土木施工外文翻译
土木工程外文翻译参考3篇
学校毕业设计（论文）附件外文文献翻译学号：xxxxx 姓名：xxx所在系别：xxxxx 专业班级：xxx指导教师：xxxx原文标题：Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing2012年月日建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理1摘要混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
关键词：混凝土裂缝预防处理前言混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。
由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题，硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝，正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。
微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝，对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。
但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后，微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通，最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝，也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。
混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的，由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀，降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力，影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命，严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。
很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。
近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明，在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的，在一定的范围内也是可以接受的，只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。
钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定：有些结构在所处的不同条件下，允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。
但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生，使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度，尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现，从而确保工程质量。
混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多，有变形引起的裂缝：如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝；有外载作用引起的裂缝；有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。
(完整版)土木工程专业英语翻译
(1)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including Canada and the United States, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction.(1)混凝土和钢筋混凝土在每个国家都被用作建筑材料。
在许多国家，包括加拿大和美国，钢筋混凝土是一种主要的工程结构材料。
(2)The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction.(2) 钢筋混凝土建筑的广泛存在是由于钢筋和制造混凝土的材料，包括石子，沙，水泥等，可以通过多种途径方便的得到，同时兴建混凝土建筑时所需要的技术也相对简单。
(3)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, building of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.(3)混凝土和钢筋混凝土被应用于桥梁，各种形式的建筑，地下结构，蓄水池，电视塔，海上石油平台，以及工业建筑，大坝，甚至船舶等。
土木建筑工程常用术语英文翻译与名词解释
土木建筑工程常用术语英文翻译与名词解释土木建筑工程常用术语英文翻译与名词解释1. 工程结构 building andcivil engineering structures房屋建筑和土木工程的建筑物、构筑物及其相关组成部分的总称。
2. 工程结构设计design ofbuilding and civil engineering structures在工程结构的可靠与经济、适用与美观之间，选择一种最佳的合理的平衡，使所建造的结构能满足各种预定功能要求。
3. 房屋建筑工程 buildingengineering一般称建筑工程，为新建、改建或扩建房屋建筑物和附属构筑物所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
4. 土木工程 civilengineering除房屋建筑外，为新建、改建或扩建各类工程的建筑物、构筑物和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
5. 公路工程 highwayengineering为新建或改建各级公路和相关配套设施等而进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
6. 铁路工程 railwayengineering为新建或改建铁路和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
7. 港口与航道工程 port ( harbour) and waterway engineering为新建或改建港口与航道和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
8. 水利工程 hydraulicengineering为修建治理水患、开发利用水资源的各项建筑物、构筑物和相关配设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。
9. 水利发电工程（水电工程）hydraulicand hydroelectric engineering以利用水能发电为主要任务的水利工程。
土木工程毕业论文外文翻译---建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理
Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety.A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that.Modern age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in theconcrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside.The reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width.But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation.Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short to distribute.Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause thedurable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement.Two is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water.Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water quantity.Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time.Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to protect.Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the centerthin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist itsconstringency, therefore creation cracked.The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure:One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine mire.Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage.Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through.Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface.Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity of Hang solid with reinforce.Two is the strength that assurance template is enough andjust degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even.Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water.Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence.Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big area structure the crack often maneuver interleave;The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more;Thorough with pierce through sex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or closeparallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more airtight.Crack width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more narrow.The concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too obvious.The emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure:One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc..Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450 kg/m 3 following.Three is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio control below 0.6.Four is improvement the bone anticipate class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn hot.Five is an improvement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build temperature.Six is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence time.Seven is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the concrete.Eight is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface, layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up control.Nine is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cool off piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in temperature.Ten is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection measure.11 is to reserve temperature constringency to sew.12 is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rock and old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. materialTu2 Shua.13 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build use moist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool off.At the cold season, concrete surface should constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave assault.14 is the allocation be a little amount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.5.Crack and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack.The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescence ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open crack.In this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on prevention.Main of prevention measure:While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone bone.Two is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no alkali.Three is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcing bar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rust eclipse inflation, cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar ually of prevent measure from have:One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the layer.Two is a concrete class to go together with to want good.Three is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight solid.Four is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsis coating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shen ability.Therefore according to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method:Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method.Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing.The processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphalt etc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to have influence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knot the material harden behind and concrete formation one be whole, thus reinforce of purpose.The in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji C Xi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in common use method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of purpose.The in common use Su material has PVC gum mire, plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.;In common use rigid water material is thepolymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure.The structure reinforce medium in common use main have the following a few method:The piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other material.The in common use displacement material have:Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attain the purpose of antisepsis.Cathode protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescence to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid method.The advantage of this kind of method is a protection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(such as contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the traditionthe composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.From《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING》建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
土木工程外文翻译参考3篇详解
