语言学期末复习笔记
英语语言学笔记
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语音学
语音（Phonetics）
研究语言的发音机制、音素（音位）的发音特征和分布规律。
/b/、/t/、/d/等辅音音素的发音方式。
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音位（Phoneme）
语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
在英语中，“bit”和“bet”因音位/ɪ/和/ɛ/的不同而意义不同。
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音系学
音系（Phonology）
研究语言中音素的组合规则和模式，以及这些规则如何影响语言的意义。
英语中的重音和节奏模式对单词和句子的意义有影响。
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语法学
语法（Grammar）
描述语言中单词、短语和句子如何组合成有意义的结构的规则系统。
句子“The cat sat on the mat.”遵循英语语法规则。
英语语言学笔记
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主题/子主题
关键概念/术语
定义/解释
示例/应用
备注
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语言学基础
语言学（guistics）
研究语言的科学，包括语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言在社会中的应用。
语言学家研究不同语言的语音、语法、词汇等。
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语言（Language）
人类特有的、用于沟通的一套符号系统，包括口语、书面语和手势语等。
研究语言中的词汇、短语和句子如何表达意义。
单词“happy”的意义是“快乐的”。
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语用学
语用（Pragmatics）
研究语言如何在特定情境中使用，以及语言使用者的意图、背景和互动如何影响语言的意义。
“It’s cold in here.”可能不仅仅是描述温度，还可能暗示要求关窗或开暖气。
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社会语言学
社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）
语言学纲要(重点笔记)
语言学概论•绪论•一、语言学的概念•1、语言：是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具，是人类的思维工具。
•2、语言学：以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。
•二、关于语言学课程•本课程是中文专业必修的基础理论课之一，主要内容：语言在社会中的地位和作用；语言的结成体系（语音、语汇和语义、语法、文字、修辞）；语言的发展变化；语言的应用。
•学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。
•三、语言学的三大发源地•中国、印度、希腊-罗马•1、中国古代的语言学•语文学：主要是为古代经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。
也是偏重从文献角度研究语言文字的学科总称，一般包括文字学、训诂学、音韵学、校勘学等。
中国由于古代文献丰富，文字比较特殊，语文学比较发达，广义的语文学也应该包括语言学，也就是语言学和文字学的总称，但现在由于国际学术分科中语言学是一大类，所以目前反而是语文学从属于语言学，成为语言学的一个分支。
•小学•2、印度的语言学成就•特点：不是重于理论，而是基于观察。
所讨论的理论基本上与文学研究与哲学争论有关。
词的性质和句子意义被经常讨论，句子与其所包含的词之间的语义关系，也是经常讨论的问题之一。
•贡献：A、区分了外显即时表达和内含永久主体。
认为语言有两种，一是具体场合说的话，一是抽象的语言原则。
B、语音学和音位学方面有突出成就。
认为语音是连接语言和话语之间的桥梁，语音描写分三部分：发音过程、语音的组成成分（元音，辅音）、语音在音位结构中的结合。
C、语法描写和分析方面有突出成就。
潘尼尼在著作中详细的描述了各种屈折变化、派生现象、组织结构和各种句法的用法。
•印度学者在词法研究方面取得了很大的成就：他们在分析词的构成时发现了¡°词根¡±、¡°后缀¡±与¡°词尾¡±三种主要造词单位。
《语言学纲要》(叶蜚声_徐通锵)详细复习资料_课堂讲义笔记
语言学纲要讲义笔记导言一、语言的定义语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。
二、语言学的对象和任务语言学是研究语言的科学。
要把语言学跟语文学区分开来中国传统语文学——“小学”小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。
在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。
在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。
三、语言学在科学体系中的地位语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。
1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。
语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。
如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段：编码——发送——传递——接收——解码对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。
三、语言学的基本类别总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。
（一）理论语言学可分为：1、一般/普通语言学2、个别/具体语言学具体语言学（1）历时语言学（2）共时语言学（二）应用语言学1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。
如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。
2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。
3、神经语言学最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。
此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。
第一章语言的功能第一节语言的社会功能一、语言的信息传递功能信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。
语言学概论自考重点笔记
语言学概论自考重点笔记
以下是语言学概论自考重点笔记，包括语言和语言学、语言的性质和类型、语言的建筑材料——语汇、语言的表达内容——语义、语言的运用特点——语用等方面的内容。
一、语言和语言学
语言是一种符号系统，由语音和语义构成。
语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
只有人类才有语言，语言能力是人跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志。
二、语言的性质和类型
语言的性质：人类语言具有创造性、结构性、双向性、社会性和个体性等特征。
语言的类型：语言可以分为口语和书面语两种类型。
口语是人们在口头交际中使用的语言，书面语是人们在书面交际中使用的语言。
三、语言的建筑材料——语汇
语汇是语言中所有的词和词组，是语言的建筑材料。
语汇的特点是具有系统性、稳固性和能产性。
语汇的变化和发展是语言发展的重要方
面。
四、语言的表达内容——语义
语义是语言所表达的意义，包括词汇意义、语法意义和语境意义等。
语义具有客观性、主观性和文化性等特点。
五、语言的运用特点——语用
语用是指人们在具体语境中运用语言的能力和特点。
语用具有变异性、合适性和得体性等特点。
语用学是研究语言运用的学科，是语言学的一个重要分支。
以上是语言学概论自考重点笔记的主要内容，希望对您的学习有所帮助。
英语语言学笔记1-何兆熊
英语语⾔学笔记1-何兆熊第⼀章Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. languageWhy study language?为什么学习语⾔A tool for communication交流的⼯具An integral part of our life and humanity ⼈类⽣活和⼈性中不可或缺的⼀部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语⾔的本质和结构,我们就会对⼈类的本质⼀⽆所知.What is language?什么是语⾔different senses of language 语⾔的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person‘s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster‘s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word ―language‖:a. human speech ⼈类的⾔语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过⾔语来交流的能⼒c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; ⽤来表达或交流思想和感觉的⼀套声⾳及这些声⾳互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的⽂字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语⾔是⾔语交流的⼀种⽅式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication canonly take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interactionincluding such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流⽅式是⼀种有⽬的的⾏为,所以语⾔是实⽤性的;因为语⾔是社会符号,语⾔的交流只能在所有参与者⼴泛理解了⼈类的那些⾮⾔语的暗⽰,动机,社会⽂化⾓⾊等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进⾏,因此语⾔⼜是社会的,约定俗成的.