家纷纷转入欧盟的怀抱。
活动课聚焦中东——地区冲突的地理背景
军事打击。 • 1998年，美、英再次轰炸伊拉克。 • 2003年，美国发动伊拉克战争。
焦点一：国家及地区
中东地形地势
• 主要国家：土耳其、伊朗、塞浦路斯、叙利亚、伊拉克、 黎巴嫩、巴勒斯坦、以色列、约旦、科威特、沙特阿拉伯、 巴林、卡塔尔、阿拉伯酋长联合国、阿曼、也门、埃及
聚焦中东
——地区冲突的地理背景
战火纷飞的中东
第二次世界大战以来，中东地区冲突不断，战事频 繁，被称为“世界的火药桶”。今天，我们将借助 媒体信息来探讨中东地区冲突的地理背景。
不断的战争，战火频繁：
• 1948—1973年，阿拉伯国家与以色列之间与以色 列之间进行了四次战争，统称中东战争。
• 1980—1988年伊朗与伊拉克之间进行了长达八年 的“两伊战争”。
• 苏伊士运河——
焦点二：世界油库
气候 （地处热带，以热带沙漠气候为主）
焦点三：中东水资源
第一次中东战争
焦点四：宗教
• 中东包括22个阿拉伯国家和5个非阿拉伯国家，其中除以色列、塞浦路斯外都是伊斯兰 国家。
• 在中东伊斯兰国家中，土耳其、伊朗和阿富汗为非阿拉伯国家，阿拉伯国家都是伊斯 兰国家。
• 中东=西亚+埃及-阿富汗+土耳其欧洲部分
• 地形地势特点：以高原山地为主，东南部为平原。有世界最 低地——死海，地势起伏大。
• 死海——
一湾两洋三洲五海之地
一湾——波斯湾
两洋——大西洋、印度洋
三洲——亚、欧、非
五海——黑海、里海、地中海、红海、阿拉伯海
• 是咽喉要道，连接亚、欧、非三大洲。苏伊士运河沟通地 中海和红海，连接印度洋和大西洋，地理位置十分重要。
最新国际法案例分析
最新国际法案例分析一、2000年4月11日，比利时布鲁塞尔初审法院的一位调查法官针对时任冈吐果民主共和国(以下简称刚果(金))外交部长的耶罗迪亚(Yerodia)签发了一项国际逮捕令，指控他在刚果(金)单独或协同他人实施了战争罪和反人道罪。
该逮捕令通过国际刑警组织向全世界发出，要求相关国家拘留并引渡给比利时以便追究其刑事责任。
比利时发布逮捕令的依据是比利时国内法以及对战争罪和反人道罪的普遍管辖权。
2000年10月17日，刚果(金)向国际法院提起诉讼，称比利时违反了根据国际法对刚果(金)负有的国际义务，要求法院宣布比利时应当撤销其发布的逮捕令。
2002年2月14日，国际法院作出判决：比利时签发国际逮捕令并请求国际协助的行为侵犯了刚果(金)在任外交部长享有的豁免权和不可侵犯权，比利时必须通过自己选择的方式撤销2000年4月11目的逮捕令。
(1)普遍管辖权的含义是什么?(2)普遍管辖权问题主要涉及哪些犯罪行为?答：(1)普遍管辖权是指根据国际法的规定，对于严重危害国际和平与安全以及全人类利益的某些特定的国际犯罪行为，各国均有管辖权，而不问这些犯罪行为发生的地点和罪犯的国籍。
(2)至于哪些犯罪是各国有普遍管辖权的，在国际法上没有明确的规定，已获得明确公认的此类犯罪有：公海上的海盗行为、奴隶贸易和战争罪等。
其他的国际犯罪行为，如灭绝种族罪、空中劫持、贩卖和走私毒品、危害人类罪等，也被较多的国家和学者认为是各国有普遍管辖权的犯罪。
二、中新网2007年11月1日电：共同社消息，拥有伊朗和日本双重国籍的职棒日本火腿队投手达比修有(Darvish Yu，21岁)日前选择了日本国籍。
据其父证实，达比修有已向大阪羽曳野市政府机关提交了所需的文件已得到了受理。
至此，达比修有代表日本出征北京奥运的障碍已全部扫清。