学校毕业设计（论文）附件外文文献翻译学号： xxxxx 姓名： xxx所在系别： xxxxx 专业班级： xxx指导教师： xxxx原文标题： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing2012年月日建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理1摘要混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
关键词：混凝土裂缝预防处理前言混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。
由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题，硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝，正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。
微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝，对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。
但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后，微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通，最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝，也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。
混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的，由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀，降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力，影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命，严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。
很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。
近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明，在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的，在一定的范围内也是可以接受的，只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。
钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定：有些结构在所处的不同条件下，允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。
但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生，使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度，尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现，从而确保工程质量。
混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多，有变形引起的裂缝：如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝；有外载作用引起的裂缝；有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。
建筑土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献建筑施工混凝土裂痕的预防与处置
Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingDimosi M《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVILENGINEERING》Abstract The crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword: Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use functionnot a creation to after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have alreadytransformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention.1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short to Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete,cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete construction want tobeappropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of Su constringency crack isgeneral at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the centerthin and the length be different, with each other not coherent crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventuallyNing but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature,wind velocity, relative humidity...etc.. Main prevention measure:One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities,protect in time. to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the templateprop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 ° Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion width under the influence of temperature variety foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity of Hang solid with is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dintis keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want tonotice to dismantle a mold order of is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control,creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big area structure the crack often maneuver interleave;The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more;Thorough with pierce through sex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or close parallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure:One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc..Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450kg/m 3 is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio control below is improvement the bone anticipate class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn is animprovement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface, layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cool off piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection istoreserve temperature constringency to is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rock and old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. material Tu2 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build usemoist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool the cold season, concrete surfaceshould constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave is the allocation be a little amount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack. The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescence ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on of prevention measure:While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcing bar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rust eclipse inflation,cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar of prevent measure from have:One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the is a concrete class to go together with to want is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsis coating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shenaccording to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method:Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method. Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphaltetc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to have influence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knotthe material harden behind and concrete formation one be whole, thus reinforce of in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji CXi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in common use method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of in common use Su material has PVC gum mire, plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.;In common use rigid water material is the polymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure reinforce medium in common use main have thefollowing a few methodThe piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other in common use displacement material have:Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attain the purpose of protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescence to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid advantage of this kind of method is a protection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(suchas contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the tradition the composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence buildingof usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.译文：建筑施工混凝土裂痕的预防与处置迪默斯M《加拿大土木工程学报》摘要混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂痕问题进行了探讨分析并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处置办法。
建筑工程中英文对照
建筑工程中英文对照Investment and study are the most important things in life, and there is no better idea.建筑词典大全附中文详细解释 I第一节一般术语1. 工程结构 building and civil engineering structures房屋建筑和土木工程的建筑物、构筑物及其相关组成部分的总称.2. 工程结构设计 design of building and civil engineering structures在工程结构的可靠与经济、适用与美观之间,选择一种最佳的合理的平衡,使所建造的结构能满足各种预定功能要求.3. 房屋建筑工程 building engineering一般称建筑工程,为新建、改建或扩建房屋建筑物和附属构筑物所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体.4. 土木工程 civil engineering除房屋建筑外,为新建、改建或扩建各类工程的建筑物、构筑物和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体.5. 公路工程 highway engineering为新建或改建各级公路和相关配套设施等而进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体.6. 铁路工程 railway engineering为新建或改建铁路和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体.7. 港口与航道工程 port harbour and waterway engineering为新建或改建港口与航道和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体.8. 水利工程 hydraulic engineering为修建治理水患、开发利用水资源的各项建筑物、构筑物和相关配设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体.9. 水利发电工程水电工程 hydraulic and hydroelectric engineering以利用水能发电为主要任务的水利工程.10. 建筑物构筑物 construction works房屋建筑或土木工程中的单项工程实体.11. 结构 structure广义地指房屋建筑和土木工程的建筑物、构筑物及其相关组成部分的实体,狭义地指各种工程实体的承重骨架.12. 基础 foundation将建筑物、构筑物以及各种设施的上部结构所承受的各种作用和自重传递到地基的结构组成部分.13. 地基 foundation soil; subgrade; subbase; ground支承由基础传递或直接由上部结构传递的各种作用的土体或岩体.未经加工处理的称为天然地基.14. 木结构 timber structure以木材为主制作的结构15. 砌体结构 masonry structure以砌体为主制作的结构.它包括砖结构、石结构和其它材料的砌块结构.有无筋砌体结构和配筋砌体结构.16. 钢结构 steel structure以钢材为主制作的结构.其中由带钢或钢板经冷加工形成的型材所制作的结构称冷弯薄壁型钢结构.17. 混凝土砼结构 concrete structure以混凝土为主制作的结构.它包括素混凝土结构、钢筋混凝土结构和预应力混凝土结构等.18. 特种工程结构 special engineering structure指具有特种用途的建筑物、构筑物,如高耸结构,包括塔、烟囱、桅、海洋平台、容器、构架等各种结构.19. 房屋建筑 building在固定地点,为使用者或占用物提供庇护覆盖进行生活、生产或其它活动家的实体. 20. 工业建筑 industrial building提供生产用的各种建筑物,如车间、厂前区建筑、生活间、动力站、库房和运输设施等.21. 民用建筑 civil building; civil architecture指非生产性的居住建筑和公共建筑,如住宅、办公楼、幼儿园、学校、食堂、影剧院、商店、体育馆、旅馆、医院、展览馆等.22. 公路 highway联结城市和乡村,主要供汽车或其它车辆行驶并具备一定技术标准和设施的道路.23. 公路网 highway network一定区域内相互连络、交织成网状分布的公路系统.24. 高速公路 freeway具有四条或四条以上车道,设有中央分隔带,并具有完善的交通安全设施、管理设施和服务设施,为全立交、全封闭,专供汽车高速行驶的公路.25. 干线公路 arterial highway在公路网中起骨干作用的公路,分国家干线国道、省干线省道.26. 支线公路 feeder highway在公路网中起连接作用的一般公路,即县县道和乡乡道等公路.27. 铁路铁道 railway; railroad用机车牵引运货或运旅客的车厢组成列车,在一定轨距的轨道上行驶的交通运输线路.28. 标准轨距铁路 standard gauge railway在直线地段,轨距为1435mm的铁路.29. 宽轨距铁路 broad gauge railway在直线地段,轨距大于1435mm的铁路.30. 窄轨距铁路 narrow gauge railway在直线地段,轨距小于1435mm的铁路.31. 铁路枢纽 railway terminal在铁路网点或网端,由几个协同作业的车站、引入线路和联络路线组成的综合体. 32. 铁路车站 railway station设有各种用途的线路,并办理列车通过、到发、列车技术作业及客货运业务的分界点.33. 港口 port; harbour具有水陆联运条件和设施,供船舶安全进出和停泊以进行货物装卸作业或上下旅客以及军事用的交通运输枢纽.34. 港口水工建筑物 marine structure供港口正常生产作业的临水或水中建筑物.35. 通航过船建筑物 navigation structure; navigation construction在栏河闸、坝或急流卡口等所形成的水位集中落差处,为使船舶或排筏安全顺利地航驶而修建的水工建筑物.36. 灯塔 light house在海洋、江河和湖泊航线中,指引船舶安全行驶、识别方位并设有发光樗的塔形建筑物.37. 