Analyzing Classroom Discourse A variable approach
《语篇分析》教学大纲
《语篇分析》教学大纲课程名称：语篇分析授课教师：丁言仁教学对象：语言学方向（含翻译学方向）学生教学时间：春季学期课程类型：专业选修总学时：36学分：2教学目的：1）介绍关于英语语篇和语篇分析的基本概念、基本方法以及主要流派；2）培养学生分析英语本族语者文本和中国学生英语文本的结构、连贯和衔接以及其中存在的问题；3）提高学生组织口语和书面语文本的水平以及他们教授英语口语和写作的能力。
教学形式及要求：课堂讲课、讨论、学生报告、评议教学安排：Week 1: Discourse and SituationWeek 2: Organization of TextWeek 3: The Underlying OrganizationWeek 4: Functions of a ClauseWeek 5: Reference (1)Week 6: Reference (2)Week 7: Substitution (1)Week 8: Substitution (2)Week 9: EllipsisWeek 10: Conjunction (1)Week 11: Conjunction (2)Week 12: Lexical CohesionWeek 13: Discourse CoherenceWeek 14: Project Work: Analyzing Actual DiscourseWeek 15: Project Work: ReadingWeek 16-18: Project Presentation考核方法:出勤及课堂参与(10%) + 作业(10%) + 课程论文(40% + 40%)教材:丁言仁，2001，语篇分析，南京：南京师范大学出版社。
CDA三种方法
Critical Discourse AnalysisAn introduction to major approachesMoslem AhmadvandUniversity of Zanjan- Abstract -Meaning is not a monolithic construct; it is a multidimensional and slippery concept with amazing complexity. Understanding the silent meaning of a text, be it spoken or written is a highly-needed skill in the modern era, for the exposure to information and media is so vast that one can never be sure of the validity of the surrounding information. Critical Discourse Analysis along with other related disciplines attempts to reveal hidden meanings, that is, the ideological loads of the discourse. This paper tries to review the origins of CDA and introduces some of the influential theoretical schools on it. Although these approaches differ in terms of the theoretical foundations and analytic tools, they share three concepts of critique, power, and ideology. This article emphasizes two major points. One is the dialectic relation between society, culture, politics, and language that this complex relation requires multidisciplinary research. The other is the fact that CDA cannot be taken as theory due to its tendency to adopt an eclectic approach in the analysis of the data.Keywords: Critical Discourse Analysis, Critical Linguistics, Ideology, Text, Power.1.IntroductionEffective discriminative reading is of paramount momentousness in the modern era due to the prevalence of media and enormous exposure to information. Ironically, people and even scholars have turned a blind eye to the intricacies and nuances of discourse production and comprehension. This is due to the fact that language users often do not develop a full competence in the semantic component of the language. Invariably, people are heedless to and unenlightened about the implications of the shades of meanings whilst they are producing discourse or are exposed to it.The concepts of discourse, genre, and style are intimately connected with each other. They are dealing with the macro and micro levels of sociological and linguistic studies. There is a dialectic relationship between social actors or individuals (micro structure) and the social practices and values (macro structure). In this background, a multiplicity of texts is in close interaction with social parameters to bring about different ideological, identities and power structures. In this respect, the voice given to the macro structures, i.e. government and institutions or the micro structures i.e. individuals is immensely affected by the theorists’ ideological orientations.Critical Discourse Analysis (henceforth CDA) “is the uncovering of implicit ideologies in texts. It unveils the underlying ideological prejudices and therefore the exercise of power in texts” (Widdoson, 2000). This research enterprise attempts to critically analyze the relationship between language, ideology, and society. As Teun Van Dijk (1993) puts it, “critical discourse analysts want to understand, expose, and resist social inequality.”The roots of CDA are in critical theory which is inextricably tied up with Frankfurt School of Social Research. “Critical theory is defined as a research perspective, which has basically a critical attitude towards society” (Langer, 1998, p.3). More specifically, it is used to refer to “any theory concerned with critique of ideology and the effects of domination” (Fairclough, 1995, p.20). In the 1970s a group of linguists and literary theorists at the University of East Anglia developed the idea of critical linguistics. Their approach was based on M.A.K Halliday’s Systemic functional linguistics (SFL). This branch of grammar stresses the importance of social context (the context of culture and context of situation) in the production and development of language. In addition, functional linguistics, unlike many branches of linguistics, has always been concerned not only with words and sentences, but also with longer texts and collection of texts (corpora) above the level of the sentence. The foundations of CDA have been laid by critical linguists and theorist, and since the 1980s –thanks to the works of the British sociolinguist Norman Fairclough – has gained a lot of attention. Fairclough (1995) defines CDA as follows:By critical discourse analysis I mean discourse analysis which aims tosystematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and determinationbetween (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider social andcultural structures, relations and processes; to investigate how such practices,events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of powerand struggles over power; and to explore how the opacity of these relationshipsbetween discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and hegemony.(pp. 132-3)In recent years professionals from a variety of backgrounds have become interested in discourse issues. Historians, business institutions, lawyers, politicians and medical professionals to name but a few, have used discourse analysis to investigate social problems relating to their work. Van Dijk (1993), who prefers the term Critical Discourse Studies (CDS) for this reason, described it as “a new cross-discipline that comprises the analysis of the text and talk in virtually all disciplines of the humanities and social sciences.”This paper will introduce different approaches and schools to CDA and will discuss their similarities and differences. These approaches differ in terms of theoretical foundations and the tools they use to analyze discourse, but the concepts of ideology, critique, and power are present in all of them. In addition, it will accentuate the interdisciplinary nature of CDA and showing the dialectic relationship between language, culture, society, and politics.2.Approaches to CDAIn spite of the fact that all the approaches to CDA have the notions of ideology, Critique, and power in common, they could be classified into three major ones with respect to the differences in their theoretical foundations and analyzing tools.2.1.Norman Fairclough: Discourse as Social PracticeThe British sociolinguist, Norman Fairclough is one of the key figures in the realm of CDA. In his vantage-point CDA is a method for examining social and cultural modifications that could be employed in protesting against the power and control of an elite group on other people. Fairclough believes that our language, which shapes our social identities andinteractions, knowledge systems, and beliefs, is also shaped by them in turn. Like Kress and Van Leeuwen, he bases his analyses on Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar. In Language and Power (1989), he calls his approach Critical Language Study, and considers the first aim of his approach as helping to correct the vast negligence in relation to the significance of language in creating, maintaining and changing the social relations of power. This first goal tends to be the theoretical part of Fairclough’s approach. The second one which is helping to raise awareness to the question that how language can influence the dominance of one group of people over the others could be considered as the practical aspect of his approach. He believes that awareness is the first step towards emancipation. To reach the latter goal Fairclough has put a great emphasis on raising the level of people’s consciousness, for he assumes that in discourse, the subjects do not, strictly speaking, know what they are doing, and they are unaware of the potential social impact of what they do or utter.2.1.1.Text and DiscourseFairclough considers language as a form of social practice. This way of thinking implies some other notions. First, language