达比修有的父亲拥有伊朗国籍，母亲拥有日本国籍。
根据日本的《国籍法》，公民在满22岁之前必须消除双重国籍的身份，由于达比修有将在北京奥运期间迎来22岁的生日，因此他必须就国籍作出选择。
背景2
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——广州五校2010年模拟联合国大会—— 联合国安全理事会(UNSC)
五校2010年模拟联合国大会2010.8 广州五校２０１０模拟联合国大会 联合国安全理事会 议题：塞浦路斯问题 ——五校2010年模拟联合国大会—— 联合国安全理事会(UNSC)
五校2010年模拟联合国大会2010.8 2 目录 一.主席欢迎辞 3 二.委员会介绍 4 1.概括 2.性质 3.职权 4.组成 三.塞浦路斯现状 1.南北分治状态 5 2.只有一个国家承认的“国家” 6
3.中东地区唯一欧盟成员国 7 四.相关议题介绍 9 五.相关国家介绍 10 ——五校2010年模拟联合国大会—— 联合国安全理事会(UNSC)
五校2010年模拟联合国大会2010.8 3 六.结束语 12 ——五校2010年模拟联合国大会—— 联合国安全理事会(UNSC)
五校2010年模拟联合国大会2010.8 4 主席欢迎辞 亲爱的代表们： 欢迎大家来到五校模拟联合国大会，加入联合国安全理事会议程的讨论决议。作为青年人，今天我们以组织或参加模拟联合国大会的方式支持联合国，表明着我们促进国际合作，企盼世界和平理想信念。在此，我期盼着在共同信念的指引下我们的大会能取得圆满的成功。 安全理事会依照联合国的宗旨和原则来维护国际和平与安全。今天，随着世界发展趋势的变化，为了更好地维护国际和平与安全，安理会深化着内部改革，在国际间合作和机构职能的转变方面进行着积极的探索和实践，这些都为保证世界和平做出了积极的贡献。 然而，位于地中海的岛国-塞浦路斯，民族纷争不断。塞浦路斯民族矛盾由来已久。塞岛的希、土两族因文化传统、宗教信仰和风俗习惯不同，历史上积怨甚深。希、土两族分别把希腊和土耳其看作各自的“母国”。 因此，主席团热切地期待着与会的各国代表能就这个议题展开充分的讨论，并在联合国宗旨和原则的指导下，以促进世界和平和发展为目的，就议题达成具有现实意义的决议草案。 主席团盼望着看到各位代表的合作协商，期待着我们的决议能真正体现出安理会的宗旨，发展好维护国际和平与安全的使命，以为其改革提供真正有意义的建议性意见。 最后，再一次热烈地欢迎大家来到联合国安全理事会，期待着看到大家精彩的表现，就让我们一起为解决塞浦路斯问题做出有益的贡献，谢谢。
五校模拟联合国大会2010
联合国安全理事会主席团 ——五校2010年模拟联合国大会—— 联合国安全理事会(UNSC)
五校2010年模拟联合国大会2010.8 5 联合国安全理事会 委员会介绍 概况 英文：United Nations Security Council (UNSC) 法文：Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies 中文：联合国安全理事会
性质 联合国安全理事会（简称安理会）是联合国的６大主要机构之一。根据联合国宪章的宗旨及原则，安理会负有维持国际和平与安全的责任，是唯一有权采取行动的联合国机构。