语⾔使⼈类区别于动物.definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiveror listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather thanrandomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. Thisexplains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for thesame object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacitagreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound upin the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famousquotation from shakepeare‘s play:‖ Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.⼀朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是⼀样⾹的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wishto refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The factthat small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or readalso indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)⼆.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language? Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语⾔的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了⼈类语⾔性质的特征.例如任意性,⼆重性,创造性,移位性,⽂化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness【'ɑ?b?tr?r?n?s】----arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning.(⼈类语⾔的本质特征之⼀,指语⾔符号的形式与意义之间没有⾃然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房⼦(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语⾔的⾳和义之间的任意性a. By ―arbitrary‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语⾔的意义和语⾳之间没有逻辑关系。
语言学(第五版) 笔记 重点
第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive(情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for“correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar:“never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study(共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1．What is Syntax（句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to formsentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realised in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the fut ure time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective（完成体）and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系)refers to agreement between words, especially between a verband the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系)is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements ina sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent(直接成分)is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction(向心结构)is a construction that contains:1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e(主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listener Rheme(述位)refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side)第五章1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning ofwords,phrases andsentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义)is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义)is“what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of orde r and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6.The Referential Theory（指称理论）：①The Referential Theory②The Semantic Triangle③Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角is the indirectrelation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12.Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系)、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17.Sense relations between sentences①Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第七章nguage and Culture：①Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis②Evidence Given by Whorf ③Implication of SWH ④Relation between Language and Culture2．SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism (语言决定论):the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.Language may determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLanguage influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by languageCulture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterationsnguage and SocietyRelation between Language and SocietyVarieties of language（Dialects、Registers）Bilingualism and DiglossiaPidgin and Creole5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.6.Dialectal Varieties：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、Language and gender、Language and age、Idiolect、Ethnic dialect）7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.11.Halliday’s Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (语场)、tenor of discourse (语旨)、mode of discourse (语式)12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.13.Diglossia (双语体现象): when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.14．A pidgin: it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s language.15.A creole :when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics 3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：①Performatives and Constatives②A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is calleda performative(行事话语)。
邢福义语言学概论第2版笔记课后习题详解资料
邢福义《语言学概论》（第2版）笔记和课后习题详解
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第1章语言和语言学
1.1复习笔记
【知识框架】
【考点归纳】
考点一：语言的性质和范围
1语言的性质
（1）语言的定义
①从结构上看，语言是一个复杂的符号系统。
语言是由词语这种符号构成的复杂系统，具有符号性和系统性。
②从功能上看，语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
人们需要而且可以用语言来进行社会交际，用语言来认识世界，思考问题。
（2）语言的符号性
①能指与所指
a．用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物没有必然联系，甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号；
b．甲事物是符号的能指（形式），乙事物是符号的所指（内容、意义）；c．能指与所指的关系是人为约定的，没有必然的因果关系。
②语言符号的主要特征
表1-1语言符号的主要特征
（3）语言的系统性
表1-2语言的系统性
（4）语言的社会性（本质属性）
自然语言的形成、发展、消亡都取决于社会意志和社会需要。