is a part of the society and not somehow external to it. Second, language is a social process. Third, language is a socially conditioned process, conditioned that is by other (non-linguistic) parts of society (Fairclough, 1989, 22). The remarkable point in Fairclough’s view is that all linguistic phenomena are social, but it is not true the other way round. For instance, when we are talking about the political words such as democracy, imperialism, or terrorism we use linguistic elements, but this is only part of the whole politics. Therefore the relationship between language and society does not observe a one to one correspondence; rather, the society is the whole and language is a part of it.The second implied notion – i.e. language is a social process – is meaningful only when we take discourse as different from text, like Fairclough. Fairclough’s notion of text is exactly the same as Halliday’s, and this term covers both written discourse and spoken discourse. For him text is a product, not a process. Fairclough employs the term discourse to refer to the complete process of social interaction. Text is merely a sector of this process, because he considers three elements for discourse, namely text, interaction, and social context. In addition to text itself, the process of social interaction involves the process of text production and text interpretation. Hence, text analysis is a part of discourse analysis.Figure 1. Discourse as text, interaction and context. (Fairclough 1989, P. 25)In comparison to the three aspects of discourse (shown in figure 1.), Fairclough (1989, pp. 26-27) identifies three dimensions for CDA:•Description is the stage which is concerned with formal properties of the text.•Interpretation is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction by seeing the text as the product of the process of production and as a resource in theprocess of interpretation.•Explanation is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context, with the social determination of the process of production and interpretation, and their social effects.In all these stages we are concerned with analysis, but the nature of it is different in each stage. Analysis in the first stage limits its boundaries to labeling the formal properties if the text and regards text as an object. In the second phase, CDA goes through the analysis of the cognitive process of the participants and their interactions. Finally in the third stage, the aim is to explain the relationship between social events and social structures that affect these events and also are affected by them.2.1.2.Ideology and PowerThe roots of the first goal of Fairclough’s critical language study can be traced to his expertise and background in sociolinguistics. Fairclough believes that in sociolinguistics – the study of language in the social context – one can propound ideas about language and power;for instance, in the discussions of standard and non-standard dialects, there is clear-cut evidence that the dialect of the powerful group will gain the reputation of the standard one. By the same token, there are studies that pay attention to the ways in which power is exercised in the people’s conversations. All of these studies are concerned with the description of power distribution in terms of sociolinguistic conventions; however, they cannot explain these conventions. Explaining how the relations of power are shaped and the struggle on how power is shaped, does not fall in the realm of sociolinguistics. In his approach, Fairclough endeavors to explain these conventions; conventions which are the upshots of the relations of power and the struggles on them. He accentuates the presuppositions of a common sense present in the interlocutions among people that they are usually blind to their existence. These presuppositions are the very ideology that has a close relationship with power; for these ideological presuppositions exist in the social conventions and the nature of the conventions depend on the power relations that cover them.The relationship between common sense and ideology was introduced by the Italian Marxist, Antonio Gramsci. He refers to “‘a form of practical activity’ in which ‘a philosophy is contained as an implicit theoretical premiss’ and ‘a conception of the world that is implicitly manifest in art, in law, in economic activity and in all manifestations of individuals and collective life’” (Antonio Gramsci, 1971, cited in Fairclough, 1989, p.84). This form of practical activity is the ideology which exists in the background and is usually taken for granted. Fairclough assumes an ideological nature for the common sense, to some extent, and believes that this is the common sense which is ideological in order to be at the disposal of the survival of the unequal relations of power and to be a justification for it.Fairclough takes a rather traditional approach towards power, and does not agree with Foucault. From Fairclough’s (1995, p.17) point of view, Foucault considers power as a pervasive force and symmetrical relations that is dominant over the whole society and is not in the hands of one special group or another; whereas in Fairclough’s thinking, the relations of power are asymmetrical, unequal, and empowering that belong to a special class or group.2.1.3.Naturalization and Neutralization in DiscourseIf a type of discourse is dominant over an institution in such a way that other types of discourse are totally oppressed or become a part of that discourse, this issue will not make the discourse seem an autocratic one; rather it will cease to be seen as natural and legitimate. Fairclough, like other critical discourse analysts, calls this phenomenon naturalization. Naturalization has a relation with the ideological common sense, in the sense that by thenaturalization of the discourse, its ideology will change into the ideological common sense. In the process of naturalization and creation of the common sense, the type of discourse appears to lose its ideological character and tends to become merely the discourse of the institution itself instead of looking as the discourse of a special class or group within that institution. In this way, the struggle on power seems to be neutral, and being neutral means being out of ideology, that is to say, having no ideological load. The fact that discourse loses its ideological load, paradoxically, will make a fundamental ideological effect: “Ideology works through disguising its nature, pretending to be what it is not” (Fairclough, 1989, p.92). Now, as long as linguists insist only on the formal aspects of language, they foster the development of this ideological effect. Thus, naturalization occurs in this way and people can hardly, if ever, understand that their routine and usual behaviors makes ideological effects on the society.2.2.Teun Van Dijk: A Socio-cognitive ModelTeun Van Dijk is one of the leading figures and pioneers of study and research in domain of CDA. Most of his critical works are concerned with prejudice and racism in discourse. In his early works, he has considered the problem that how Netherlander and Californian Caucasians talk about ethnic minorities, and what role do these conversations play in the reproduction of ideology. In fact, analysis of the topics that people talk about represents the things that exist in their minds. In Van Dijk’s viewpoint, those things are mental and personal tenets about ethnic events. He believes that the major premise in talking about others includes positive self-representation and negative other-representation.In doing CDA, Van Dijk offers some practical principles and guidelines and asserts that he has no special school or approach. He does not consider CDA as a branch of discourse analysis, like conversation analysis or psycho-discourse analysis; for this reason he suggests researchers to look at the CDA as an interdisciplinary, and take an eclectic approach towards it using the findings of other cultures, countries, and other humanities disciplines. On the basis of his interdisciplinary attitude towards the field he labels his methodology as socio-cognitive discourse analysis and states that despite his reluctance to labeling, this label shows to what extent studying cognition is significant in CDA, communication, and interaction. However, this does not mean that CDA should confine its limits to cognitive and social analysis; rather, due