水利 water conservancy为控制或调整天然水在空间和时间上的分布,防治洪水和旱涝灾害,合理开发和利用水资源而进行的活动,如治河防洪,灌溉排水,水土保持,水力发电,内河航运与生活、工业、环境供水以及跨流域调水等.38. 水利枢纽 multipurpose hydraulic project; key water-control project; hydro-junction为治理水患和开发利用水资源,在各种水域的一定范围内修建的若干座作用不同而相互配合的水工建筑物组成的综合体.39. 水库 reservoir为治理河流和开发水资源,在狭谷或丘陵地带河流上建档水坝,利用天然地形构成的蓄水设施.40. 水工建筑物 hydraulic structure; marine structure; maritime construction为水利、水利发电、港口与航道等工程修建的承受水作用的各种建筑物总称.41. 档水建筑物 water retaining structure; retaining works栏截水流、调蓄流量、壅高水位的水工建筑物.42. 进水取水建筑物 intake structure人河流、湖泊、水库等引进水流、控制流量、阻拦泥沙及漂浮物的水工建筑物.43. 泄水建筑物 outlet structure; outlet works; sluice works在水利枢纽或输水系统中,宣泄水量的水工建筑物.44. 输水建筑物 conveyance structure向供水目标输送水量的水工建筑物.45. 整治建筑物 rcgulating structure; training structure rectification structure为整治河流、航道、具有调整河床边界、改变水流结构、影响泥沙运动、控制河床演变等作用的水工建筑物.46. 水电站 hydro-electric station; hydropower station由河河湖海的沙滩有变为电能的各种设备及配套构筑物组成的综合体.47. 水泵站抽水站、扬水站、提水站 pump station设置抽水装置及其辅助设备,将水送往高处的配套建筑物.48. 过木建筑物过木设施 raftpass facility log pass facility供输送竹、木材通过闸、坝等挡水建筑物的工程设施.49. 过钿建筑物过钽设施 fishpass facility供鱼类通过拦河闸坝等挡水建筑物的工程设施.50. 安全设施 safety device为保障人、车、行船的安全,在房屋、公路、铁路和港口、航道沿线所设置的地道、天桥、航标、灯塔、照明设备、防水设施、护栏、标柱、标志、标线等设施的总称.第二节房屋建筑结构术语1. 混合结构 mixed structure不同材料的构件或部件混合组成的结构.2. 板柱结构 slab-colume system由楼板和柱无梁组成承重体系的房屋结构,如升板结构、无梁楼盖结构、整体预应力板柱结构.3. 框架结构 frame structure由梁柱组成的能承受竖向、水平作用所产生各种效应的单层、多层或高层结构.4. 拱结构 arch structure由拱作为承承重体系的结构.5. 折板结构 folded-plate structure由多块条形或其它外形的平板组合而成,能作承重、围护用的薄壁空间结构.6. 壳体结构 shell structure由各种形状的曲面板与边缘构件梁、拱、桁架组成的大跨度覆盖或围护的空间结构. 7. 风架结构 space truss structure由多根杆件按一定网格形式通过节点连接而成的大跨度覆盖的空间结构.8. 悬索结构 cable-suspended structure由柔性受拉索及其边缘构件所组成的承重结构.9. 充气结构 pneumatic structure在以高分子材料制成的薄膜制品中充入空气后而形成房屋的结构.分气承式和气管式两种结构形式.10. 剪力墙结构墙结构 shear wall structure在高层和多层建筑中,竖向和水平作用均由钢筋混凝土或预应力混凝土墙体承受的结构.11. 框架-剪力墙结构 frame-shear wall structure在高层建筑或工业厂房中,剪力墙和框架共同承受竖向和水平作用的一种组合型结构.12. 筒体结构 tube structure由竖向箱形截面悬臂筒体组成的结构.筒体有剪力墙围成竖向箱形截面的薄壁筒和密柱框架组成竖向箱形截面的框筒.筒体由一个或多个组成；分筒中筒、单框筒、框架-薄壁筒和成束筒等四类.13. 悬挂结构 suspended structure将楼屋面系统的荷载通过吊杆传递到悬挂的水平桁架梁,再由悬挂的水平桁架梁传递到被悬挂的井筒上直至基础的结构.14. 高耸结构 high-rise structure高度大,水平横向向剖面相对小,并以水平荷载控制设计的结构.分自立式塔式结构和拉线式桅式结构两大类,如水塔、烟囱、电视塔、监测塔等.第三节公路路线和铁路线路术语1. 公路路线 highway公路中线的空间位置.2. 公路线形 highway alignment公路中线的立体形状,由若干直线段和曲线段连接而成.3. 平面线形 horizontal alignment公路中线在水平面上投影形状4. 纵面线形 vertical alignment公路中心在纵剖面上的投影形式.5. 公路选线 route selection根据自然条件、公路使用性质和技术标准,结合地形、地质条件,考虑安全、环境、土地利用和施工条件以及社会经济效益等各种因素,通过比较,选择路线走向及其控制位置的全过程.6. 公路定线 route location根据规定的技术标准和路线方案,结合技术经济条件,从平面、纵断面、横断面综合考虑,具体定出路线中心线的工作.7. 平面线 horizontal curve在平面线形中,路线转向处曲线的总称,包括圆曲线和缓和曲线8. 竖曲线 vertical curve在公路纵坡的变坡处设置的竖向曲线.9. 变坡点 grade change point路线纵断面上两相邻不同坡度线的相交点.10. 路线交叉 route intersection两条或两条以上公路的交会.11. 铁路线路 permanent way包括机车和车厢组成列车行驶的通路、轨道及支承轨道的中期、桥梁、涵洞、隧道及其它建筑物的总称.12. 铁路选线 railway location在已确定的铁路起点,经过地点和终点之间,根据国家经济发展规划、自然条件和运输任务,结合铁路动力设备,并按照列车运行规律与经济原则,选择铁路新路线和改进已有路线的最佳方案.13. 铁路定线 location对选线确定的线路进行勘测后,按照规范的技术规定,在线路地形图上,进行线路的平面和纵断面设计和布置车站、桥涵等建筑物的工作.14. 正线 main line连接并贯穿或直股伸入铁路车站的线路.只有一条正线的线路称为单线,有二条正线的线路称为双线.15. 站线 sidings铁路车站管理的线路中,除正线以外各种线路的统称,如列车到发线、调车线、货物装卸线等.16. 最小曲线半径 minimum radius of curve在全线或某一地段内规定的圆曲线最小半径.17. 坡段 grade section两相邻变坡点间的长度 .18. 最大坡度 maximum grade一条线路上容许的最大设计坡度.19. 平面交叉 grade crossing铁路和铁路,铁路和公路称道口,公路和公路在同一平面上的交叉.20. 立体交叉 grade separation铁路和铁路,铁路和公路,公路和公路在不同高程上的交叉.第四节桥、涵洞和隧道术语1. 桥 bridge为公路、铁路、城市道路、管线、行人等跨越河流、山谷、道路等天然或人工障碍而建造的架空建筑物.2. 简支梁桥 simple supported girder bridge以简支梁作为桥跨结构的主要承重构件的梁式桥.3. 连续梁桥 continuous girder bridge以成列的连续梁作为桥跨结构主要承重构件的梁式桥.4. 悬臂梁桥 cantilever girder bridge以悬臂作为桥跨结构主要承重构件的梁式桥.5. 斜拉斜张桥 cable stayed bridge以斜拉斜张索连接索塔和主梁作为桥跨结构主要承重构件的桥.6. 悬索吊桥 suspension bridge以通过两索塔悬垂并锚固于两岸或桥两端的缆索或钢链作为桥跨结构主要承重构件的桥.7. 桁架桥 trussed bridge以桁架作为桥跨结构主要承重构件的桥,有桁架梁桥、桁架拱桥等.8．框架桥 frame bridge桥跨结构为整体箱形框架的桥.9．刚构刚架桥 rigid frame bridge桥跨结构与桥墩台刚性连接的桥,有连续、斜腿刚构桥等.10．拱桥 arch bridge以拱圈或拱肋作为桥跨结构主要承重构件的桥,有双曲、箱形拱桥等.11．漫水桥 submersible bridge容许洪水漫过桥面的桥.12．浮桥 pontoon bridge上部结构架高参水中浮动支承如船、筏、浮箱等上的桥.13．正交桥 right bridge桥的纵轴线与其跨越的河流流向或公路、铁路等路线轴向相垂直的桥.14．斜交桥 skew bridge桥的纵轴线怀其跨越的河流流向或公路、铁路等路线轴向不相垂直的桥15．跨线立交桥 grade separated bridge; overpass bridge跨越公路、铁路或城市道路等交通线路和桥.16．高架桥 viaduct代替高路堤跨越深谷、洼地或人工设施的桥.17．正主桥 main span跨越河道主槽部分或深谷、人工设施主要部分的桥.18．引桥 approach span连接路堤和正主桥的桥.19．弯桥 curved bridge桥面中心线在平面上为曲线的桥,有主梁为直线而桥面为曲线和主梁与桥面均为曲线两种情况.20．坡桥 Ramp bridge设置在纵坡路段上的桥.21．公路铁路两用桥 combined bridge; highway and railway transit bridge可供汽车和火车分道分层或并列行驶的桥.22．开合桥 movable bridge桥跨结构中具有可以提升、平旋或立旋开合的桥.23．单线桥 single-track bridge铺设一条铁路线路的桥.24．双线桥 double-track bridge铺设两条铁路线路的桥.25．桥跨结构上部结构 bridge superstructure桥的支承部分以上或拱桥起拱线以上跨越桥引的结构.26．桥面系 bridge floor system为提供列车、车辆、人群通过而设置桥面所需要的结构系统.27．桥支座 bridge bearing; bridge support支承桥跨结构,并将其荷载传给桥墩、桥台的构件.28．桥下部结构 bridge substructure为桥如、桥墩及桥梁基础的总称,用以支承桥梁上部结构将上部荷载传递给地基. 29．索塔桥塔 bridge tower支承悬索桥或斜张桥的主索并将荷载直接传给地基的塔形构筑物.30．桥台 abutment位于桥的两端与中基相衔接,并将桥上荷载传递到基础,又承受台后填土压力的构筑物. 31．桥墩 pier支承两相邻桥跨结构,并将其荷载传给地基的构筑物.32．涵洞 culvert横贯并埋设在路基或河堤中用以输水、排水或作为通道的构筑物.33．隧道洞 tunnel在道路、铁路及输水、泄水线路上,遇天然障碍时,穿越地层内部的地下或水底通道. 34．隧道洞口洞门 tunnel portal为保持洞口上方及两侧边坡的稳定,在隧道洞口修筑的墙式建筑物.35．隧道洞围岩 tunnel surrounding rock隧道洞周围一定范围内,对洞身的稳定产生影响的岩土体.36．隧道洞衬砌 tunnel lining为保证围岩稳定,防止隧道围崦变形或坍塌,并保持隧洞断面尺寸大小或使洞口内有良好水流条件,沿隧道洞身周边修筑的永久性支护结构层.第五节水工期建筑物术语1．坝 dam阻拦或拦蓄水充、壅高或调节上游水位的挡水建筑物.顶部不泄水的称非溢流坝,顶部泄水的称溢流坝.2．坝轴线 dam axis代表坝位置的一条横贯河谷的线.3．重力坝 gravity dam主要依靠自身重力,抵抗壅水作用于坝体的推力以保持稳定的坝.4．拱坝 arch dam平面呈拱向上游的曲线形坝,主要依靠拱的作用将壅水作用于坝体的推力传至两岸,以保持稳定的坝.5．支墩坝 buttress dam由一系列支墩和其上游挡水结构组成的坝6．土石坝 earth-rock dam; embankment dam用土、砂、砂砾石、卵石、块石、风化岩等材料经碾压或填筑建成的坝.7．混凝土坝 concrete dam用混凝土筑成的坝.8．橡胶坝 rubber dam; flexible dam; fabric dam锚着于底板上,以聚酯或橡胶为基质合成纤维织物形成袋囊,经充水气后形成的坝. 9．丁坝 spur dike; groin一端接河岸,一端伸向整治线,在平面上形成丁字形,坝轴线与流向交角分上挑、下挑或正挑的横向整治建筑物.10．顺坝 training dike一端接河岸,一端向下游延伸,坝轴线与流向平行或成一锐角,引导水流的纵向整建筑物. 11．溢洪道 spillway从水库向下游泄放超过水库调蓄能力的洪水,以保证工程安全的泄水建筑物.12．堰溢流堰 weir在顶部溢流的挡水、泄水建筑物.13．围堰 coffer dam用于水下施工的临时性挡水设施.14．水工隧洞 hydraulic tunnel在山体中或地面以下开挖的,具有封闭形断面和一定长度的过水建筑物.15．深式进水口 deep water intake人水库水面下一定深度处引水的水工隧洞或坝下埋管的首部建筑物.16．堤坝式水电站 dam type hydropower station用筑坝集中河段落差,形成发电淼砂的水电站.17．引水引水道式水电站 diversion conduit type hydropower staion利用引水道集中河段落差,形成必电水头的水电站.18．潮汐电站 tidal power station建于港湾入口处,利用海洋潮汐的动能转烃为电能的水电站.19．抽水蓄能电站 pumped storage power station具有抽水蓄能及发电两种功能的水电站.20．水电站厂房 powerhouse of hydropower station水电站中装置水轮发电机组及其辅助设备并为其安装、检修、运行及管理服务的建筑物,分河床式、坝后式、坝内式厂房或建在地面下的地下厂房21．前池 forebay设置在引水渠道末端及压力管道进口前的水池22．压力管道 pressure nconduit承受内水压力的封闭式输水管道.23．调压室 surge chamber设置在水电站较长的有压水疲乏中,使水流具有自由水面以减小水锤压力的贮水调压设施.24．尾水渠 tailrace尾水管与下游河槽之间输送发电尾水的渠道.25．船闸 navigation lock供船舶在水位集中落差处通航的一种箱形建筑物.26．升船机 shi lift; ship elevator在通航水道上有水位集中落差的地区,用机械或水力方法驱动升隆船舶,使船舶在水位落差处通过拦河坝的一种过船建筑物.27．水闸 sluice; barrage利用闸门控制流量、调节水位,既可挡水,又可泄水的建筑物.28．渠道 caual在地面上人工建造的开敞式输水通道.29．渡槽 aqueduct; bridged flume跨越洼地、道路、水道等衔接渠道的桥式建筑物.30．陡坡 chute以大于临界坡的底坡连接高、低渠道的开敞式过水建筑物.31．跌水 drop以集中跌落方式连接高、低渠道的开敞式或封闭式建筑物.32．坝内廊道系统 gallery system设在坝体内相互连通,并有进出口通向坝外的纵向、横向及竖向通道系统,具有灌浆、排水、检查、交通等多种功用.33．消能防冲设施 energy dissipating and anti-scour facility位于泄水建筑物下游侧,用以消减水流动能,并保护河底免受冲刷的结构设施.34．防渗设施 seepage control facility为防止和减少通过建筑物或地基渗流的设施35．排水设施 drainage facility排邮建筑物及地基中渗流的设施.36. 反滤设施倒滤设施 reverse filter为防止渗流导致土粒流失,而在渗流逸出外沿渗流方向按砂石材料颗粒粒径、土工织物纪隙尺寸,以逐渐增大的原则,分层填铺的滤水设施.37．水轮泵站 turbine-pump station利用水轮泵提水的泵站.38．水锤泵站 ram station利用水锤泵提水的泵站.39．坝下埋管 under dam culvert埋设在土石坝坝底,并在进口处设控制闸门的输水管道或洞40．沉消池 silting basin沉淀和清除水中部分泥沙的池.41．堤 dike; levee沿江、河、湖、海分洪区岸边修筑的挡水建筑物.42．防波堤 breakwater; mole防御风浪侵袭港口水域,保证港内水域平稳的水工建筑物.43．码头 wharf; quay供船舶停靠、装卸货物、上下旅客用的水工建筑物.44．斜坡码头 sloped wharf岩边断面呈斜坡状,设有固定坡道,并在坡道前端有趸船的徘船码头.45．墩式码头 dolphin wharf由靠船墩及工作平台、引桥等组成的靠船码头,主要型式有重力式墩式码头和高桩墩式码头.46．重力式码头 gravity quay-wall以结构本身和填料的重力保持稳定的靠船码头,主要型式有方块、沉箱及扶壁式等. 47．板桩码头 sheet-pile quay-wall由板桩、帽梁或胸墙、导梁和锚碇结构等所组成的靠船码头.48．高桩码头 open pier on piles; high-pile wharf主要是由部分桩身露出地面的桩和桩台组成的高桩承台式靠船码头.其特点是通过桩台将施加在码头上的荷载由桩传递到地基.49．浮趸船码头 floating pier; pontoon wharf由随水位涨落而升隆的趸船、支撑设施、引桥及护岸等组成的靠船码头.50．船坞 dock用于建造或检修航船的水工建筑物.由坞首、坞门、坞室、灌泄系统、拖系缆设备、动力和公用设施以及其它附属设备等组成,主要型式有干船坞和浮船坞.51．船台 ship-building berth在船舶上墩、下水构筑物中专门为修、造船舶有物场地.有露天船台、开敞船台和室内船台三种.52．滑道 slipway船舶上墩、下水用的轨道.第六节结构构件和部件术语1．构件 member组成结构的单元.2．部件 component; assembly parts结构中由若干构件组成的组合件,如楼梯、阳台、楼盖等.3．截面 section设计时所考虑的结构构件与某一平面的交面.当该交面与结构构件的纵向轴线或中面正交时的面称正截面,斜交时的面称斜截面.4．梁 beam; girder一种由支座支承的直线或曲线形构件.它主要承受各种作用产生的弯矩和剪力,有时也承受扭矩.5．拱 arch一种由支座支承的曲线或折线形构件.它主要承受各种作用产生的轴向压力,有时也承受弯矩、剪力,或扭矩.6．板 slab; plate一种由支座支承的平面尺寸大,而厚度相对较小的平面构件.它主要承受各种作用产生的弯矩和剪力.7．壳 shell一种曲面构件,它主要承受各种作用产生的中面内的力,有时也承受弯矩、剪力或扭矩. 8．柱 column一咱竖向直线构件.它主要承受各咱作用产生的轴向压力,有时也承受弯矩、剪力或扭矩. 9．墙 wall一种竖向平面或曲面构件.它主要承受各咱作用产生的中面内的力,有时也承受中面外的弯矩和剪力.10．桁架 truss由若干杆件构成的一种平面或空间的格架式结构或构件.各杆件主要承受各种作用产生的轴赂力,有时也承受节点弯矩和剪力.11．框架 frame由梁和柱连接而构成的一种平面或空间,单层或多层的结构.12．排架 bent frame由梁或桁架和柱铰接而成的单层框架.13．刚架刚构 rigid frame由梁和柱刚接而构成的框架.14．简支梁 simply supported beam梁搁置在两端支座上,其一端为轴向有约束的铰支座,另一端为能轴向滚动的支座. 15．悬臂梁 cantilever beam梁的一端为不产生轴向、垂直位移和转动的固定支座,另一端为自由端.16．两端固定梁 beam fixed at both ends梁的两端均为不产生轴向、垂直位移和转动的固定支座.17．连续梁 continuous beam具有三个或三个以上支座的梁.18．叠合梁 superposed beam截面由同一材料若干部分重叠而成为整体的梁.19．桩 pile沉入、打入或浇注于地基中的柱状支承构件,如木桩、钢桩、混凝土桩等.20．板桩 sheet pile全部或部分打入地基中,横截面为长方板形的支承构件,如钢板桩、钢筋混凝土板桩. 21．路面 pavement用筑路材料铺筑在公路路基上面,供车辆行驶的结构层,括面层含磨耗层、基层和垫层. 22．行车道 carriageway公路上代各咱车辆行驶部分的总称,包括快车行车道和慢行车道.23．变速车道 speed-change lane高等级公路上的加速度车道和减速车道的总称.。
土木工程建筑外文文献及翻译
