Chapter 4 From word to text
大学英语跨文化交际 chapter4
Chapter 4 Intercultural Communication BarriersI. Teaching ObjectivesIn this chapter, the teacher should enable the students to:1. understand Intercultural Communication Barriers.2. understand some barriers caused by emotional problems and attitudinal problems.3. analyze various reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotyping,prejudice and racism.4. perceive and deal with some barriers caused by translation problems.II. Contents1. Keywords(1) Anxiety: It occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on thatfeeling and not be totally present in the communication transaction.（焦虑：当人们不知道如何迎合他人对自己的期待，过多的关注自己情绪以至不能全心投入到交际事物中去时，就会产生焦虑。
）(2) Uncertainty: It refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or other’s feelings andbehaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous situation that evokes anxiety. (不确定：不确定是指人们无法从认知的角度去解释交际活动中自己或他人的感觉及行为，这种认知角度解释能力的欠缺是某种引起焦虑的含糊情境导致的。
Chapter 4 Syntax
4.3.1 The linear(线性) word order of a sentence When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that structure of a sentence is linear as in the following examples:
Visiting professors can be interesting.
a. Professor who are visiting can be interesting.
b. To visit profess can be interesting. Such cases of ambiguity can be dealt with by use of tree diagrams:
Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接 成分分析法) (IC analysis for short)
Definition of IC Analysis
It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (最终成分) are reached. The first divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents (ICs), and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents (UCs)
Chapter_4_syntax
Syntax
Here we deal with Syntax that studies how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, etc. As we know, every language has its particular ways to form correct clauses, phrases and other syntactic units. Therefore we can define syntax as the ‘study of the structure of phrases, clauses and sentences’. By defining Grammar we may say that it is the overall pattern of a language that clearly includes the basic subfield of linguistics such as Morphology, Syntax and certainly other features.
Brazil defeated Germany.
Germany defeated Brazil.
However, sometimes a change of word order has no effect on meaning:
The Chief Justice swore in the new President.
The little young red cat.
The red little young cat
Joseph gave a rose to Edith.
Edith a rose Joseph gave.
新编英语词汇学教程 第二版 Chapter 4 Word Formation
Word Formation
CONTENT
1
Introduction
2 Root, stem and affix
3 Inflection and derivation
4
Ordinary processes of word formation
5
Other processes of word formation
4.2 Root, stem and affix
• A free root is one which can stand alone as a word such as help, care and walk. Nevertheless, there are some roots that can not stand alone but combine with other morphemes to form words, such as -ceive in receive and conceive, -mit in permit and submit, -tain in retain and maintain, and -cur in incur and occur. Elements like -ceive, -mit, -tain, and -cur are all roots, but they are meaningless independent of other morphemes,and such roots are called bound roots. Bound roots are limited in number as opposed to free roots, but they are useful to enrich our the vocabulary.
Chapter 4 word-formation
Exercises
1.用否定前缀 用否定前缀in-(及其变体 un-, non-构成下列单词反义词 及其变体), 用否定前缀 及其变体 构成下列单词反义词
1.mature: 2. regular: 3.considerate: 4.noble: 5.contentious: 6.legitimate 7.metal: 8.passive: 9.ferrous 10.accuracy: 11.endurable: 12.variance 13.inductive: 14.legible: 15.reasonable 16.rational: 17.scrupulous: 18.staple 19:balance: 20.legalize:
Key to the exercises: 3
1. apologized 2. beautify 3. lengthening 4. sympathized 5. fatten 6. deepen 7 . modernize 8. Sterilize
harden (harden one’s heart), horrify( a horrifying sight), memorize (memorize the words), falsify(falsify records 伪造记录）, glorify（glorify the hero’s deeds), intensify (intensify the difference)
Means of word formation
prefixation 1. affixation (derivation) suffixation 2. conversion (functional shift, zero derivation) 3. composition 4. back-formation 5. blending 6. shortening
奈达翻译理论研究 第四章 笔记
Chapter four A comparative study of Nida’s theory andJin Di’s theoryJin Di, on the basis of Nida‟s theory, he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”.4.1 Jin Di’s Translation TheoryJin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect”and his Chinese version of Ulysses.4.1.1 A survey of Jin’s translation activity and translation studyIn his work In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect (1989), he put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”.4.1.2 Jin’s view on translation before his reception of Nida’s theoryThe gist of his argument was that “translating must meet the requirements of accuracy and smoothness.”“Accuracy” meant the content of the translated text should be consistent with that of the original text.“Smoothness”meant the language of the translated text should conform to the convention of the target language.Accuracy and smoothness in translation were two sides of a coin, and one could not be separated from another.What distinguished Jin from others was that he strongly objected to then the popular idea that “faithfulness should be given priority over smoothness when one of them has to be sacrificed”.Jin mentioned more than once the close relationship between translation accuracy and target readers. He wrote:A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate.4.1.3 Jin’s theory of equivalent effect and its relationship with Nida’s theoryIn On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English, Jin basically adopted Nida‟s “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relationship of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”.The book mentioned above was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida‟s translation theory with Chinese translation with Chinese translation practice”.Jin argued that Nida‟s theory was intended to guide Bible translation for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “response to the translated message in action”. Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response”in Nida‟s theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jinexplained:Although receptors’ response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptor’s response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor’s response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is necessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect” refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors instead of the receptors’ response. (This was the reason why Jin modified Nida’s “dynamic equivalence”, and put forward his o wn theory of “equivalent effect”.