to the real world problems, its complexities and people’s needs CDA should have historical, cultural, socio-economical, philosophical, logical, and neurological approaches as well.2.2.1.Discourse, Cognition, and SocietyVan Dijk believes that there is not direct relationship between social structures and discourse structures and almost always they are connected to each other through personal and social cognition. This cognition is the lost segment of many critical linguistic studies and critical discourse analysis; therefore he offers the triangle of society, cognition, and discourse. Though Van Dijk puts a great emphasis on cognition, he believes that since the nature of discourse is lingual, CDA needs merely linguistic foundations as well as cognitive foundations.In Van Dijk’s triangle, in a broad sense, discourse is a communicative event that includes oral interactions, written text, body movements, pictures, and other semiotic signifiers. Cognition here refers to personal and social cognition, beliefs, goals, values, emotions, and other mental structures. Society includes both local micro structures and political, social and universal macro structures which are defined in terms of groups and their relationships such as dominance and inequality. In defining the context of discourse in this triangle social and cognitive dimensions are deemed. In fact, context is of two types, micro and macro. Macro context refers to historical, cultural, political, and social structure in which a communicative event occurs, whereas micro context shows the features of the immediate situation and interaction in which a communicative event occurs.Van Dijk defines micro context based on the concept of cognition and considers it as a form of a mental model of a communicative situation and calls it a context model. Context models are mental representations that control many of the features of text production and comprehension such as genre, choice of topic, and cohesion on one hand, and speech act, style, and imagery on the other. These models exist in people’s long term memory; the part of memory in which people save their knowledge and view about the events they experience. In fact, there is no direct relationship between society and discourse and these models explain how discourse indicates the social and personal features in itself, and how in a certain social situation discourse could be different. In other words, devoid of these mental models, it cannot be explained and described that how social structures affect discourse, and get affected in turn.2.2.2.The notion of critiqueFrom Van Dijk’s viewpoint, in contrary to other discourse analysts, critical discourse analysts must have a clear socio-political position; they ought to explain their viewpoints, principles, and goals. Of course, in all the stages of shaping the theory and the analysis, theirwork is political and their criticisms of discourse will involve political criticism of those who are responsible for the reproduction of ascendency and social inequalities; elite groups who are in power; those who ordain social inequalities and injustice, continue and legitimize them. The ultimate goal of critical discourse analysts is to help the deprived part of the society, the issues that threaten these people’s lives, not small issues relating to discourse structures. Critical discourse analysts’ criticisms should not be temporary or personal. In other words, CDA goes beyond here and now, and attempts to study the roots of fundamental social problems. CDA’s criteria, as acknowledged by Fairclough, too, is not merely observational, descriptive or even explanatory, rather CDA’s prosperity is evaluated in terms of the influence that it has on the macro structure of the society and the role that it plays in the line of changing, amending, and removing social inequalities. Van Dijk believes that CDA does not reject having a special direction, and specifies its social and political direction clearly and articulately and is proud of having such a direction.2.3.Ruth Wodak: Sociological and historical approach to CDARuth Wodak and his colleagues at Vienna University have chosen to work within the sociological model for their CDA studies. This model is based upon Bernstein’s tradition in sociolinguistics and Frankfurt School, especially Jurgen Habermas. Based on this model, Wodak has had some studies on the institutional relations and discourse barriers in courtrooms, school, and hospitals. Recently he has started to work on sexism, anti-Semitism, and racism. In fact, the major goal of him and his colleagues is to put research into practice. They have offered guidelines to avoid using sexist language and some other guidelines for appropriate patient-doctor communication. Anti-Semitism studies after the Second World War, made Wodak and his colleagues to chose “historical approach” to CDA. The distinctive feature of this approach is that it attempts to use all the background information in analyzing different layers of a spoken or written text.Wodak (2001b: PP. 69-70) has put forward some features for the historical approach to CDA as follows:1.This approach is interdisciplinary. Like other critical linguists, Wodakacknowledges the intricacy of the relationship between language and society. As aresult he believes that CDA is interdisciplinary in nature.2.This interdisciplinary nature could be seen both in theory and practice. Hecombines argumentation theory and rhetoric with Halliday’s FunctionalLinguistics.3.This approach is problem-oriented rather than emphasizing some special languageissues.4.Methodology and theory are chosen through eclecticism.5.In this approach the analyst is always on the move between theory and empiricaldate.6.Historical context will go under investigation and will be incorporated into theanalysis of discourse and texts.2.3.1.Discourse and TextWodak believes that historical approach to discourse considers written and spoken language as form of social behavior. Like Fairclough, Wodak acknowledges the dialectic relationship between discourse acts and special areas of action (situations, institutional frameworks, and social structures). In other words, discourse as a social act creates discourse and non-discourse behaviors and in turn is created by them. Wodak distinguishes between discourse and text. He considers discourse as a complex set of synchronic and coherent linguistic acts that emanate in genre and text. Consequently text is seen as the production of these linguistic acts.3.ConclusionOne could say that in spite of the differences which exist in major approaches to CDA, all of these approaches pursue one common goal that is representing the dialectic relationship between language, power, ideology, and the influential role that language plays in emanation of power and legitimizing social inequalities. For as it was shown the dominant ideology, as a result of excessive use, will be presupposed and it becomes natural and neutral. Therefore, critical discourse analysts are giving a serious effort to clarify and denaturalize the hidden power relations, ideological processes that exist in linguistic text. They attempt to awaken the unconscious of those people who contribute to the establishment and legitimization of ideology through their ignorance.From CDA vantage-point, language does not possess power per se. It takes its power from the powerful people who make use of it. This is the very reason that why, in a majority of cases, critical linguists pick the view of deprived people and set out to analyze languageCritical Discourse Analysis11 critically, because those who are in power are responsible of the social inequalities. Power does not derive from language; rather language is used to fight against power.ReferencesFairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London: Longman.Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. London: Polity Press.Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis. London: Longman.Van Dijk, T. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse and Society, 4, 249-283.Van Dijk, T. (2006). Discourse and manipulation. Discourse and Society, 17, 359-383. Wodak, R. (2001a). What CDA is about – a summary of its history, important concepts, and its development. In Methods of CDA. (ed.) by R. Wodak and M. Meyers. London: Sage Publication, 1-13.Wodak, R. (2001b). The discourse of historical approach. In Methods of CDA. (ed.) by R. Wodak and M. Meyers. London: Sage Publication, 63-94.This is a term paper for Advanced Writing course, instructed by Dr. R. Khosravi (PhD in English Literature) at the University of Zanjan during the academic year of 2008-2009.AcknowledgmentsA few words of acknowledgment are due here. I would like to extend my words of appreciation to Dr. R. Khosravi of Zanjan University who read the drafts diligently time and again and made invaluable comments.Bio DataMoslem Ahmadvand is Master’s student of Applied Linguistics at the University of Zanjan, Iran. He holds a BA in English Literature from the University of Semnan, Iran. His major areas of research are minimalist syntax and optimality phonology. He has been teaching English and Applied Linguistics for five years.Correspondence concerning this paper may be directly submitted to the author via e-mail at: ahmadvand@znu.ac.ir。