土木工程建筑外文文献及翻译 Cyclic behavior of steel moment frame connections under varying axial load and lateral displacements Abstract This paper discusses the cyclic behavior of four steel moment connections tested under variable axial load and lateral displacements. The beam specim- ens consisted of a reducedbeam section, wing plates and longitudinal stiffeners. The test specimens were subjected to varying axial forces and lateral displace- ments to simulate the effects on beams in a Coupled-Girder Moment-Resisting Framing system under lateral loading. The test results showed that the specim- ens responded in a ductile manner since the plastic rotations exceeded 0.03 rad without significant drop in the lateral capacity. The presence of the longitudin- al stiffener assisted in transferring the axial forces and delayed the formation of web local buckling. 1. Introduction Aimed at evaluating the structural performance of reduced-beam section (RBS) connections under alternated axial loading and lateral displacement, four full-scale specimens were tested. These tests were intended to assess the performance of the moment connection design for the Moscone Center Exp- ansion under the Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) and the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). Previous research conducted on RBS moment connections [1,2] showed that connections with RBS profiles can achieve rotations in excess of 0.03 rad. However, doubts have been cast on the quality of the seismic performance of these connections under combined axial and lateral loading. The Moscone Center Expansion is a three-story, 71,814 m2 (773,000 ft2) structure with steel moment frames as its primary lateral force-resisting system. A three dimensional perspective illustration is shown in Fig. 1. The overall height of the building, at the highest point of the exhibition roof, is approxima- tely 35.36 m (116ft) above ground level. The ceiling height at the exhibition hall is 8.23 m (27 ft) , and the typical floor-to-floor height in the building is 11.43 m (37.5 ft). The building was designed as type I according to the requi- rements of the 1997 Uniform Building Code. The framing system consists of four moment frames in the East–West direct- ion, one on either side of the stair towers, and four frames in the North–South direction, one on either side of the stair and elevator cores in the east end and two at the west end of the structure [4]. Because of the story height, the con- cept of the Coupled-Girder Moment-Resisting Framing System (CGMRFS) was utilized. By coupling the girders, the lateral load-resisting behavior of the moment framing system changes to one where structural overturning moments are resisted partially by an axial compression–tension couple across the girder system, rather than only by the individual flexural action of the girders. As a result, a stiffer lateral load resisting system is achieved. The vertical element that connects the girders is referred to as a coupling link. Coupling links are analogous to and serve the same structural role as link beams in eccentrically braced frames. Coupling links are generally quite short, having a large shear- to-moment ratio. Under earthquake-type loading, the CGMRFS subjects its girders to wariab- ble axial forces in addition to their end moments. The axial forces in the Fig. 1. Moscone Center Expansion Project in San Francisco, CA girders result from the accumulated shear in the link. 2. Analytical model of CGMRF Nonlinear static pushover analysis was conducted on a typical one-bay model of the CGMRF. Fig. 2 shows the dimensions and the various sections of the 10 in) and the254 mm (1 1/8 in model. The link flange plates were 28.5 mm 18 3/4 in). The SAP 2000 computer476 mm (3 /8 in web plate was 9.5 mm program was utilized in the pushover analysis [5]. The frame was characterized as fully restrained(FR). FR moment frames are those frames for 1170 which no more than 5% of the lateral deflections arise from connection deformation [6]. The 5% value refers only to deflection due to beam–column deformation and not to frame deflections that result from column panel zone deformation [6, 9]. The analysis was performed using an expected value of the yield stress and ultimate strength. These values were equal to 372 MPa (54 ksi) and 518 MPa (75 ksi), respectively. The plastic hinges’ load–deformation behavior was approximated by the generalized curve suggested by NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings [6] as shown in Fig. 3. △y was calcu- lated based on Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2) from [6], as follows: P–M hinge load–deformation model points C, D and E are based on Table 5.4 from [6] for △y was taken as 0.01 rad per Note 3 in [6], Table 5.8. Shear hinge load- load–deformation model points C, D and E are based on Table 5.8 [6], Link Beam, Item a. A strain hardening slope between points B and C of 3% of the elastic slope was assumed for both models. The following relationship was used to account for moment–axial load interaction [6]:
Earthquake Resistant Structural Systems -土木工程外文翻译
Earthquake Resistant Structural Systems -土木工程外文翻译3Building Engineering Ⅱ: Building Structures and SeismicResistance3.1Text3.1.1PassageEarthquake ResistantStructural Systems1Rigid Frame StructuresRigid frame structures typically comprise floor diaphragms supported on beams which link to continuous columns (Figure 3-1). The joints between beam and columns are usually considered to be “rigid”. The frames are expected to carry the gravity loads through the flexural action of the beams and the prop ping action of the columns. Negative moments are induced in the beam adjacent to the columns causing the mid-span positive moment to be significantly less than in a simply supported span. In structures in which gravity loads dictate the design, economies in member size that arise from this effect tend to be offset by the higher cost of the rigid joints.Figure 3-1 Rigidframe structureLateral loads, imposed within the plane of the frame, are resisted through the development of bending moments in the beams and columns. Framed buildings often employ moment resistant frames in two orthogonal directions, in which case the column elements are common to both frames.Rigid frame structures are well suited to accommodate high levels of inelastic deformation. When a capacity design approach is employed, it is usual to assign the end zones of the flexural beams to accept the post-elastic deformation expected, and to design the column members such that their dependable strength is in excess of the over-strength capacity of the beam hinges, thereby ensuring they remain within their elastic response range regardless of the intensity of ground shaking. Rigid frame structures are, however, often quite flexible. When they aredesigned to be fully ductile, special provisions are often needed to prevent the premature onset of damage to non-structural components.Rigid frame construction is ideally suited for reinforced concrete building because of the inherent rigidity of reinforced concrete joints. The rigid frame form is also used for steel framebuildings. But moment resistant connections in steel tend to be costly. The sizes of the columns and girders at any level of a rigid-frame are directly influenced by the magnitude of the external shear at that level, and they therefore increase toward the base. Consequently, the design of the floor framing can not be repetitive as it is in some braced frames. A further result is that sometimes it is not possible in the lowest storeys to accommodate the required depth of girder within the normal ceiling space.While rigid frames of a typical scale that serve alone to resist lateral loading have an economic height limit of about 25 storeys, smaller scale rigid frames in the form of a perimeter tube, or typically scaled rigid frames in combination with shear walls or braced bents, can be economic up to much greater heights.2Infilled Frame StructuresInfilled frames (Figure 3-2) are the most usual form of construction for tall buildings of up to 30 storeys in height. Column and girder framing of reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is infilled by panels of brickwork, or cast-in-place concrete.Figure 3-2 InfilledframeWhen an infilled frame is subjected to lateral loading, the infill behaves effectively as a strut along its compression diagonal to brace the frame. Because the infills serve also as external walls or internal partitions, the system is an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure.The complex interactive behavior of the infill in the frame, and the rather random quality of masonry, had made it difficult to predicate with accuracy the stiffness and strength of an infilled frame. For these reasons, the use of the infills for bracing buildings has mainly been supplementary to the rigid frame action of concrete frames.3Shear WallsA shear wall is a vertical structural element that resists lateral forces in the plane of the wall through shear and bending. The high in planstiffness and strength of concrete and masonry walls make them ideally suitable for bracing building as shear walls.A shear wall acts as a beam cantilevered out of the ground or foundation9 and, just as with a beam, part of its strength derives from its depth. Figure 3-3 shows two examples of a shear wall, one in a simple one-storey building and another in a multistorey building. In Figure 3-3a, the shear walls are oriented in one direction, so only lateral forces in this direction can be resisted. The roof serves as the horizontal diaphragm and must also be designed to resist the lateral loads and transfer them to the shear walls.a) End shear walls and interior shear wall b)Interior shear walls forbracing in two directionFigure 3-3 Shear wallFigure 3-3a also shows an important aspect of shear walls in particular and vertical elements in general. This is the aspect of symmetry that has a bearing on whether torsional effects will be produced. The shear walls in Figure 3-3a show the shear walls symmetrical in the plane of loading.Figure 3-3b illustrates a common use of shear walls at the interior of a multi-storey building. Because walls enclosing stairways, elevator shafts, and mechanical chases are mostly solid and run the entire height of the building, they are often used for shear walls. Although not as efficient from a strictly structural point of view, interior shear walls do leave the exterior of the building open for windows.Notice that in Figure 3-3b there are shear walls in both directions, which is a more