表1-3语言的社会性
（5）语言的其他属性
表1-4语言的其他属性
2语言的范围
（1）语言与言语
①概念。
胡壮麟语言学第一章复习
红⾊色是定义语⾔言学chap1部分笔记在鑫宇那why study language language is a means of verbalcommunicationwhat is languagedesign features of language语⾔言的特点arbitrariness任意性the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. The symbols have beenchosen arbitrarily. In other words, it is impossible topredict the meaning from the form, or vice versa.The symbols have been chosenarbitrarily. In other words, it isimpossible to predict the meaning fromthe form, or vice versa.1 arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ite meaning语素⾳音义关系的任意性2 arbitrariness at the syntactic level句句法层⾯面上的任意性3 arbitrariness and convention任意性和规约性they derive from the choice of subjectmatters.once such links between particular wordand associative meaning are fixed, itbecomes a matter of conventionality.Saussure索绪尔提出duality⼆二层性It means that language is a system which consistsof two levels of structures, at the lower level thereis the structure of sounds; at the higher level thereis the structure of words.下层lower sounds交通灯和动物叫声⼀一样，只有下层含义。
语言学概论笔记重点
（一）语素性质作用区别语素语言中音义结合的最小单位构成词不能独立运用，只是词的构成要素词造句时能独立运用的最小单位组成短语或句子能独立运用，区别于语素；最小单位，区别于短语短语词的组合组成句子能独立运用，但不是最小单位，只是词与词的组合语素、词和短语的区别：（二）代表语素：蝴蝶、骆驼、蚂蚁一用语素：有些语素结合面比较窄，一般只出现在某一个固定的语素的前或后。
（苹果、菠菜、鱿鱼、芹菜、茄子。
（三）语素变体：1.语素的语音变体：语素在不同的语境中，语音形式可能不同。
（多音词）2．语素的语义变体：语素在不同的语境中，语义内容可能不同。
（多义词）（四）自由语素：加拿大粘着语素：黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素free morphemes 或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。
（邻、居、的、老、师、移、民、了）第二节词成词语素是指这个语素的本身是一个词，如：天、地、人、山、水、河、草、成词语素一般都可以与别的语素自由地组合成词，所以都是自由语素。
例如：天，可组成：天空、天地、也可以组成：白天、雨天。
不成词语素如：经、标、丰、健、政、基、达，这类语素虽然不能独自成词，却能够与别的语素自由地组合成词，所以也是自由语素：如，经，可组成，已经、经过、健，可组成：健康、矫健等，所以也是自由语素。
一、单纯词(一)单音单纯词(二)多音单纯词 1.联绵词 (1)双声 :伶俐(2)叠韵 :骆驼 (3)非双声叠韵如:凤凰妯娌2.叠音词(1)单字无意义.例如:猩猩 (2)单字有意义,但重叠之后的意义与原式完全不同.3.音译词 4.拟声词二、合成词(一)复合式(复合词):词根+词根 1.联合式(并列)(1)意义相同相近:英雄恭敬帮助(2)意义相关:手足白净人物(3)意义相反:买卖2.偏正式(1)定中型--中心语素的词性是名词性的(2)状中型--中心语素为动词或形容词性的3.动宾式(支配)动词性:请客名词性:理事4.补充式(1)动补型 A.表结果--变成轰动 B.表趋向--过来过去介入超出(2)注释型A.用单位注释:羊群车辆B.用情态注释:乐陶陶白花花5.主谓式(陈述型)(1)名+动\形:目击首肯 (2)名+形:眼花嘴硬耳背(3)代+动\形:自然(二)附加式(派生词) 1.前缀+词根 2.词根+后缀(三)重叠式 1.AA 妈妈爸爸星星娃娃常常偷偷白白暗暗 2.AABB 婆婆妈妈花花绿绿形形色色分类作用举例词根词的核心部分，词的意义主要由它体现。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
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简答题
The relationship between language and culture (语言与文化的关系)
1) Language expresses cultural reality语言表现了文化现实
A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its
people, but also reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlook, etc.
2）Language embodies cultural identity 语言体现文化同一性
When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a language-specific culture and becomes
socialized in certain ways.
If he moves to another community or country, he may be recognized easily not as a member of the local
community group but as a newcomer from the ways he used his language.
3) The relationship of language to culture is that of part to whole 整体&部分
Culture is a wider system that includes language as its subsystem. Linguistic competence is one variety of
cultural competence. Speech behavior is one variety of social behavior.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH)
1) The strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior.
2) The weak version holds that the language patterns influence people’s thinking and behavior.
Conclusion:
The hypothesis contributes to the study of the relationship between language and thought which are culture
dependent. Consequently it contributes to the study of the relationship between language and culture.
However, this hypothesis has given rise to a great deal of controversy and met with many criticisms.
Speakers of different languages may not share the same way of viewing and interpreting the experienced
world if the strong version holds water. Nevertheless, they’ve the same cognitive capacity, which makes
intercultural communication possible.
Example: 1) Kinship terms in different language.2) The Eskimos have countless words for snow.3) The
Arabs have countless words for camels.
Many indication of the inter-relationship between language and society
1) Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (greeting)
2) The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age sex
education level,etc)
3) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environment
of a society. (“snow” in Eskimo)
4) As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it’s used,
the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.( the postvocalic 元音后的 [r])
Standard dialect
Features:
1) The standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language; usually it is the local speech of an
area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.
E.g. Standard English: the English dialects in and around London
2) The standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a
superimposed variety (强制变体); it’s a variety imposed from above over the range of regional
dialects. It’s the variety which is taught and learnt in school.
3) The standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language
of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents,
education, news reporting; it’s the language used on any formal occasions.