等效定义(方式一): the objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery.分析: in Jin‟s view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit, “concrete facts”and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect.In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect”as “impact”instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin‟s theory of “equivalent effect”.In his article, “Translating Spirit”, he borrowed two characters from Y an Fu‟s three-character translation principle and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信，达，神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin‟s theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works.等效定义（方式二）：the three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit”indicated that faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively.In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the “reproduction of artistic style”, and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism.Jin‟s theory deviated away from Nida‟s theory because Nida‟s theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussion about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant.4.2 Rethinking Nida’s dynamic equivalence4.2.1 The relationship between dynamic equivalence and the principle of equivalent effectAs early as 1790, Tytler stated that a good translation was once in “which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be distinctly apprehended, and strongly felt, by a native of the country to which thatlanguage belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work”. Tytler was considered the first person who had discussed the issue of equivalent effect in the history of translation theory. But it was E.V. Rieu who first used the expression “the principle of equivalent effect” to discuss translation.Arnold stated that “A translation should affect us in the same way as the original may be supposed to have affected its first hearers”.Jowett expressed that “The translator seeks to produce on his reader an impression similar or nearly similar to that produced by the original”.The reason why Nida‟s theory is also called the principle of “equivalent effect” in the west is that: a translation which attempts to produce a dynamic rather than a formal equivalent is based upon “the principle of equivalent effect”. In such a translation one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message.4.2.2 The scientific basis of dynamic equivalence/functional equivalenceNida borrows the concept of the decoder‟s channel capacity from information theory to explain the acceptability of message by readers in both original communication and translation. And he proves that a dynamic equivalent translation fits the receptor‟s channel capacity so as to decode the translated text with ease and efficiency in his own cultural text.The term “dynamic”implies a scientific basis. The dynamic aspect is about a comparison of two relations, namely, “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”. Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader.When “dynamic equivalence”is replaced with “functional equivalence”in order to avoid misunderstandings about the term “dynamic”, Nida, having drawn upon the concept of isomorphs, further justifies “functional equivalence”. Isomorphs are an extension of the semiotic concept of “iconicity” or “matters of likeness”. Functional isomorphs are defined on the basis of the means for accomplishing essentially the same results within different systems.To sum up, “dynamic equivalence”/ “functional equivalence”is based on the principle of “equivalent effect”. What distinguished Nida‟s theory from other principle of equivalent effect was that it had a solid scientific basis, and Nida proved the legitimacy of his theory from insights coming from communication theory and sociosemiotics.4.2.3 The immediate concern of dynamic equivalenceNida further explained “dynamic equivalence”in a way that was directly relevant to Bible translating:It would be wrong to think, however, that the response of the receptors in the second language is merely in terms of comprehension of the information, forcommunication is not merely informative. It must also be expressive and imperative if it is to serve the principal purposes of communications such as those found in the Bible. That is to say, a translation of the Bible must not only provide information which people can understand but must present the message in such a way that people can feel its relevance and can then respond to it in action.4.3 Jin’s role in popularizing Nida’s theory4.3.1 Jin’s contribution to a better understanding of Nida’s theoryJin rightly commented on Nida‟s contribution to the principle of “equivalent effect”:The great contribution Eugene Nida made was to shift the focus the comparison texts, the source-language and the target-language texts, to a comparison of the two communication processes involved. As the message in a communication is carried by means of the text, the new method of comparison does not disregard the importance of the text, but the shift of focus implies the consideration of various linguistic and cultural complication that can affect the receptor s’perception of the message carried by the text.In Jin‟s view, Nida justified the principle of “equivalent effect”from the scientific perspective of information theory, and his “dynamic equivalence” solved the debate over literal translation and free translation among western translation scholars in the past two thousand years.In his writings on the principle of “equivalent effect”, Jin further elaborated on the three important concepts, namely, “receptor”, “effect”and “equivalence”in Nida‟s theory.The translator should take into consideration target readers in translating, for only keeping his readers in mind could he render the original text more satisfactorily into the receptor language.According to Jin, translation equivalence between two texts concerned was not a mechanical equivalence, but a comprehensive one, which required the translator to consider all the factors involved in translating. Translation equivalence was not word-for-word equivalence, but equivalence impacts upon the reader produced by a whole sentence or paragraph in any two languages concerned.He suggested that attempts should be made to narrow the differences so as to achieve the closest effect to the original text as much as possible.Jin‟s another contribution to Nida‟s theory is his attempt to put the theory of “equivalent effect” into his translation of Ylysses, and its success confirms that Nida‟s theory is applicable to literary translation between English and Chinese.4.3.2 Problems with some Jin’s views about Nida’s theoryFirst, Jin misinterprets Nida‟s “readers‟ response”.Second, he has a partial understanding of some aspects of “dynamic equivalence”/ “functional equivalence”.