CET对大学英语课堂教学的反拨效应历时研究_重访三位大学英语教师的课堂
“→” 注： 表中箭头 左右两边的项目分别表示该教师及其课堂 2003 年和 2009 年的基本情况。
CET 对大学英语课堂教学的反拨效应历时研究 Alderson 1993 ； Cheng 2005 ） 却非常匮乏。因此， 我们有必要从这两个方面进行研究 。 全国大学英语四、 六级考试（ CET） 是一项标准相关、 常模参照的标准化教学考试 。 由于规模大、 风险高， 其考试结果对考生及其他利益相关者（ stakeholders ） 在许多方面都有深远的影响（ 金艳 2008 ） 。 为深化 CET CET 进行了从计分体制到试卷构成的一系列改革 。 CET 改革前， 对教学的服务功能， 从 2005 年 6 月起， 辜向 东（ 2003c） 曾对某样本大学的三位大学英语教师进行了课堂观察， 了解了当时大学英语课堂教学的特征以及 CET 对大学英语教学的反拨作用 。CET 改革后， 大学英语课堂教学呈现出怎样的特征？ 改革后的 CET 对大 学英语课堂教学产生了哪些影响？ 影响大学英语课堂教学的非考试因素有哪些？ 为此， 我们于 2009 年重访 了这三位教师的课堂， 通过对比改革前后的大学英语课堂教学， 探讨 CET 对大学英语课堂教学的历时反拨效 应。 2 ． 文献综述 要了解一种新的考试（ 或考试的改革） 是否对教学产生了影响， 首先要对课堂进行研究， 采用的主要方法 应为课堂观察（ Cheng 2005 ） 。Wall ＆ Alderson（ 1993 ） 也认为问卷调查和访谈对揭示教学行为的原因很有帮 但要了解实际的教学过程还需进入课堂进行观察 。 然而， 反拨效应文献中进行课堂观察的研究（ 如 Wall 助， ＆ Alderson 1993 ； Watanabe 1996 ； Alderson ＆ HampLyons 1996 ； Hayes ＆ Read 2004 ； Cheng 2005 ； Hawkey 2006 ； Green 2007 ； 亓鲁霞 2004 ； 辜向东 2003c， 2007b） 却比较有限。 另外， 目前研究反拨效应的文献中， 鲜有历时对比考试引进或改革前后教学及其相关的研究（ Wall ＆ Alderson 1993 ； Cheng 2005 ； Wall ＆ Horák 2006 ， 2008 ， 2011 ； 辜向东， 彭莹莹 2010 ） 。 Wall ＆ Alderson （ 1993 ） level Exam ） 对教师教学的影响， 为研究斯里兰卡一项新引进的英语考试（ O在该考试实施前后对 49 所学校 （ 其中改革前 14 所， 改革后 49 所） 进行了共计 7 轮的课堂观察及访谈， 其研究结果表明该考试影响了课堂教 学的内容， 而对教学方法几乎没有影响 。Cheng （ 2005 ） 研究了香港英语教育证书考试（ HKCEE ） 1996 年改革 对课程设置、 师生对考试及教学的认识和态度以及课堂教学活动的影响 。该研究通过访谈、 问卷调查及课堂 结果发现该考试很快改变了大部分课堂教 观察对教育系统中的宏观层面及微观层面进行了历时 3 年的研究， Wall ＆ Horák （ 2006 ， 2008 ， 2011 ） 学的内容及材料， 而对教学方法的影响却缓慢而微弱 。在欧洲中部和东部， iBT 引入前后托福培训课教师的反应以及 通过课堂观察、 教材分析、 问题及访谈， 连续追踪和对比了 TOEFL课堂教学过程。结果表明， 新考试给教学内容带来了明显的影响， 即课堂教学更加关注该考试新增考查的内 容和技能。另一方面， 由于教师间在教学观念 、 教学风格以及所使用的教材等方面存在差异， 新考试对教师教 学方法的影响也在质和量上存在差异 。 辜向东， 彭莹莹（ 2010 ） 主要通过问卷调查对比了大学英语教师在 2003 年（ CET 改革前） 与 2007 年和 2008 年（ CET 改革后） 对 CET 及其反拨效应的认识。 结果表明大部分教师熟悉并支持 CET 改革措施， 认为 CET 正面反拨效应大于负面反拨效应； 随着时间推移， 这种认识进一步增强。该研究同时发现大学英语教学 的重心也正从改革前的阅读在向改革后的听力转移 。 虽然辜向东， 彭莹莹（ 2010 ） 的研究通过问卷调查和访 谈研究了教师和学生对 CET 改革的认识及态度， 在一定程度上揭示了 CET 改革的反拨效应， 但这并不等于 CET 对教学的实际影响。 为此， 本文采用以课堂观察为主 、 访谈为辅的研究方法， 历时对比 CET 改革前后三名大学英语教师的课 堂， 以探讨 CET 改革对大学英语课堂教学的历时反拨效应 。 3 ． 研究设计 课堂观察属自然调查法 （ naturalistic inquiry ） 。 自然调查法是课堂研究通常采用的三种研究方法之一 （ Allwright ＆ Bailey 1991 ） 。该方法指研究人员为了描述和了解真实的教学过程， 在不受任何干扰的情况下对 自然发生和发展中的现象进行观察（ Allwright ＆ Bailey 1991 ； 周星， 周韵 2002 ） 。 由于反拨效应牵涉的变量错 综复杂， 且各变量间相互影响， 因此本研究选用自然调查法中的课堂观察， 尽可能真实地描述大学英语课堂教 CET 对课堂教学的影响以及影响课堂教学的非考试因素 。 学过程， 以了解大学英语课堂教学的特征 、 3． 1 研究对象 本研究中的三位教师在两个年份均愿意研究者对其进行观察和录像， 且在录像前向学生解释录像仅用 · 19·
discourse analysis of translation
discourse analysis of translationDiscourse analysis of translation refers to the examination and analysis of the discourse features and strategies employed in the process of translating texts from one language to another. It involves studying the linguistic, cultural, and social aspects of both the source and target texts, as well as the translation process itself.Discourse analysis of translation focuses on how the translator's choices and decisions impact the overall meaning, style, and effectiveness of the translated text. It explores how linguistic and contextual factors shape the translation process, and how the translator navigates various challenges and constraints.Some key aspects that discourse analysis of translation may cover include:1. Textual coherence and cohesion: How the translator maintains or modifies the coherence and cohesion of the original text in the translation.2. Pragmatics and context: How the translator adapts the pragmatic andcontextual elements of the source text to the target language and culture.3. Register and style: How the translator deals with differences in register, style, and tone between the source and target texts.4. Ideology and power relations: How the translator negotiates ideological and power dynamics present in the source text and target culture.5. Intertextuality: How the translator handles intertextual references and cultural references in the translation.6. Translation strategies: How the translator employs various translation strategies, such as literal translation, adaptation, compensation, paraphrasing, or cultural substitution.By analyzing these aspects, discourse analysis of translation aims to shed light on the complex nature of translation as a communicative and cultural practice, and to understand the impact of translation choices on the target text and its reception.。
英语教学实践论文前言(3篇)
第1篇Abstract:The importance of English language proficiency in the globalized world cannot be overstated. As an international lingua franca, English has become a crucial tool for communication, education, and professional development. This paper aims to explore the effectiveness of contextualized teaching practices in enhancing English language proficiency among learners. By examining a case study of a secondary school in a multicultural setting, this research seeks to identify the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing such practices and to provide insights into how they can be optimized for better learning outcomes.Introduction:In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need to develop effective teaching methods that cater to the diverse needs and learning styles of English language learners. Traditional teaching approaches, often centered on grammar and vocabulary drills, have been criticized for their lack of engagement and relevance to real-life contexts. In contrast, contextualized teaching practices emphasize the integration of language learning with meaningful and authenticactivities that allow learners to apply their knowledge in practical situations. This paper explores the potential of contextualized teaching in enhancing English language proficiency and examines its implementation in a real-world educational setting.The Global Importance of English:English has become the lingua franca of international communication, and its importance is further magnified by its role in global education and business. The ability to communicate effectively in English is not only a means to access information and opportunities but also a symbol of social mobility and professional success. However, the challenge lies in equipping learners with the necessary skills to navigate this complex linguistic landscape.The Shift towards Contextualized Teaching:The traditional approach to English language teaching has beencriticized for its lack of focus on real-world applications and student-centered learning. Contextualized teaching, on the other hand, recognizes that language is a social practice that is best learned through authentic contexts and activities. This approach is grounded in the principles of constructivism, which posits that learning occurs through the active construction of knowledge by the learner.Rationale for the Study:This study is motivated by the need to understand how contextualized teaching practices can be effectively implemented in English language classrooms. The following points provide a rationale for conducting this research:1. The increasing demand for English language proficiency in various spheres of life necessitates innovative teaching methods that can equip learners with the skills they need to succeed.2. The current educational landscape is characterized by diverse student populations, each with unique learning needs and preferences. Contextualized teaching offers a flexible and adaptable approach to meet these needs.3. There is a lack of empirical research on the effectiveness of contextualized teaching practices in enhancing English language proficiency, particularly in multicultural settings.Objectives of the Study:The primary objectives of this study are as follows:1. To investigate the