realistic situation because both wind and earthquake forces need to be resisted in both directions. In this diagram, the two shear walls are symmetrical in one direction, but the single shear wall produces a nonsymmetric condition in the other since it is off center. Shear walls do not need to be symmetrical in a building, but symmetry is preferred to avoid torsional effects. If, in low-to medium-rise building, shear walls are combined with frames, it is reasonable to assume that the shear wall attract all the lateral loading so that the frame may be designed for only gravity loading. It is essentially important in shear wall structures to try to plan the wall layout so that the lateral load tensile stresses are suppressed by the gravity load stresses. This allows them to be designed to have only the minimum reinforcement.Since shear walls are generally both stiff and can be inherently robust, it is practical to design them to remain nominally elastic under design intensity loadings, particularly in regions of low or moderate seismicity. Under increased loadingintensities, post-elastic deformations will develop within the lower portion of the wall (generally considered to extend over a height of twice the wall length above the foundation support system).Good post-elastic response can be readilyachieved within this region of reinforced concrete or masonry shear walls through the provision of adequate confinement of the principal reinforcing steel and the prohibition oflap splices of reinforcing bars. Shear wall structures are generally quite stiff and, as such interstorey drift problems are rare and generally easily contained. The shear wall tends to act as a rigid body rotating about a plastic hinge which forms at the base of the wall. Overall structural deformation is thus a function of the wall rotation. Inter-storey drift problems which do occur are limited to the lower few floors.A major shortcoming with shear walls within buildings is that their size provides internal (or external) access barriers which may contravene the architectural requirements. This problem canbe alleviated by coupling adjacent more slender shear walls so a coupled shear wall structure is formed. The coupling beams then become shear links between the two walls and with careful detailing can provide a very effective, ductile control mechanism (Figure 3-4).Figure 3-4 Coupled shear wallstructure4Braced FramesA braced frame is a truss system of the concentric or eccentric type in which the lateral forces are resisted through axial stresses in the members. Just as with a truss, the braced frame depends on diagonal members to provide a load path for lateral forces from each building element to the foundation. Figure 3-5 shows a simple one-storey braced frame. At one end of the building two bays are braced and at the other end only one bay is braced. This building is only braced in one direction and the diagonal member may be either in tension or compression,depending on which way the force is applied.a)Single story braced buildingb) Multistory bracedbuilding Figure 3-5Braced frameFigure 3-5b shows two methods of bracing a multistorey building. A single diagonal compression member in one bay can be used to brace against lateral loads coming from either direction. Alternately, tension diagonals can be used to accomplish the same result, but they must be run both ways to account for the load coming from either direction.Braced framing can be placed on the exterior or interior of a building, and may be placed in one structural bay or several. Obviously, a braced frame can present design problems for windows and doorways, but it is a very efficientand rigid lateral force resisting system.Two major shortcomings of braced systems are that their inclined diagonal orientation oftenconflicts with conventional occupancy use patterns; and secondly they often require careful detailing to avoid large local torsional eccentricities being introduced at the connections with the diagonal brace being offset from the frame node.5Wall-frame StructuresWhen shear walls are combined with rigid frames (Figure 3-6), the walls, which tend to deflect in a flexural configuration, and the frames, which tend to deflect in a shear mode, are constrained to adopt a common shape by the horizontal rigidity of the girders and slabs. As a consequence, the walls and frames interact horizontally, especially at the top, to produce a stiffer and stronger structure. The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate for buildings in the 40-to-60-storey range, well beyond of rigid frame or shear wall alone.Figure 3-6Wall-frame structureIn addition, less well-known feature of the wall- frame structure is that, in a carefully “tuned” structure, the shear in the frame can be made approximately uniform over the height, allowing the floor framing to be repetitive. Although the wall-frame structure is usually perceived as a concrete structural form, with shear walls and concrete frames, a steel counterpart using braced frames and steel rigid frames offers similar benefit of horizontal interaction. The braced frames behave with an overall flexural tendency to interact with the shear mode of the rigid frames.6Framed-Tube StructuresThe lateral resistance of framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment resisting frames that form a “tube” around the perimeter of the building. The frames consist of closely spaced column, 2~4m between centers, joined by deep spandrel girders (Figure 3-7). Although the tube carries all the lateral loading, the gravity load is shared between the tube and interior columns or walls. When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frames aligned in thedirection of loading act as the “web” of the massive tube cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the “flanges”.Figure 3-7Frame-tube structureThe close spacing of the columns throughout the height of the structures is usually unacceptable at the entrance level. The columns are therefore merged, or terminated on a transfer beam, a few storeys above the base so that only a few, larger, more widely spaced columns continue to the base. The tube form was developed originally for buildings of rectangular plan; however, for other plan shapes, and has occasionally been used in circular and triangular configurations.The tube is suitable for both steel and reinforced construction and has been used for buildings ranging from 40 to more storeys. The highly repetitive pattern of the frames lends itself to prefabrication in steel, and to the use of rapidly gang forms in concrete, which make for rapid construction.The framed tube has been one of the most significant modern developments in high-rise structural form. It offers a relatively efficiently, easily constructed structure, appropriate for use up to the greatest of heights. Aesthetically, the tube’s externally evident form is regarded with mixed enthusiasm: some praise the logical clearly expressed structure while others criticize the girder-like façade as small-windowed and uninteresting repetitious.The tube structure’s structural efficiency, although high, still leaves scope for improvement because the “flange” frames tend to suffer from “shear lag”; this result in mid-face “flange” columns being less stresses than the corner columns and, therefore, not contributing as fully as they could to the flange action.7Tube-in-Tube or Hull-Core StructuresThis variation of the framed tube consists of an outer framed tube, the “hull” together with an internal elevator and service core (Figure 3-8). The hull and the inner core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading. In a steel structure the core may consist of braced frames, whereas in a concrete structure it wouldconsist of an assembly of shear walls.Figure 3-8Tube-in-tubeTo some extent, the outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wall-frame structure, with the benefit of increase lateral stiffness. However, the structural tube usually adopts a highly dominant role because of its much greater structural depth.8Braced-Tube StructuresAnother way of improving the efficiency of the framed tube, thereby increasing its potential for greater heights as well as allowing greater spacing between the columns, is to add diagonal bracing to the faces of the tube. This arrangement was first used in a steel structure in 1969, in Chicago’s John Hancock Building (Figure 3-9). Because the diagonal of a braced tube are connected to the columns at each intersection, they virtually eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the flange and web frames.As a result, the structure behaves under lateral loading more like a braced frame, with greatly diminished bending in the members of the frames. Consequently, the spacing of the columns can be larger and the depth of the spandrels less, thereby allowing larger size windows than in the conventional tube structure.Figure 3-9Braced-TubeStructuresIn the braced-tube structure the bracing contributes also to the improved performance of the tube in carrying gravity loading: differences between gravity load stresses in the columns are evened out by the braces transferring loading from the more highly to the less highly stressed columns.9Bundled-Tube StructuresThis structural form has been used for the Sears Tower in Chicago. The Sears Tower consists of four parallel rigid steel frames in each orthogonal direction, interconnected to form nine “bundled” tubes. As in the single-tube structure, the frames in the direction of lateral loading serves as “webs” of the vertical cantilever, with the normal frame acting as “flanges”.The introduction of internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges; consequently their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single-tube structure, and their contribution to the lateral stiffness is great. This allows columns of the frames to be spaced further apart and to be less obtrusive. In the Sears Tower, advantage was taken of the bundled form to discontinue some of the tubes, and so reduce the plan of the building at stages up to the height.3.1.2New Words and Expressionsbraced frame支撑框架braced-tube桁架筒bundled-tube束筒couplingbeam 连梁coupledshear wall 联肢墙framedtube 框筒inter-storeydrift 层间位移propping[ 'prɔpiŋ ] n. 