(1)Jin’s misinterpretation of the term “response” in Nida’s theoryThere are four translating procedures in Nida‟s theory, including (1) analysisof the source text, (2) transferring from source to target language, (3) restructuring in the target language, (4) testing the translated text with persons who represented the intended audience.According Nida, if “dynamic equivalence” was used as a translation criterion, the critic must take “readers‟ response” seriously. He explained:In the past most testing of a translation has been undertaken by assigning a bilingual person to compare the source and target texts and to determine the degree of correspondence. The problem with this approach is that the bilingual judge is probably already so familiar with the text and the type of contents that he can understand the text without too much trouble. An adequate evaluation of a translation can only be accomplished by testing the reaction of monolingual persons who are representative of the consistency for whom the translation has been made.It deserves to be mentioned that, in evaluating reader s‟ response to a translation, the critic was not to examine readers‟ response to the content of the original, but the “stylistically awkward, structurally burdensome, linguistically unnatural, and semantically misleading or incomprehensible” formal features.“Reader‟s response”in Nida‟s theory is really treated in a broad sense. Later on, when Nida replaced “dynamic equivalence”with “functional equivalence”, and redefined it at two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level, he avoided using the term “response”.(2) His misinterpretations concerning some aspects of dynamic equivalence/functional equivalenceIn Nida‟theory, a formal equivalent translation “permits the reader to identify himself as fully as possible with a person in the source-language context, and to understand as much as he can of the customs, manner of thought, and means of expression”.A dynamic equivalent translation “aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture; it does not insist that he understand the cultural pattern of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”.In accordance with the principle of “dynamic equivalence”, in order to produce a dynamic equivalent translation, the most important thing for the translator was not to keep the original words, but to communicate effectively the original meaning, so that readers in the receptor language could understand the translation without any difficulty.As a matter of fact, “dynamic equivalence”was not solely built upon Bible translating. The basic translation principles in Nida‟s theory were developed considerably before his work with the Bible translators. In his early years of graduate work and doctoral study at university, he had objected to strict literal translation, and preferred an intelligible and stylistically appropriate translation. Later on, he elaborated his views on translation with examples from Biblical translations. It is a fact that Nida‟s theory is intended to guide Bible translations, but this does not mean that it is determined by Bible translating and only confined to Bible translation.4.4 Difference between Jin’s theory and Nida’s theory4.4.1 Reader-oriented vs. Text-oriented“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target reader s, while Jin‟s theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text.“Dynamic equivalence”is defined in terms of readers’response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”.Jin‟s equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts”, “artistic imagery”of the original text. Nida‟s focus on reader s‟ response allows necessary linguistic adjustments.To Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse (such as “the Lamb of God”in the biblical text), the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it should be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language.4.4.2 Flexible vs. InflexibleNida‟s “dynamic equivalence”is more flexible than Jin‟theory of “equivalent effect”.A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin‟s equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation.In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida‟s dynamic equivalent translation. He said:The translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not word or content, but “receptors’response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”---the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers.In Jin‟s view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved.4.4.3 Ideal objective vs. realistic goalJin‟s translation objective is ideal while Nida‟s dynamic equivalence is far more than an ideal goal.Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it.He even summarized that “the theory of …equivalent effect‟was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice.Nida‟s attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence”/ “functional equivalence”were different from phase to phase.(1) In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basictranslation equivalences and did not point out which was better.Between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were “a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating”. There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations.A D-E translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was.If a D-E translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well.(2) In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed “dynamic equivalence”in opposition to “formal correspondence”. During this period, he suggested that “dynamic equivalence”was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas “formal correspondence” and “paraphrase” were bad translation.One can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translation designed primarily for two rather different purposes. It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there is more than one dynamic equivalent translation.(3)At phase three (1984- ), “functional equivalence” was divided into two levelsof equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level.The maximal level was an ideal. He claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was “rarely if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information”. So it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation.In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had “different degrees of adequacy”from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels.4.4.4 Reasons for the differences between Jin’s theory and Nida’s theroyThere are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin‟s theory and Nida‟s theory: (1) Jin‟s theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories. (2) Nida‟s theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.