impact of contextualized teaching practices on English language proficiency among secondary school students.2. To identify the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing contextualized teaching in a multicultural educational setting.3. To provide recommendations for educators and policymakers on how to optimize contextualized teaching practices for better learning outcomes.Methodology:This study employs a qualitative case study approach to explore the implementation of contextualized teaching practices in a secondary school in a multicultural setting. Data collection methods include classroom observations, interviews with teachers and students, and analysis of student performance data. The findings will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify patterns, themes, and insights into the effectiveness of contextualized teaching practices.Significance of the Study:The findings of this study are expected to contribute to the field of English language teaching in several ways:1. By providing empirical evidence on the effectiveness of contextualized teaching practices, this study will contribute to the ongoing debate on the best methods for teaching English.2. The insights gained from this study will be valuable to educators and policymakers who are interested in improving the quality of English language education.3. The case study approach employed in this research will serve as a model for future studies on contextualized teaching practices in different educational contexts.Conclusion:This paper sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of contextualized teaching practices in English language education. By focusing on a case study of a secondary school in a multicultural setting, this research aims to shed light on the potential of contextualized teaching in enhancing English language proficiency. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the importance of effective language learning strategies cannot be overstated. This studyseeks to contribute to the ongoing discourse on how best to prepare learners for the challenges and opportunities of the globalized world.第2篇Introduction:In the rapidly globalizing world, the importance of English language proficiency cannot be overstated. As a global lingua franca, English has become a key tool for communication, education, and economic opportunities. In many countries, English is taught as a second or foreign language, and the effectiveness of English teaching practices has a profound impact on students' ability to achieve language proficiency. This paper aims to explore the various teaching practices employed in English language classrooms and their influence on student learning outcomes.The field of English language teaching (ELT) has witnessed significant developments over the years, with educators constantly seeking innovative methods to enhance student learning. However, the complexity of language learning and the diverse needs of students have made it challenging to identify the most effective teaching practices. This study seeks to shed light on this issue by examining the current trends in ELT and analyzing the impact of different teaching approaches on student learning outcomes.This paper is structured as follows. In the subsequent sections, we will first discuss the background and rationale for the study, followed by a literature review of relevant theories and research findings in thefield of ELT. The methodology employed in this study will then be presented, along with a detailed description of the data collection and analysis processes. Finally, the results of the study will be discussed, and implications for English language teaching practices will be drawn.Background and Rationale:The need for effective English teaching practices is evident in the increasing number of English language learners worldwide. According to the British Council (2019), there are approximately 2 billion Englishlanguage learners globally, with the number expected to rise in the coming years. This surge in demand for English language education highlights the importance of developing robust teaching methods that cater to the diverse needs of learners.In recent years, several factors have contributed to the evolution of English teaching practices. Technological advancements have made it possible to incorporate new tools and resources into the classroom, while educational reforms have emphasized the importance of student-centered learning and assessment. However, despite these changes, the question of which teaching practices are most effective remains a subject of debate among educators.The rationale for this study is grounded in the following key points:1. Identifying Effective Teaching Practices: This study aims to identify and evaluate the effectiveness of various teaching practices in English language classrooms. By doing so, educators can make informed decisions about which methods to adopt in their teaching practices.2. Enhancing Student Learning Outcomes: Effective teaching practices are crucial for enhancing student learning outcomes. This study seeks to provide insights into the factors that contribute to successful language learning and to suggest practical strategies for educators.3. Addressing the Diverse Needs of Learners: The study recognizes the importance of catering to the diverse needs of learners, including their individual learning styles, cultural backgrounds, and language proficiency levels. By examining a range of teaching practices, this study aims to offer a comprehensive perspective on English language teaching.4. Contributing to the Field of ELT: This study will contribute to the existing body of research in the field of ELT by providing new insights into the impact of teaching practices on student learning outcomes. These findings can inform future research and guide the development of effective teaching methodologies.Literature Review:The literature review section of this paper will discuss the key theories and research findings related to English language teaching and learning. This section will cover the following topics:1. Language Learning Theories: A review of various language learning theories, such as the Behaviorist, Cognitive, and Constructivist approaches, will be provided. These theories will be analyzed in terms of their implications for English language teaching practices.2. Teaching Methods and Strategies: This section will explore the different teaching methods and strategies employed in ELT, including the Audio-Lingual Method, Communicative Language Teaching, Task-Based Language Teaching, and Technology-Enhanced Language Learning.3. Assessment and Evaluation: The role of assessment and evaluation in English language teaching will be discussed, with a focus on formative and summative assessment techniques, and their impact on student learning outcomes.4. Student-Centered Learning: The importance of student-centered learning in ELT will be highlighted, with a discussion of how educators can create engaging and interactive learning environments that promote active participation and critical thinking.Methodology:This study will employ a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques. The methodology will be as follows:1. Quantitative Data: A survey will be conducted to gather data on the teaching practices employed by English language teachers and the perceived effectiveness of these practices. The survey will be distributed to a sample of teachers from various educational institutions.2. Qualitative Data: In-depth interviews with a select group of English language teachers will be conducted to gain insights into their teachingexperiences, challenges, and strategies for enhancing student learning outcomes.3. Data Analysis: The quantitative data will be analyzed usingdescriptive statistics and inferential statistics, while the qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns.Conclusion:This paper aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on effective English teaching practices by exploring the various methods andstrategies employed in ELT and their impact on student learning outcomes. By examining the current trends and challenges in the field, this study seeks to provide valuable insights for educators and researchers interested in enhancing the quality of English language education. The findings of this study will inform future research and guide the development of effective teaching methodologies that cater to thediverse needs of English language learners worldwide.