职权 安理会有权调查任何引起国际争端或摩擦的任何情况，并可提出解决这些争端的方式或办法。会员国或接受联合国宪章的非会员国、联合国大会或秘书长，均可就国际和平与安全问题提请安理会注意。安理会有权断定任何威胁和平、破坏和平或侵略等行为的存在，并可提出采取强制措施以维持或恢复国际和平与安全的建议或作出这方面的决定，如认为这些措施还不能解决问题，它可以通过采取关于军事行动的决议去解决这些问题。安理会还有向联合国大会提出年度报告、特别报告、对战略性地区行使托管等职能。
组成 安理会由５个常任理事国和１０个非常任理事国组成。５个常任理事国是中国、法国、俄罗斯、英国、美国。非常任理事国由联合国大会选举产生，最初为６个。1965年，通过修改宪章，非常任理事国数量从6个增加到10个。席位按地区分配，即亚洲２个、非洲３个、拉美２个、东欧１个、西欧及其他国家２个。非常任理事国任期２年，经选举每年更换５个，不可即行连任。根据地域分配原则，每次新选出的５个成员国中应包括来自亚洲和非洲的３个国家、一个东欧国家和一个拉美或加勒比地区国家。 ——五校2010年模拟联合国大会—— 联合国安全理事会(UNSC)
五校2010年模拟联合国大会2010.8 6 塞浦路斯现状 南北分治状态 在塞浦路斯历史上，尽管长期遭受强国的征服、占领与统治，但塞浦路斯岛作为一个整体，从未发生过地方割据或分治的局面。即使在公元7-10世纪阿拉伯人袭扰时期，阿拉伯帝国与拜占庭帝国也未曾将塞浦路斯分割占领，而是通过签订条约——双方共同管理、均不驻军、税收平分来保持塞浦路斯中立。然而，从1571年至1963年接近4个世纪相邻的希腊族人和土耳其族人，因语言、宗教和文化传统的差异，分别只认同各自的主体民族——希腊和土耳其为自己的“祖国”。由于在共和国内权力分配问题上产生争执，1963年两族冲突再起，土耳其族人退出了联合政府，成立了自己的临时行政管理机构。这期间尽管有联合国及其驻塞浦路斯维和部队的维和与调解，但未能化解两族的矛盾与冲突。1974年希腊军政府策划了对塞浦路斯共和国总统马卡里奥斯的军事政变，从而引发土耳其对塞浦路斯的入侵，最终导致塞浦路斯希腊族和土耳其族南北分治的局面。 在土耳其入侵期间，原居住在塞浦路斯南部地区的土耳其族人，或由于安全原因，或自愿或被迫逃往土耳其族人聚集的北部地区。而世世代代居住在塞浦路斯北部的20万希腊族人，只好背井离乡，逃往南部地区，沦为难民。从塞浦路斯西北部的莱夫卡村向东穿过首都尼科西亚，延伸至东部港口城市法马古斯塔的瓦罗沙，占塞浦路斯总面积37%的领土被土耳其军队占领。1975年2月，土耳其族人宣布成立“塞浦路斯联邦共和国土族邦”，1983年11月，又宣布成立“北塞浦路斯土耳其共和国”。至此，塞浦路斯的分裂局面形成，塞浦路斯共和国的统一已名存实亡。 土耳其对塞浦路斯的入侵，遭到了国际社会的普遍谴责。联合国安理会通过决议，号召所有成员国拒绝承认“北塞浦路斯土耳其共和国”。但是，土耳其政府不仅立即对“北塞”予以承认，而且互派大使，保持特殊关系。土耳其以保护塞浦路斯土耳其族人安全为由，长期在塞浦路斯土耳其族控制区驻扎有3.5万士兵，构成了解决塞浦路斯问题的最大障碍。多年来联合国和美国曾多次协调、促和，但由于土耳其拒绝撤军，土耳其族反对在其领土上做出让步，而希腊族人也不同意土耳其族人提出的希腊族和土耳其族分别以两个独立国家构成塞浦路斯联邦的国体形式，和谈均未取得任何进展，塞浦路斯分裂局面依旧。 塞浦路斯政府长期致力于国家统一，但由于塞浦路斯国小力微，势单力薄，纵使有希腊的帮助，其军事力量也无法与土耳其抗衡，不敢存有依靠武力实现国家统一的幻想。在70、80年代，塞浦路斯政府曾希望通过美英等西方国家向土耳其施压，迫使土耳其和土耳其族人做出让步，但没有取得任何成效。90年代，塞浦路斯政府加强了与希腊政府的合作，希望在希腊的帮助下尽快加入欧盟，再——五校2010年模拟联合国大会—— 联合国安全理事会(UNSC)