支撑rigid frame框架shear lag 剪力滞后spandrel [ 'spændrəl ] n.上下层窗间墙stairway [ 'stεəwei ] n.楼梯transfer beam 转换粱tube-in-tube / hull-core 筒中筒wall-frame structure 框架-剪力墙结构3.1.3Exercises1Please name the types of earthquake resistant structural systems.2How does a rigid frame structureresist the gravity load and lateralload? 3 Why are shear walls in both directions preferred?4 How are the loads shared between frame and tube in a framed-tube structure?3.2Reading Materials3.2.1Passage OneReinforced ConcreteStructuresConcrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from thewide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.1Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage or temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In the plain concrete beam, the moments due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a form or mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies, wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in place during the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed.2Factors Affecting Choice of Concrete for aStructureThe choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions.(1)EconomyFrequently, the foremost consideration is the overall cost of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time since the contractor and owner must allocate money to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment until the building isready for occupancy. As a result, financial savings due to rapid construction may more than offset increased material costs. Any measures the designer can take to standardize the design and forming will generally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the long-term economy of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are important considerations.(2)Suitability of Material for Architectural andStructural FunctionA reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shape and texture by means of the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements as flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and ceiling surfaces. Similarly, reinforced concrete wails can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size or shape is governed by the designer and not bythe availability of standard manufactured members.(3)Fire ResistanceThe structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished.A concrete building inherently has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating without special fireproofing or other details. Structural steel or timber buildings must befireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.(4)RigidityThe occupants of a building may be disturbed if their building oscillates in the wind or the floors vibrate as people walk by. Due to the greater stiffness and mass of a concrete structure, vibrations are seldom a problem.(5)Low MaintenanceConcrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away from the structure.(6)Availability of MaterialsSand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities are very widely available, and reinforcing steel can be transported to most job sites more easily than can structural steel. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete. These include: (1)Low Tensile StrengthAs stated earlier, the tensile strength of concrete is much lower than its compressive strength (about 1/10), and hence concrete is subject to cracking. In structural uses this is overcome by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly or may allow penetration of water.(2)Forms and ShoringThe construction of a cast-in-place structure involves three steps not encountered in the construction of steel or timber structures. These are the construction of the forms, the removal of these forms, and propping or shoring the new concrete to support its weight until its strength is adequate. Each of these steps involves labor and/or materials which are not necessary with other forms of construction.(3)Relatively Low Strength per Unit of Weightor VolumeThe compressive strength of concrete is roughly 5% to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does acomparable steel structure. As a result, long-span structures are often built from steel.(4)Time-dependent Volume ChangesBoth concrete and steel undergo approximately the same amount of thermal expansion and contraction. Because there is less mass of Steel to be heated or cooled, and because steel is a better conductor than concrete, a steel structure is generally affected by temperature changes to a greater extent than is a concrete structure. On the other hand, concrete undergoes drying shrinkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflections will tend to increase with time, possibly doubling, due to creep of the concrete under sustained loads.3Building CodesThe first set of building regulations for reinforced concrete were drafted under the leadership of Professor Morsch of the University of Stuttgart and were issued in Prussia in 1904. Design regulations were issued in Britain, France, Austria, and Switzerland between 1907 and 1909.The American Railway Engineering Association appointed a Committee on Masonry in 1890. In 1903 this committee presented specifications for Portland cement concrete. Between 1908 and 1910 a series of committee reports led to the Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete published in 1910 by the National Association of Cement Users which subsequently became the American Concrete Institute.A Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete was established in 1904 by the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Railway Engineering Association, and the Association of American Portland Cement Manufactures. This group was later joined by the American Concrete Institute. Between 1904 and 1910 the Joint Committee carried out research. A preliminary report issued in 1913 lists the more important papers and books on reinforced concrete published between 1898 and 1911. The final report of this committee was published in 1916. The history of reinforced concrete building codes in the United States wasreviewed in 1954 by Kerekes and Reid.The design and construction of buildings is regulated by municipal bylaws called building codes. These exist to protect the public health and safety. Each city and town is free to write or adopt its own building code, and in that city or town, only that particular code has legal status. Because of the complexity of building code writing, cities in the United States generally base their building codes on one of three model codes: the Uniform Building Code, the Standard Building Code, or the Basic Building Code. These codes cover such things as use and occupancy requirements, fire requirements, heating and ventilating requirements, and structural design.The definitive design specification for reinforced concrete buildings in North America is the Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI-318-95), which is explained in a Commentary.This code, generally referred to as the ACI Code, has been incorporated in most building codes in the United States and serves as the basis for comparable codes in Canada, New Zealand,Australia, and parts of Latin America. The ACI Code has legal status only if adopted in a local building code.Each nation or group of nations in Europe has its own building code for reinforced concrete. The CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures is intended to serve as the basis for future attempts to unify European codes. This code and the ACI Code are similar in many ways.3.2.2Passage TwoEarthquake Induced Vibration ofStructures1Seismicity and Ground MotionsThe most common cause of earthquakes is thought to be the violent slipping of rock masses along major geological fault lines in the Earth’s crust, or lithosphere. These fault lines divide the global crust into about 12 major tectonic plates, which are rigid, relatively cool slabs about 100km thick. Tectonic plates float on the molten mantle of the Earth and move relative to one another at the rate of 10 to 100mm/year.The basic mechanism causing earthquakes inthe plate boundary regions appears to be that the continuing deformation of the crustal structure eventually leads to stresses which exceed the material strength. A rupture will then initiate at some critical point along the fault line and willpropagate rapidly through the highly stressed material at the plate boundary. In some cases, the plate margins are moving away from one another. In those cases, molten rock appears from deep in the Earth to fill the gap, often manifesting itself as volcanoes. If the plates are pushing together, one plate tends to dive under the other and, depending on the density of the material, it may resurface in the form of mountains and valleys. In both these scenarios, there may be volcanoes and earthquakes at the plate boundaries, both being caused by the same mechanism of movement in the Earth's crust. Another possibility is that the plate boundaries will slide sideways past each other, essentially retaining the local surface area of the plate. It is believed that about three quarters of the world's earthquakes are accounted for by this rubbing-striking-slipping mechanism, with ruptures occurring on faults on boundaries between tectonic plates. Earthquake occurrence maps tend to outline the plate boundaries. Such earthquakes are referred to as interplate earthquakes.Earthquakes also occur at locations away。