第3篇Abstract:The increasing global integration and the digital revolution have underscored the importance of English language proficiency in the 21st century. This paper explores the effectiveness of innovative teaching practices in enhancing English language proficiency among secondary school students in China. Drawing on a case study approach, the research aims to identify the challenges faced by students and teachers in the current educational context and to propose practical strategies to improve English language learning outcomes. This paper is structuredinto several sections, including an introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, and conclusion.Introduction:In the era of globalization, the English language has become a key tool for communication, education, and career opportunities. China, with itsvast population and growing economy, has recognized the significance of English language education in preparing its students for the globalized world. The Ministry of Education has implemented various policies and curricula to enhance English language proficiency among secondary school students. However, despite these efforts, there remain significant challenges in the English language learning process, including lack of motivation, insufficient speaking and writing skills, and traditional teaching methods that do not cater to the diverse learning needs of students.This paper aims to address these challenges by examining the effectiveness of innovative teaching practices in enhancing English language proficiency. The research is grounded in the belief that adopting a student-centered approach, integrating technology, and fostering a supportive learning environment can significantly improve language learning outcomes. By analyzing the experiences of secondary school students and teachers in a Chinese context, this study seeks to contribute to the existing literature on English language teaching and provide practical insights for educators and policymakers.Background:The global shift towards English as the lingua franca has placed a greater emphasis on English language education. In China, the national curriculum for English language teaching has been revised several times to reflect the changing needs of students and society. The most recent curriculum, released in 2017, emphasizes the development of students' language skills, critical thinking, and cultural awareness. However, the implementation of these reforms has been met with various challenges, as teachers and students adapt to new teaching methods and learning objectives.Research Questions:1. What are the challenges faced by secondary school students in learning English in the current educational context?2. How effective are innovative teaching practices in enhancing English language proficiency?3. What strategies can be employed by teachers to foster a supportive learning environment for English language learners?Literature Review:The literature review section of this paper will explore the existing research on English language teaching, student-centered learning, and innovative teaching methods. Key themes will include:- Theoretical Frameworks: This section will discuss various theoretical frameworks that inform English language teaching, such as the communicative approach, task-based learning, and constructivist learning theory.- Student-Centered Learning: This section will examine the benefits of student-centered learning approaches, such as active learning, cooperative learning, and problem-based learning, in enhancing language proficiency.- Innovative Teaching Methods: This section will explore the use of technology, such as interactive whiteboards, online resources, and educational apps, in English language teaching.- Teacher Professional Development: This section will discuss the importance of ongoing professional development for teachers in order to implement innovative teaching practices effectively.Methodology:The research methodology employed in this study will be a case study approach, which allows for an in-depth examination of the context and processes involved in English language teaching and learning. The data collection methods will include:- Observations: Researchers will observe English language classes to gather data on teaching practices and student engagement.- Interviews: In-depth interviews with teachers and students will provide insights into their experiences and perceptions of the English language learning process.- Questionnaires: A questionnaire will be distributed to a larger sample of students to collect quantitative data on their language proficiency and learning experiences.Findings:The findings section of this paper will present the results of the data analysis, including:- Challenges Faced by Students: This section will identify the main challenges faced by students in learning English, such as anxiety, lack of motivation, and insufficient language skills.- Effectiveness of Innovative Teaching Practices: This section will discuss the effectiveness of innovative teaching practices in addressing the challenges identified and enhancing language proficiency.- Teacher Strategies: This section will outline the strategies employed by teachers to foster a supportive learning environment and improve student engagement.Discussion:The discussion section will analyze the findings in relation to the existing literature and theoretical frameworks. Key issues to be addressed include:- The role of innovative teaching practices in enhancing English language proficiency.- The importance of teacher professional development in implementing these practices.- The implications of the findings for policy-makers, educators, and students.Conclusion:In conclusion, this paper will summarize the main findings of the study and highlight the importance of innovative teaching practices in enhancing English language proficiency among secondary school students in China. The research will provide valuable insights for educators and policymakers to develop effective strategies for improving language learning outcomes. By addressing the challenges faced by students and teachers, this study aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts to promote English language education in China and beyond.。
英语作文第一个观点
英语作文第一个观点英文回答：In the realm of academic discourse, it is imperative to develop a comprehensive understanding of various perspectives and ideas. One of the most effective ways to achieve this is through comparative analysis, where one juxtaposes contrasting viewpoints to gain a multifaceted understanding of a given topic. This approach not only broadens our intellectual horizons but also fosterscritical thinking skills and analytical acuity.One of the most prevalent methods of comparative analysis involves contrasting opposing arguments or viewpoints. By examining the strengths and weaknesses of each position, we can form a more nuanced and informed opinion on the matter at hand. For instance, when analyzing the debate on climate change, it is essential to consider both the scientific evidence supporting anthropogenic climate change and the counterarguments presented byclimate change skeptics. By weighing the evidence from both sides, we can reach a more informed and balanced understanding of the issue.Another valuable aspect of comparative analysis lies in examining similarities and differences across different cultures, historical periods, or disciplines. Byidentifying commonalities and disparities, we can draw insightful connections and gain a deeper appreciation for the diversity of human thought and experience. For example, comparing the philosophies of ancient Greek thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle with contemporary moral theories can illuminate the evolution of ethical thought and its enduring relevance.Comparative analysis also plays a crucial role in literary criticism. By examining the themes, characters, and narrative techniques of different works of literature, critics can identify patterns, influences, and intertextual relationships. This comparative approach enriches our understanding of individual works and sheds light on the broader literary landscape. For instance, comparingShakespeare's Hamlet with other revenge tragedies provides valuable insights into the genre's conventions, character archetypes, and enduring themes.Beyond the academic realm, comparative analysis has practical applications in various fields, including economics, politics, and social sciences. By comparing different economic models, policymakers can evaluate their effectiveness and tailor policies to specific contexts. Similarly, political scientists use comparative analysis to examine different political systems and governance models, fostering a better understanding of democratic principles and political institutions.In conclusion, comparative analysis is an indispensable tool for intellectual inquiry and critical thinking. It allows us to delve into diverse perspectives, identify patterns and differences, and synthesize a more comprehensive understanding of complex issues. By embracing the comparative approach, we enhance our cognitive abilities, broaden our intellectual horizons, and deepen our appreciation for the multifaceted nature of humanthought and experience.中文回答：比较分析是学术论述中非常重要的一个环节，它要求我们对不同的观点和思想进行全面的理解。