(1) Before Jin accepted Nida‟s theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of “accuracy and smoothness” as the standard of a good translation.The translator‟s objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it.After he had contact with Nida‟s theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should besubstantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message without any difficulty.After Jin advanced his own theory of “equivalent effect” in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of “accuracy and smoothness”. He held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve “accuracy and smoothness” at the same time. This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of “concrete facts” in his definition of equivalent effect translation.In 1990s, Jin‟s dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit", Jin put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effect translation, the translator should "make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of "faithfulness,expressiveness and spirit".(2) Another reason for the discrepancy between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is to about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.Jin Yuelin also states:" Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless,the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating".In Nida's theory ranslating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit in very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's Ulysses, he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".4.5 Comment on Jin's Chinese version of UlyssesIn spite of differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory, the two theories are essentially the same. In fact, their discrepancies are only a matter of degree rather than a matter of nature.As Jin stated in the translator's note to his Chinese version of Ulysses, his translation objective was "to reproduce the original text as faithfully as possible so that the effect of this Chinese version upon its readers was similar to that of the English text upon its readers".4.5.1 Successful representation of Stream of ConsciousnessUlysses challenges the translator, because Joyce has used extensively "stream of consciousness" throughout his novel, recording the multifarious thoughts and feeling of characters without regard to logical argument or narrative sequence.4.5.2 Successful representation of normal narrativesAlthough Ulysses is distinguished for its unique technique of stream of consciousness, Joyce never hesitates to adopt normal narratives to describe what his characters hear, see and feel.4.5.3 Problems in Jin's Chinese version of Ulysses(1)Some expressions in Jin's rendering are not idiomatic Chinese(2)In handling stream of consciousness, Jin sometimes tends to adhere too closely to the original, with the result that some of his renderings fail to achieve his objective of "equivalent effect".(3)Another major problem with Jin's version lies in his handling of allusions. Allusions are references to well-know persons, things, or events. A writer usually employs allusions on the assumption that his readers share with him a common historical, cultural and literary heritage. When translating allusions, the translator has to face the fact that common readers in the target language may not be familiar with the allusions in another language and culture.Most allusions are not satisfactorily rendered in his version.In short, there are three major problems with Jin's version: (1) less idiomatic language expressions and comparatively awkward styly in some passages, (2) failure to make implicit information explicit in handling some passages of stream of consciousness, (3) literal rendering of most allusion.I think if Jin takes into full consideration average Chinese readers, or follows Nida's "dynamic equivalence" throughout his translating, these problem could have been easily solved.4.5.4 Implications of Jin's translation practice for the applicability of Nida's theory to literary translationJin says that there are three kinds of loyalty in translating:(1)The first is the loyalty to the original text, where the translator adheres closely to the word and sentence structure of the original text and is willing to sacrifice the artistic qualities of the target language for this objective.(2) The second is the loyalty to the target language, where the translator seeks to produce an artistically satisfying text in the target language in accordance with his own artistic standard regardless of the content in the original text.(3) The third is the loyalty to both the writer and the reader, which he upholds.However, sometimes Jin tends to be loyal to the writer and the text, and forgets his intended readers. The unsteadiness in Jin's translation is due to the following factors: 1) Jin does not take into full consideration the average Chinese reader throughout his translation of Ulysses, 2) He has wrongly estimated the intended reader of his version.If Jin follows Nida's theory throughout his translating, he will pay more attention to the acceptability of his readers.If Jin takes a more liberal attitude towards the reproduction of cultural-specific elements in handling allusions and avoids some "translationese" expression, I believe he will more satisfactorily attain his translation objective of "equivalent effect" in his work.Jin's translation of Ulysses convinces us that Nida's theory is applicable to literary translation between Chinese and English though it has some limitations about how to represent the aesthetic values of the original text into another language.。
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
(1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
Chapter4 Word formation(II)
Verb compounds
Verb compounds are not as common as the other two classes.through conversion or backformation N+V: to brainwash, to housekeep,to moonwalk V+V: to dive bomb, to drop kick Adj+V: t dry clean, to safeguard, to sweet talk Adv+V: to overdo, to out-distance,to uplift, to uphold, to outtake, to outsmart
4.1.2Suffixation
Definition and its major feature Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. A suffix is a letter of a group of letters placed at the ending of a word to change its class or function. Suffixes can be classified into groups on a grammatical basis.