土木工程施工专业英语带翻译
State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are active areas of research in recent years. paring with the aerospace engineering and mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own in practice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural ponents, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these ponents can easily to be confused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment of plex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoring system and its ponents. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the following sections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including (a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updating and system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortings of each method are pared and analyzed. Recent examples of implementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification are summarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem. Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zero percent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, and reuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and the life of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deterioration resulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. To quantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitor and evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the Aloha Boeing 737 accident that occurred on April 28, 1988,such interest has fostered research in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is defined as“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes that may indicate damage or degradation〞[1]. This definition also identifies the weakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. What is needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structure in-service and process the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability, reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should be modified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the use ofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage has occurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures〞(Fig.1). In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential to provide both damage detection and condition assessment of a structure.Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structural ponents is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructive inspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles, magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof these techniques have been used successfullyto detect location of certainelements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program of research and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the program is to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other is to develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition of bridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a bination of several NDE techniques may beused to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond the scope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Global attempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereas local methods focus NDE tools on specific structural ponents. Clearly, two approaches are plementaryto eachother. All such available informationmaybe bined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage or safety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the following four levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location of damage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remaining fatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structural models and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, and high-performance puting. With improved instrumentation and understanding of dynamics of plex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has bee more practical in systematic inspection and evaluation of these structures during the past two decades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because they are global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.These dynamics-based methods can be divided into fourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domain methods,③time-domain methods, and④frequency- domain methods. Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of natural frequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In the frequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemof spectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimated fromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model were applied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampled in time. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural system changewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can usemodel-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect the existence of damage without much putational efforts, butthey are not accurate in locating damage. On the otherhand, model-referencedmethods are generally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors than model-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural models and significant putational efforts. Although time-domain methods use original time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurement equipment, theyrequire certain structural information and massive putation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noise due totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to be accurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are bined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers bined data of static and modal tests to assess damages. The bination could remove the weakness of each method and check each other. It suits the plexity of damage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospace engineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. For example,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the non-structural ponents, and changes in these ponents can easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greater than the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment of plex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. Recent examples of research and implementation of structural health monitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing and dynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing and forced vibration testing. In ambientvibration testing, the input excitation is not under the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves, vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring the vibrationresponse while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasing availability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input is unknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testing involves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, force hammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing.we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③the field-testing and damage assessmentof real bridges are more plicated than the models in the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damage type,location, and extentwill still be improved.3 Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition and the structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamental criteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as response models, modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly to assess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. The damage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring (once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of European Conference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference on Structural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures, in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. Thereare several review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary of the state of the art in control and health monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu (1997)discussed and reviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structural assessment procedures using vibration monitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examining changes in dynamic properties.Zou, TongandSteven (2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for posite structures, especially in delamination modeling techniques and delamination detection.4Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little is known about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of the actual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for special sensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structural health monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changes in external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire, process, and bine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individual sensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide such multiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It was experimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar system and a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promising for field application. Another new idea is thatneural networktechniques are used to place sensors. For example,WordenandBurrows (2001)used the neural network and methods of binatorial optimization to locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich are installed on the measured structures.And these datawill be processed and usable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. The more information are obtained, the damage identification will be conducted more easily, but the price should be considered. That’s why the sensors are determined in an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory and validation ofoptimumsensor locationswillstill being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to bee an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is of paramount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verified with appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have been implemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remote monitoring, intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conducted now.