话语分析课程资料
1. What is Discourse?•Language does not normally consist of isolated, unrelated sentences, but instead of collocated, structured, coherent groups of sentences we can call a discourse.2. What is Discourse Analysis?•Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken, signed language use or any significant semiotic event.3. What is a Speech Act?i. A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication.–Austin’s Speech Ac t Theory (speech is itself a form of action: constative vs. performative)Austin is widely associated with the concept of the speech act theory and the idea that speech is itself aform of action.•Constative utterance is one that asserts or states something that can be judged as true or false.(e.g. He promised to give her ten dollars.)•The performative is uttered in the performance of an illocutionary act and is either felicitous or infelicitous.(e.g. I promise to give her ten dollars. )•Limitation(e.g. Jocelyn got a Cartier for her birthday. )Austin later modified his theory:•locutionary act 以言指事行为the actual utterance and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic actscorresponding to the verbal, syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance.•illocutionary Act 以言行事行为The semantic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning•Prelocutionary Act 以语成事行为Its actual effect, whether intended or note.g.In uttering the locution "Is there any salt?" at the dinner table, one may thereby perform theillocutionary act of requesting salt, as well as the distinct locutionary act of uttering theinterrogatory sentence about the presence of salt, and the further perlocutionary act of causingsomebody to hand one the salt.ii.Searle’s Speech Act Theory–Searle’s Speech Act Theory (Assertives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives, Declarations) •Searle has set up the following classification of illocutionary speech acts:1)Assertives 断言类 E.G. Sam smokes habitually.2)Directives 指令类 E.G. Does Sam smoke habitually?3)Commissives 承诺类 E.G. Sam, smoke habitually!4)Expressives 表达类 E.G. Would that Sam smoke habitually!5)Declarations 宣告类(a statement, a question, a command, and an expression of desire,respectively)4. What is Context?•Malinowski-- Context “must burst the bonds of mere linguistics and be carried over into the analysis of the general conditions under which a language is spoken.”•Context includes: Firth--1) The Participants in the situation;2) The Action of the participants;3) Other Relevant Features of the situation;4) The Effects of the verbal action.✓THE FIELD OF DISCOURSE语场:Refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place.✓THE TENOR OF DISCOURSE 语旨:Refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles.✓THE MODE OF DISCOURSE语式:Refers to what part the language is playing, what is that the participants are expecting the language to dofor them in that situation.•Function of Context:1)制约功能2)解释功能5. What is Cohesion?•Cohesion is defined as a semantic concept.It is “a semantic relation between an element in the text and some other elements that is crucial to the interpretation of it”.•Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical relationship within a text or sentence. It can be defined as the links that holda text together and give it meaning.•Types of cohesion1. Referencing 照应✓Exophoric Reference 外指照应:It is used to describe generics or abstracts without ever identifying them✓Endophoric Reference内指照应•Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or something that has been previouslyidentified, to avoid repetition.•Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to backward in thediscourse. Something is introduced in the abstract before it is identified.2. Ellipsis & substitution 省略与替代✓Ellipsis happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated.✓Substitution means that a word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted for another, more general word.3. Conjunction 连词Conjunction sets up a relationship between two clauses.4. Grammatical cohesion 语法衔接5. Lexical cohesion 词汇衔接A.Repetition 重复B. Synonym/Antonym 同/反义词C. Hyponymy 上下义关系D. Collocation 组合，搭配5. What is Coherence?•(Four basic mechanical considerations in providing transitions between ideas: using transitional expressions, repeating key words and phrases, using pronoun reference, and using parallel form)•Cohesion refers to the linguistic features that relate sentences to one another and Coherence refers to the text that appropriately fits its situational context. When a text is consistent internally, it is cohesive; when it is consistent with its context, it is coherent.•Cohesion contributes only partially to textual coherence, while a coherent text does not necessarily require cohesion. •Beaugrande（1981）-- Coherence is defined as the procedures which ensure conceptual connectivity，including（1）logical relations，（2）organization of events，objects and situations，（3）continuity in human experience．It concerns “the way in which the components of the textual world which underlie the surface text are mutually accessible and relevant” .6. Thematic Structure–To convey given information and new information–To subject and predicate–To frame and insert•Theme and Rheme1)Theme is given information serving as “the point of departure” of a message.2)Rheme is the remainder of the message in a clause in which Theme is developed.3)Rheme typically contains unfamiliar or new information.Theme is the first element occurring in a clause;The remainder clause is Rheme.•Marked and Unmarked Theme1)Theme is not equated with the subject of a sentence; nor is Rheme equated with the predicate.2)If the Theme overlaps with the grammatical subjects of the sentences, we call it unmarked Theme.3)On the other hand, marked sentences often contain a Theme that is separate from the subject containingpre-posed adverbial groups or prepositional phrases.•Theme and Rheme1)Theme may be realized by a nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, prepositional phrase or adependent clause. The characteristic of these elements is that they appear first in a clause and represent‘given’ information.2)All the rest of a clause is Rheme representing ‘new’ information.• 3 Thematic Progression Patterns主位推进模式–Simple Linear TP 延续型–TP with a Continuous Theme 主位同一型–TP with derived Themes 扩充型7. What is perspective？•Perspective in theory of cognition is the choice of a context or a reference (or the result of this choice) from which to sense, categorize, measure or codify experience, cohesively forming a coherent belief, typically for comparing with another. One may further recognize a number of subtly distinctive meanings, close to those of paradigm, point of view, reality tunnel, or weltanschauung.•Types of Perspective1)Third-person omniscient perspective 全面视角2)First person perspective 单向视角3)Multiple perspective 多向视角8. What is Conversation Analysis?•Conversation analysis(CA) is an approach to the study of social interaction, embracing both verbal and non-verbal conduct, in situations of everyday life.•Methods of CA:1)turn-taking2)constructing sequences of utterances across turns3)identifying and repairing problems, and4)employing gaze and movement9. Grice’s ‘Co-operative Principle’-- “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the acceptedpurpose and direction of the exchange in which you are engaged.”•Conversation works only with the co-operation of its participants.