Table: the most productive suffixes to know Noun suffixes:-eer,-er,-ette,-let,-ster,-dom,-ery, -hood,ing,-ism,-ship, -ant,-al, -ance,-ation, -ence,-ment,-ity,ness,-ist, -ite,-an, -ese,-ure,or,-cy,-y Adjective suffixes:-ed,-ant,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y,-al,esque,-ic,-ous,-able,-ative,-ive,-ise Verb suffixes;-ate,-en,-ify,-ize,-ise Adverv suffixes:-ly,-ward(s),-wise
Microsoft Word 2013 使用指南说明书
▶ You can change the font and font size and add emphasis to text, but use caution not to apply too many different formats to your text. This can be distracting to the reader.
Microsoft Word is used often to write business letters and memos. You can quickly type, edit, and format text. Because business communication documents should be free of mistakes, spelling and grammar errors are flagged as you type. Most businesses apply a standard business letter format to all letters coming from the organization.
▶ To see where paragraphs begin and end, it is helpful to display formatting marks— characters that display in your document to represent nonprinting characters such as paragraphs, spaces, and tabs.
爱尔兰戏剧《翻译》英译汉翻译报告
摘要本文是一篇关于关于将爱尔兰戏剧《翻译》汉译成适合广大中国读者阅读的中文译本的翻译实践报告。
在当前英国脱欧的历史背景下，爱尔兰和北爱尔兰的边境问题成为当下国际社会密切关注的一个时事热点。
而爱尔兰戏剧《翻译》讲述了19世纪80年代一批英国皇家工程兵受英国政府派遣，在多尼戈尔郡的一个爱尔兰语社区进行地貌测绘，并将爱尔兰语地名全部翻译为英语地名的殖民史实。
通过阅读《翻译》，读者可以了解到爱尔兰19世纪的这段被大英帝国殖民统治的历史，有助于理解当前英国脱欧背景下爱尔兰热点问题的历史缘由。
在翻译剧本《翻译》之前，译者做了译前准备工作，针对剧本中的理解难点进行了分析，通过查询有关文献，发现剧本中影响译者和读者理解的很多词汇都属于文化专有项的范畴。
译者根据艾克西拉和诺德关于文化专有项的定义以及纽马克关于文化专有项的分类方法对戏剧《翻译》里出现的文化专有项进行了归类,将戏剧中出现的文化专有项分为三大类别，即地理生态，物质文化和组织机构。
然后根据戴维斯提出的七种翻译策略，以举例分析的方式阐述了译者如何利用这七种策略进行翻译实践。
接着通过举例分析了戏剧《翻译》中三大类别的文化专有项的翻译思路及其对应翻译策略。
综上所述，本文从文化专有项的翻译策略和思路来分析了爱尔兰戏剧《翻译》的翻译过程，为后面的译者在戏剧翻译方面提供了一种参考方法。
关键词：《翻译》；爱尔兰戏剧；布莱恩·弗里尔；文化专有项；AbstractThis is a translation report on the English-Chinese translation of the Irish drama Translations, which analyzes how the translator translated this drama into a target text in simplified Chinese that is readable for ordinary Chinese readers. In the context of Brexit, the Ireland border issue is currently an international hot topic that has attracted attention across the globe. The Irish drama Translations tells about h er Majestey‘s Government sending a group of royal engineers to County Donegal in Ireland to carry out the ordnance survey of this area and change all the geographic names of this county into anglicized and standardized versions in the 1880s. (Qi Yaping 2010:119) By reading Translations, readers can gain an overview on Britain‘s colonization of Ireland i n this period, which helps them understand the historical causes of the Ireland border issues.Before starting the translation task, the author made many pre-translation preparations. By studying the source text, the author found most of the unreadable terms belong to Culture-specific Items. Based on the definition of Culture-specific Items by Aixelá and Nord, as well as the classification method by Newmark, the author classified the Culture-specific Items in Translations into three main categories, ecology, material culture and organizations. By studying the seven translation methods proposed by Davies, the author analyzed each translation strategy through case studies. Then the author analyzed the translation of the three categories of Culture-specific Items in drama Translations and relevant translation strategies employed. Above all, the author of this report explored the translation of Irish drama Translations from the perspective of Culture-specific Items, which could provide later translators a reference on drama translation.Keywords：Translations; Ireland Drama; Brian Friel; Culture-specific Items;CONTENTSCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION (1)1.1 Brief Introduction to the Translation Task (1)1.2 Target Readers and Requirements of the Client (2)1.2.1 The Target Readers (2)1.2.2 Requirements Proposed by the Client (2)1.3 Purpose and Significance of the Translation Task (3)CHAPTER TWO PRE-TRANSLATION (4)2.1 Convert Format of the Source Text (4)2.2 Analysis of the Source Text (7)2.2.1 Historical Background of the Drama Translations (7)2.2.2 Plot and Characters of the Drama Translations (7)2.2.3 Lexical Features of the Source Text (9)2.2.4 Syntactical Features of the Source Text (10)2.3 Culture-specific Items and Their Translation Strategies (11)2.3.1 Definition of the Culture-specific Items (12)2.3.2 Division of Culture-specific Items (13)2.3.3 Translation Strategies and Methods (14)CHAPTER THREE THE TRANSLATION PROCESS (22)3.1 Translation of the Culture-specific Items on Ecology (22)3.2 Translation of the Culture-specific Items on Material Culture (23)3.3 Translation of the Culture-specific Items on Organizations Terms (25)3.3.1 