五校2010年模拟联合国大会2010.8 7 通过欧盟向土耳其政府施加压力。目前，塞浦路斯加入欧盟的愿望已经实现，但实现国家统一的目标仍遥遥无期。 自1963年12月土耳其族全部退出塞浦路斯共和国政府后，尽管塞浦路斯政府已完全由希腊族掌控，但由于土耳其拒绝从塞浦路斯撤军和土耳其族在领土方面的毫不妥协立场，使塞浦路斯政府赢得拉国际社会的普遍同情，不仅获得大量经济援助，而且得到政治上的大力支持。除土耳其政府外，所有国家均承认南部由希腊族人控制的塞浦路斯政府是塞浦路斯的唯一合法政府，迄今它已与世界上167个国家建立了外交关系。其中美国对塞浦路斯政府的支持最大，多次进行斡旋，并提出解决方案，虽然没有取得任何进展，但其支持与关注从未减弱，正因如此，使那些企图承认塞浦路斯分裂状况、默认两个国家并存局面的个别国家却步。如果作为超级大国的美国继续坚持这一立场不变，塞浦路斯共和国政府是代表整个塞浦路斯的唯一合法政府的地位也将不会改变。
只有一个国家承认的“国家”
在世界民族国家之林中，一个国家的存在是以其他国家的承认为前提的，这表明这个国家是世界民族国家体系中的一个成员，可以名正言顺地参与国际交往；否则，可能被国际社会拒之门外，甚至被认为是某一国家独立、主权和领土完整的破坏者。在塞浦路斯共和国内，因民族冲突和大国干涉而造就的“北塞浦路斯土耳其共和国”便是如此，其也只能称为国际上只有土耳其一个国家承认的“国家”。 “北塞”面积3,423平方公里，占塞浦路斯总面积的37%，其中真正的土耳其族人有12万人左右，加上从土耳其过来的移民，人口总共不过20万，但“政府”建制却相当齐全。1983年11月15日宣布独立，成立了有70名议员组成的议会，议会任命土耳其族领袖登克塔什为“总统”。1985年3月，土耳其族议会通过“北塞浦路斯土耳其共和国独立宪法”。宪法规定总统任期5年，可连选连任。自土耳其族宣布独立已近30年，登克塔什一直紧握总统权杖。总统下设“总理”，由议会的多数党领导人担任，并主持“内阁”事务。 虽然土耳其族人是虔诚的穆斯林，但他们深受凯末尔主义的影响，在“国家”构建上实行政教分离的世俗化政策，实行多党制。主要政党有：民族团结党，成立于1975年，属右翼，忠于“母国”土耳其，持亲西方政策；民主党，成立于1993年；共和土耳其族党，成立于1970年，属左翼，主张亲苏（俄）；族社解放党，成立于1975年，属中间偏左。“北塞”政府一直奉行依赖土耳其、亲西方和积极发张与阿拉伯国家关系的政策，尤其把土耳其是为维护土耳其族独立和与希腊族抗衡的后盾，在内外政策上与土耳其保持一致。 “北塞”对其独立地位倍加珍惜。土耳其族反对希腊族把他们看成是少数民族，认为他们与希腊族同为塞浦路斯的主体民族，应享有平等地位。土耳其族认为，希腊族的偏见曾给他们带来极大精神创伤，只有独立才能使他们享有平等感和安全感，，平等和安全是他们心灵深处最渴望得到的东西。近20年来，“北塞”努力争取国际社会的承认，他们首先要求得到希腊族承认他们是在塞浦路斯地位平等的两个国家，然后再通过双方谈判，建立一个政府权力有限的两个独立国家的邦联。这当然不能为希腊族所接受，这也是两族多年谈而不决的主要原因。但土耳其族态度坚决，非要争得与塞浦路斯政府平起平坐的国际地位。为了表明“北