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. They also presented the ambient vibration based approaches forLaser DopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspension bridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard to separate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normal usage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing plete structural health monitoring systems for bridge inspection and cond ition evaluation from“cradle to grave〞of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections and systems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and to predict the existing and the future capacities of the structural ponents and systems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design, as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers, etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on the following assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic response of the structure. This is seldom true in practice,because①Traditional modal parameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are not sensitive enough to identify and locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②M ost currently used damage indices depend on the severity of the damage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, such as highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low natural frequencies. Any damage index should consider these factors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of a real bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Ma nymethods usually use the undamaged structural modal parameters as the baseline paredwith the damaged information. This will result in the need of a large data storage capacity for plex structures. But in practice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modal responses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)), which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in this direction.⑤Seld ommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damages on bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the various damage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliably detected or tracked by using a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized properties ofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deterioration such as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel in concrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems.There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia, industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring for civil engineering structures. Several mercial structural monitoring systems currently exist, but further development is needed in mercialization of the technology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring for bridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task. It contains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variations of structuralphysical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indication parameters, defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of the structure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately, to date, no one has acplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to do in future.桥梁安康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与安康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差异,比方桥梁构造以及其他大多数土木构造,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁构造的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非构造构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为构造的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂构造的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了构造安康监测系统的定义和根本构成,然后集中回忆和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的开展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法, (c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比拟和分析了各自方法的优点和缺乏.文中还总结了安康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁安康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁安康监测系统的研究和开展方向. 关键词:安康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁构造1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个构造将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。
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土木施工外文翻译Lesson 1 Civil Engineering——土木工程土木工程是最古老的工程专业之一，它包括对建筑外界的规划、设计、施工以及管理。
建筑外界包括从灌溉排水系统到火箭发射设施在内的所有按科学原理建造的结构物。
土木工程师修建道路、桥梁、隧道、大坝、港口、发电厂、给排水系统、医院、学校、公共交通等公共设施，这些是现代社会和人口密集地所必需的。
他们也修建私有设施，如飞机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼等工业、商业或居住用的大型结构物。
另外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城镇，最近还设计了设备齐全的空间站。
单词“ civil”来自于拉丁文中的“citizen”。
1872年，英国人John Smeaton 采用这一术语把他的民用工程与那时占主导地位的的军事工程区别开来。
从此，“土木工程”经常用于指修建公共设施的工程师的工作领域，虽然“土木工程”所包含的领域要宽广得多。
——范围土木工程工作范围很广，因此可以把土木工程细分为许多技术专业。
不同类型的项目可能需要许多技术专业土木工程师的技术合作。
开始一个项目时，负责功能（给水、排水、电力管线）布置的工程师对工地进行测量并绘制成图；土工专家进行土壤试验以确定泥土是否可以承受得住结构物重量；环境专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物的影响以及如何设计以达到政府旨在保护环境的要求；交通工程专家选择交通设施类型以缓解项目竣工时对当地道路和其它交通网络所增加的负担；同时，结构专家利用初步数据进行细部设计、整体设计和工程说明制定。
从工程开始到完工，由工程管理专家统一管理、协调这些土木工程师的工作。
在其他专家提供的信息的基础上，工程管理人员预算人工、材料的数量和费用，安排所有的工作进度，订购材料和设备，雇佣承包人和分包人，以及其它的工程管理以确保工程保质保量按时完成。
任何项目中土木工程师都广泛应用到计算机。
计算机（指计算机辅助设计或CAD）被用于设计工程的各种单元和管理工程。
计算机对现代土木工程师来说是必不可少的，因为计算机能帮助工程师高效率地处理决定工程项目最佳建造方式所需要的大量数据。
——结构工程结构工程师设计各种结构，包括桥梁、大坝、发电厂、设备基础结构、海岸工程的特殊结构、美国空间计划、发射塔、大型天文电子望远镜等许多工程。
结构工程师利用计算机确定结构必须承受的荷载：自重、风和飓风荷载、温度效应和地震力。
他们还确定钢、混凝土、塑料、石头、沥青、砖、铝或其它建筑材料的适当组合。
——水利工程该专业的工程师解决物理控制水的方方面面。
水利工程帮助预防洪水，向城市供水和灌溉，监管江河及其流量，维修海滩和其它滨水地区设施。
另外，他们设计和维修海港、运河、水闸，建造大型水电坝、小水坝和各种围水工程，帮助设计海岸工程结构，确定影响航行的结构物位置。
self-contain edadj. 设备齐全的, 独立的, 沉默寡言的offshoreadj.向海面吹的, 离岸的, 海面上的waterfrontn.水边地码头区, 滨水地区locksn. 水闸——岩土工程这个专业的工程师分析支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤、岩石的性质。
[1]他们计算建筑结构和其它结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。
他们也计算确定如何加强斜坡和填方的稳定性，以及如何保护结构抵抗地震和地下水的影响。
——环境工程该领域的工程师设计、建造和监督水利系统以提供安全饮用水并防止和控制给水的污染(包括地面水和地下水)。
他们也设计、建造和监督用于控制或减少地面和空气污染的工程。
这些工程师建造自来水厂和污水处理厂，设计空气净化等装置来减少或消除工业处理、焚化等产烟活动而引起的空气污染。
他们还通过建造专门堆存点或中和有毒物质来控制有毒废物。
另外，这些工程师设计和管理卫生的垃圾掩埋以防止对周围环境的污染。
——运输工程工作在这个专业的工程师建造相关设施确保人员和物资的安全、有效地运行。
他们专门设计和维护各种交通设施、公路和街道、公共交通系统、铁路和机场、港口。
交通工程师在设计每个工程时既要应用技术知识也要考虑经济、政治和社会因素。
由于社会生活质量与交通系统质量直接相关，他们与城市规划人员紧密合作。
——管道工程土木工程这个分支的工程师建造管线和相关设施，以传输各种液体、气体或固体，如煤浆（煤和水的混合物）、半液体的垃圾、水、石油、各类易燃或不可燃气体。
这些工程师确定管线设计、评估管线对所经过地区的经济和环境影响，选择材料类型（钢、砼、塑料或各种材料的组合），安装技术，管线强度测试方法，控制维持适当的物流传输压力和速度。
当传输危险的物资时，还要重点考虑安全问题。
——工程施工这一领域的工程师主管着工程施工的全过程。
他们，有时候称作项目工程师，需要运用包括施工方法、项目规划、施工组织、施工成本运算和工程建设等知识的工程技术和管理技巧。
事实上，他们协调工程中每个人的活动[2]，包括有测量员，展线工人和修建临时道路和坡道的工人，基础开挖工人，制造模板和浇灌混凝土的工人以及建造钢框架的工人。
这些工程师还定期向业主汇报工程进度。
——社区和城市规划致力于这一领域的工程师规划和发展城市里的某一社区甚至是整个城市。
这种规划涉及的不仅仅是从工程角度进行考虑，在使用和发展土地和自然资源时的环境、社会和经济因素也是关键要素。
这些工程师协调公共工程的规划与私有发展之间的关系。
他们估计所需要的设施种类，包括街道和公路、公共交通系统、机场、港口设施、给排水系统、公共建筑、公园、娱乐场所等其它设施，来确保社会、经济以及环境的健康发展。
——摄影测绘、测量和地图绘制这个专业的工程师精确地量测地球表面以获得可靠的信息来工程定位和工程设计。
这个操作经常涉及高科技方法如卫星和航空测量，计算机图象处理。
filln.填方sanitary adj.(有关)卫生的, (保持)清洁的, 清洁卫生的n.(有关生设备的)公共厕所landfilln.垃圾掩埋法, 垃圾卫星无线电信号、音波和激光束扫描被转换成地图，为开挖隧道、修建公路和大坝、标绘洪水控制和灌溉工程、查找影响工程建设的地下地理信息以及许多其它建筑用途提供精确的测量。
——其它专业另外两个虽并不完全属于土木工程范围但对于这一学科起基础作用的土木工程专业是工程管理和工程教育。
——工程管理许多土木工程师选择最终走向管理的职业。
其他可以从工程管理的位置上开始他们的职业。
土木工程管理人员把工程技术知识和组织协调人力、物资、器械和资金的能力结合起来。
这些工程师可能在联邦、州、县、市政府部门工作，或在美国工程军团中担任军用或民用管理工程师，或在半自治地区或市政当局等类似组织中工作。
[3]他们也可能管理规模为从几个人到几百个雇员的私营工程公司。
——工程教育选择教育为职业的工程师通常为技术专业的本科生和硕士研究生教授知识。
[4]许多从事教学的土木工程师参与会导致建筑材料和施工方法技术革新的基础研究。
另外一些人充当工程项目的顾问或重要工程的技术委员会和董事会的顾问。
Lesson 2 Building andArchitecture建筑物的目的是为人类活动提供庇护所。
从穴居时代到现在，人类最重要需求之一就是有一个躲避风雨的地方。
更普通意义上讲，建筑技术包含了人类控制周围环境和改造自然满足自身需要的所有努力。
除了建筑物之外，建筑技术还包括所有土木工程结构，如大坝、运河、隧道、沟渠和桥梁。
设计用于庇护的建筑物和设计用于其它目的的土木工程结构的科学原理是一样的。
只是由于现代社会专门需要的不同，而使两个领域沿不同的途径发展。
同样地，与作为庇护所的建筑物相关的主要建设者也不再是一个人了，而是由一班各种专业人员完成，有规划人员、建筑师、工程师和施工人员。
现代建筑物的建造要依靠这班人员的集体才干来完成。
建筑物的结构是建筑物的功能、环境及各种社会经济因素共同作用的产物。
公寓大楼、办公楼和学校结构不同是由于它们实现的功能有别。
公寓楼的每一个可居住空间，如起居室和卧室，必须有窗户采集的自然光，而浴室和厨房可以用人工照明因此可布置在建筑物内部。
这一套规定自然限制了公寓大楼的深度。
另一方面，办公大楼里采用人工照明可以得到更加均匀的照度因此这类建筑物的深度就无需为自然采光所限制了。
环境可能会影响建筑物形状和外观。
城市学校可能通过围墙等与城市完全隔离起来创造自己的环境，乡村学校则可以与周围风景融为一体，虽然两种学校履行着相同的功能。
最后，建筑的结构还受各种各样的社会经济因素影响，包括地价、租赁费、建筑预算和区域功能划分限制。
城市高地价导致建造高层楼房，而乡村地价低则所盖楼房也低。
富人的住宅楼结构就会与低预算住宅楼的结构不一样。
在社会上有一定影响的办公楼在预算上比其他的办公楼投入要大。
建筑物的体积和外形还可能会被区域功能划分限制。
以上这些例子说明，一样的建筑功能也可能带来不一样的建筑结构。
建筑学是建筑的艺术。
事实上，所有的建筑学都与人类使用的空间围护相关。
任一明确建筑物（从工厂的生产线车间到住宅的卧室）内的特定活动决定着其内部几个区域的大小和形状。
这些区域也必须根据相互之间的某些逻辑关系安排。
而且，人员在建筑物内的运动-建筑学用语为人流-需要大厅、楼梯或电梯，这些设施的大小由预计的交通荷载控制。
建筑师首先考虑的是如何对建筑物内部进行规划，对满足不同要求的空间进行组织以实现建筑的设计意图。
好的设计引导参观者在这个建筑物中轻易到达目的地，并可能潜意识地通过大厦里几个单元的视觉联系给他以深刻印象。
相反地，不好的设计造成使用不便、浪费和视觉混乱。
而且，建筑物必须建造良好。
它的功能应该达到设计目的并且为选择的建筑材料所允许。
建筑物的原材料如石子、砖、木材、钢或玻璃部分地限制和表现了建筑物的形式。
石子可以无限地抵抗压力（相互挤压产生）。
虽然在实验室可以把石子压碎，但在实际使用场合它的强度是无限的。
另一方面，石子抗拉能力很弱。
任何跨的梁在支撑之间趋向下弯，使梁的下半部分受拉。
基于石子的抗拉强度很低，石梁跨度必须相对地小而且很小间隔就得设置支撑。
而且，石柱必须很粗短，它的高宽比很少超过10。
在石头建筑物中，窗户、门和柱子之间的空间被迫做成高度尺寸大于宽度尺寸的形状，即石头审美上的垂直长方形。
在西方建筑中石头很盛行以至于它的适当建筑形式也被保留到用木头建be concerned about关心,挂念be concerned with与。
相关造的建筑物中，如在美国乔治王时代。
于是石头被用于由墙支撑楼板和屋顶的建筑物，柱间距很小的柱-过梁结构，以及压应力为主的拱结构中。
纤维材料木头抗拉强度和抗压强度一样。
木梁可以有比石梁更大的跨度，而木柱的长细比和柱间距也比石柱大。
从日本的建筑物可以看到，由于木头的自然特性使得木结构的开口可以做成宽度比高度大的水平长方形。