Translation of Religious terms (25)3.3.2 Translation of Administrative Terms (26)3.4 Summary (27)CAPTER FOUR POST-TRANSLATION (28)CONCLUSION (29)BIBLIOGRAPHY (30)ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (33)Appendix (34)CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION1.1 Brief Introduction to the Translation TaskSince the late 19th century, Irish drama has played an important role in modern theatre literature in the transmission of ideas and ideology. In the 1960s, the famous Irish playwright Brian Friel emerged with his well-known Field Day Theatre Company. Both audience and critics rapidly acknowledged his dramas. Among his acclaimed dramas, Translations is a typical drama that focuses on language and communication, with its theme concerning the relationship between language, identity, politics, history and religion. (Castro, 2013) In order to introduce this drama to Chinese readers, Professor Li Chenjian entrusted the translation task of Translations to author of the report in 2016. Translating this drama from English to Chinese is an attempt to bring Chinese readers a new vision of Irish society in the 19th century. It is also the first time this drama has been translated into Chinese.To complete this translation project, the author of this report needs to complete the following tasks:1) convert the source text from pictures of JPG format into a whole WORD document;2) edit the converted source text to prepare it for translating;3) explore the historical background and playwright‘s creat ion ideas of this drama;4) pre-read the whole text to get an overview of the language features as well as difficult sentences;5) upload the prepared source text to the online translation software Jeemaa and completing the translation process;6) review and revise the translated target text in the online database;7) export the first draft of the translation;8) add footnotes to some difficult words and sentences;9) discuss with Professor Li about the words and sentences that need to be revised;10) revise the target text according to the discussion and read through the revised text to finalize the translation.1.2 Target Readers and Requirements of the ClientBefore starting this translation task, the report author carefully studied the requirements of Professor Li as well as the target readers and previewed the source text of the translation task in order to select proper translation strategies and translation methods accordingly.1.2.1 The Target ReadersAccording to Professor Li, the target readers are general Chinese readers who are interested in theatre literature but tend to, or can only, read Chinese books. As there is no plan to stage this drama in China so far, the performability of the target text is not considered here. That is, the actors or performers of this drama are not included in the target readers. This decides the purpose of the translation task, which is to provide the ordinary Chinese readers an Ireland drama in Chinese for reading. Therefore, this translation purpose helps to select proper translation methods accordingly.Based on our current education syllabus, ordinary readers who have completed their high school education could have the ability to appreciate a drama, either on stage or on the page. However, not everyone who completed high school education is familiar with Irish History or Culture. To provide readers an accessible translation, footnotes should be added to some Culture-specific Items in the target text.1.2.2 Requirements Proposed by the ClientTo achieve a better translation of this drama, Professor Li has proposed some requirements for the target text. The requirements are as follows:1）The source text should be the authoritative version of Translations as given in theformat of JPG.2）The layout of the target text should be consistent with that of the source text.3）The language of the target texts shall be plain and simple Chinese.4）The target text should be suitable for reading rather than staging.5）Footnotes should be added to some Culture-loaded words or sentences.6）The finalized version of this translation task should be ready for printing.1.3 Purpose and Significance of the Translation TaskAccording to the demands of the target readers and the translation requirements by Professor Li, the purpose of this task is to provide the Chinese readers a Chinese version of the Ireland drama Translations.By reading Translations, the Chinese readers can gain an overview of Irish society in the 19th century. As the target text language is plain and smooth simple Chinese, general readers can read it as either a literary story or a historical legend. In the context of Brexit, reading this drama can also provide readers a historical view for the current Ireland border issues.On the other hand, the target text of this drama can also provide other translators with a reference for drama translation. During the translation process, the translator has made great efforts to translate the Culture-specific items in the source text. Davies‘ translation strategies are employed to make the translation more accurate and readable. This kind of target reader-oriented translation is also a good example for similar drama translation in the future.Besides, the author also learnt a lot on the translation strategies of drama translation during the translation process of this drama, as well as the connection between translation and culture studies, which is worth a further study.CHAPTER TWO PRE-TRANSLATIONAs mentioned before, this is the first time this drama has been translated into Chinese. Neither print nor electronic versions of this drama can be obtained in China. The source text provided by the client are pictures of the original drama in JPEG format. To start this translation task, several steps are required, including transforming the source text of Translations into an editable WORD document from these JPG format pictures, analyze the source text and select proper translation strategies and methods.2.1 Convert Format of the Source TextThe original source text is a file of pictures of the Translations in the JPG format. Just as shown in Fig. 2.1 a), it is non-editable. Therefore, the pictures should be converted into an editable WORD document first. A software named ABBYY was applied here.Fig. 2.1 a) one picture of the Translations in the JPG format After converting, the words in the pictures were kept in a WORD document. Then the WORD document was exported from the ABBYY. But the layout of the exported text was not the same as the original copy. There were mistakes in spelling, extra punctuation marks andsentences with missing words, as is shown in Fig. 2.1 b).Fig. 2.1 b) exported text in the WORD documentThe next step is to edit the exported text, correct spelling mistakes and add missing words according to the original pictures of the drama text. After that, the format of the revised text should also be reset to make it consistent with that of the source text. Then the text is ready for translation. As is shown in Fig.2.1 c), the layout of source text is now the same as it is in the original book.Fig. 2.1 c) reset source text that is ready for translation During the pre-processing of the source text, all the editing and typing should be carefully carried out according to the JPG format pictures. When it is completed, the first copy of this processed source text should also be checked sentence by sentence according to the original copy for several times to ensure it is accurate. After several proof readings untilalmost no mistake can be tracked, the source text is ready for translation. The next step is analyzing the source text.2.2 Analysis of the Source TextAs one of Brian Friel‘s representative dramatic works, Translations tells a story that happened in Baile Beag in County Donegal in Ireland in August 1833, which is based on actual historical events. To prepare for the translation task, an analysis of this drama is conducted on its historical background, plot and characters as well as its language features.2.2.1 Historical Background of the Drama TranslationsIn 1824, the British Parliament produced the first Ordnance Survey map of Ireland, which was intended to map and replace every Gaelic name by a translated English equivalent, or a comparable-sounding one in English. At the same time, the educational system in Ireland began a significant transformation. Gradually, all local Irish-speaking schools (the hedge schools) were replaced with national schools where English became the only language of instruction. Through this reform, the British clearly aimed to anglicize, or possibly even ―civilize‖ the Irish population. They also had more practical purposes, of course: taxation, penetration, and ultimately, domination (Reinares & Barberan, 2007:9)2.2.2 Plot and Characters of the Drama TranslationsBefore introducing the plot, profiles of the main characters are listed as follows according to their introduction in the drama. The introduction of the characters helps the reader to gain a quicker and better understanding of the drama plot. Therefore, this part should also be added to the target text as a reference.2.2.2.1 Introductions of the Main CharactersName IntroductionHugh The headmaster of a small hedge school housed in an old barn. He frequently drinks a large amount, but he is by no means drunk. (Brian Friel, 1996: 397) He isa consummate Irish storyteller and educator. He appears egocentric, but isabsolutely charming and astute.Manus Hugh‘s older son, Manus serves as his father‘s unpaid assistant at the hedge school, though he frequently takes the class because of his father‘s drinkinghabits. He is searching for a headmaster position of his own.Owen Hugh‘s younger son. He is now working in the English Army, as a part-time, underpaid, civilian interpreter. His job is to ―translate the quaint, archaic tongueyou people persist in speaking into the King‘s good English‖. (Brian Friel, 1996:404)Maire Manus‘s fiancée, a strong-minded and adventurous woman. (Brian Friel, 1996: 387) She wants to learn English. She is also heroine of the love triangle Manusand is involved in a romantic relationship with Manus and the Lieutenant.Lieutenant Yolland A British soldier working with Owen on the renaming of the Donegal countryside for the Ordnance Survey. Though he does not speak Gaelic, he is fascinated with the Irish countryside and fantasizes about settling down in Baile Beag. His disappearance at the end of this drama brings the drama to a climax.Captain Lancey Lieutenant Yolland‘s commanding officer. Lancey is the British captain leading the local Ordnance Survey efforts.Sarah A student in the hedge school, she has such a serious speech defect that she is considered dumb. (Brian Friel, 1996: 383) Only Manus sees her potential andteaches her slowly, painstakingly, to speak. She lives with an intensity borne ofthe need and inability to communicate.Jimmy Jack Known as the ―Infant Prodigy,‖ Jimmy Jack is a perpetual bachelor in his sixties.He lives in one set of clothes and rarely washes. Eccentric and benignly mad, heis fluent in Greek and Latin. He lives alone and comes to evening classes at thehedge school partly for the company, and partly for the intellectual stimulation.(Brian Friel, 1996: 383)Doalty An open-minded, open-hearted, generous and slightly thick young man. (Brian Friel, 1996: 389-390)Bridget A fresh young girl, ready to laugh, vain, and with a country woman‘s instinctive cunning. (Brian Friel, 1996: 390)Table 2.2.1 Main characters2.2.2.2 Plot of the TranslationsThe drama Translations was set in a hedge-school in the small town of Baile Beag, an Irish speaking community in County Donegal in the summer of 1833. Hugh O'Donnell was the headmaster of a hedge school, a kind of rural school in Ireland that provides basiceducation to farm families. Manus, Hugh's older son, helped his father to teach in the hedge-school. Hugh insisted on teaching in Irish, even though he knew that their language Gaelic would inevitably be replaced by English. Owen was Hugh‘s younger son, who came back to the town with the Royal Engineers, Captain Lancey and Lieutenant Yolland, who were sent to Baile Beag by the government to remap the Irish countryside and change place names into anglicized and standardized versions. One of the engineers, Lieutenant Yolland was then captivated by Irish culture and believes the work they were doing was an act of destruction. Besides this, a love triangle developed among Manus, Yolland and Maire, a strong-minded and adventurous woman in the village. Yolland disappeared mysteriously, and Manus left town, broken-hearted. Owen realized he must remain true to his roots and decided to join the Irish resistance. The drama ended ambiguously, with no solution to the stories, which keeps readers and audience in suspense.The plot of Translations revolves around two main events. First, the arrival of a platoon of Royal Engineers, Lancey and Yolland in Baile Beag. Second, the imminent abolition of the local hedge school, which was run by the schoolmaster Hugh; and its substitution with the new state-run national school and, consequently, the substitution of Irish for English as the teaching language of the Irish speaking community. (Randaccio 2013:115)2.2.3 Lexical Features of the Source TextAs analyzed by the translator before starting the translation task, the most unique lexical feature of the drama Translations is it contains many Gaelic words which are not easy to understand even for English-speakers, such as, poteen (爱尔兰玻丁酒), aqua vitae (―生命之水‖蒸馏酒) and aul fella (老朋友). Besides, there are also many Greek and Latin words and sentences in the drama. As their relevant English translation has been given in the Appendix of the source text, these languages are not going to be discussed here.Besides, there are also many slangs that use some simple words but difficult to understand, such as the preposit ion ‗off‘ from the following sentences.MAIRE：Honest to God, I must be going off my head. I‘m half-way here and I think to myself, ‗Isn‘t this can very light?‘ and I look into it and isn‘t it empty.（梅尔：天哪，我一定是疯了。