•Co-operation is built around a series of ‘Gricean maxims’:Quality Relation1)“Do not say what you believe to be false.”“Do not say that for which you lack evidence.”So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:that what they say is not knowingly untruthful;that the truthfulness of what they say does not need to be made stated.2)“Make your contribution as informative as is required.”“Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.”So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:they do not purposefully hold back anything that is important;they do not give more information than is asked.3)“Be perspicuous.”/“Avoid obscurity of expression.”/“Avoid ambiguity.”“Be brief.”/“Be orderly.”So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:that what they say is being said as straightforwardly as they can say it.4)“Be relevant.”So… when someone speaks to us , we assume:that what they say is relevant to the conversation.10. Geoffrey Leech: The ‘Politeness Principle’•Geoffrey Leech proposed the need for ‘politeness maxims’ as a prerequisite for conversational co-operation.1)The Tact maxim 得体准则，圆通准则2)The Generosity maxim 慷慨准则，大方准则3)The Approbation maxim 赞扬准则，赞许准则4)The Modesty maxim 谦虚准则，谦逊准则5)The Agreement maxim 赞同准则，一致准则6)The Sympathy maxim 同情准则•Leech’s Politeness Maxims1. T act'Minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other; maximize the expression of beliefs whichimply benefit to other.‘2. Generosity'Minimize the expression of beliefs that express or imply benefit to self; maximize the expression of beliefsthat express or imply cost to self.'3. ApprobationMinimize the expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other; maximize the expression of beliefswhich express approval of other.4. ModestyMinimize the expression of praise of self; maximize the expression of dispraise of self.Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and other; maximize the expression of agreementbetween self and other.6. SympathyMinimise antipathy between self and others; maximise sympathy between self and otherCP V.S. PP•The CP does not tell us why people do not say directly what they mean, but PP does.•Politeness can satisfactorily explain exceptions to and apparent deviations from the CP.•Therefore, PP is a necessary complement needed for cases where the CP fails to offer a reasonable explanation.。
教师身份构建_课堂提问遭遇沉默的会话分析_兰良平
2 ． 文献回顾 “身份” 可以理解为“在他人面前或与他 人交流时， 人们为了塑造和展示自己是谁所 使用 的 一 套 言 语 实 践 ”（ Hadden ＆ Lester 1978 ： 331 ） 。该定义表明， 身份是情景中言谈 交际的产物， 是变动不居的， 由此身份构建过 程也就成了教师教育研究的焦点之一 。会话 分析的研究方法尊重语言事实， 关注交际细 “在特定的社会场景中， 节， 通常讨论 身份是 否被 使 用、 何 时 被 使 用 以 及 如 何 被 使 用” （ Widdicombe ＆ Antaki 1998 ： 195 ） 。 利用会话分析研究教师身份构建， 就是
Foreign Language World No． 2 2013 （ General Serial No． 155 ）
策略在内的各种教学策略， 其情感、 态度往往 得以真实表达， 这样教师的身份也可能会更 加明 晰 地 显 现 出 来 （ Engestrm 2008 ： 205 － 207 ） 。 据此， 本研究选取的案例素材具有以下 3 个特点： （ 1 ） 录音片段构成教学中相对独立的单 它们都围绕某个主题， 如案 元或者交流内容， 例一围绕一首诗的主题， 案例二围绕一个短 语的英文解释， 这样更便于教师身份转变的 分析与研究。 （ 2 ） 案例涉及的教师提问都是封闭式问 提问的目的是为了检验学生是否可以正 题， 确回答， 因此都有正确答案， 符合“考试型问 “答案已知问题 ” 题” 或 的标准 （ Searle 1969 ； Levinson 1992 ） 。 （ 3 ） 案例中教师无论是否引导和怎么引 导， 学生都无法给出正确答案。 4 ． 分析与讨论 4． 1 案例介绍 4． 1． 1 案例一 案例一的课堂片段 （ 见 Extract 1 ） 摘 自 Talk in Action： Interactions，Identities，and Institutions（ Heritage ＆ Clayman 2010 ： 27 － 28 ） ， 原书是为了展示课堂会话“提问—回答—评 价 ”（ Initiation — Response — Feedback， IRF） 的序列结构。 案例中教师 A 的本族语 是 英 语， 她正在给小学六年级学生介绍 Ralph Hodgson 的 一 首 诗 “Time， You Old Gypsy Man” 。这首诗的头几行是 “TIME ， you old gypsy man，/ Will you not stay，/ Put up your caravan / Just for one day？ ” 诗的主题是 时间： 把时间比作居无定所的吉卜赛人 ， 希望 ， 。 吉卜赛人留下来 即希望能留住时间
巧言令色鲜矣仁关于话术的英语作文
全文分为作者个人简介和正文两个部分：作者个人简介：Hello everyone, I am an author dedicated to creating and sharing high-quality document templates. In this era of information overload, accurate and efficient communication has become especially important. I firmly believe that good communication can build bridges between people, playing an indispensable role in academia, career, and daily life. Therefore, I decided to invest my knowledge and skills into creating valuable documents to help people find inspiration and direction when needed.正文：巧言令色鲜矣仁关于话术的英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Eloquence of Persuasion: Mastering the Art of RhetoricAs students, we are constantly faced with the challenge of persuasion – whether it's convincing our teachers of our academic prowess, swaying our peers to join a club or activity, oreven negotiating with our parents for a later curfew. In this ever-competitive world, the ability to articulate our thoughts and ideas effectively can be the deciding factor between success and failure. This is where the ancient art of rhetoric comes into play.Rhetoric, derived from the Greek word "rhetor," meaning orator or speaker, has been a cornerstone of human communication for centuries. From the ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Demosthenes to modern-day politicians and public figures, mastering the art of persuasion has been a key ingredient for influencing minds and shaping opinions.At its core, rhetoric is the study of how language can be used to persuade, inspire, and move an audience. It is a multifaceted discipline that encompasses various elements, including logic, emotion, and style. Effective rhetoric is not merely about stringing together fancy words or employing complex sentence structures; rather, it is the ability to craft a compelling narrative that resonates with the audience's values, beliefs, and experiences.One of the fundamental principles of rhetoric is the concept of ethos, pathos, and logos – the three pillars of persuasion. Ethos refers to the credibility and character of the speaker,establishing trust and authority with the audience. Pathos appeals to the emotions and feelings of the listeners, eliciting empathy and emotional connection. Logos, on the other hand, relies on logic, reason, and evidence to support the argument.Mastering these three elements is crucial for any aspiring rhetorician. A skilled orator must strike the perfect balance between ethos, pathos, and logos, tailoring their approach to the specific audience and situation. For instance, when addressing a group of academics or scholars, a speaker may choose to emphasize logos by presenting well-researched facts and logical arguments. Conversely, when addressing a more emotionally charged audience, such as a rally or protest, a speaker may opt to leverage pathos, appealing to the audience's sense of justice, compassion, or righteous indignation.Effective rhetoric also requires a deep understanding of language and its nuances. Word choice, tone, and delivery can profoundly impact the way a message is received and interpreted. A skilled rhetorician understands the power of metaphors, analogies, and other rhetorical devices to paint vivid mental pictures and make complex ideas more accessible to the audience.Moreover, the art of persuasion extends beyond the spoken word. Body language, gestures, and visual aids can enhance or detract from the overall effectiveness of a speech or presentation.A confident, engaging presence and the ability to connect with the audience on a personal level can often be just as important as the content itself.In our modern age, the influence of rhetoric has only grown more pronounced. With the rise of social media and digital platforms, the ability to craft persuasive narratives and captivating messaging has become a critical skill for individuals and organizations alike. Whether it's a political campaign seeking to sway voters, a corporation attempting to sell a product or service, or an activist movement rallying support for a cause, the art of persuasion remains a powerful tool for shaping public opinion and driving change.As students, we have a unique opportunity to hone our rhetorical skills and develop our voices as future leaders, innovators, and changemakers. By studying the works of great orators throughout history, analyzing their techniques, and practicing our own public speaking and writing abilities, we can cultivate the art of persuasion and use it to positively impact the world around us.In conclusion, the art of rhetoric is a timeless discipline that has shaped the course of human civilization for centuries. From ancient philosophers to modern-day influencers, mastering the art of persuasion has been a key ingredient for inspiring minds, swaying opinions, and driving change. As students, we have the remarkable opportunity to embrace this ancient art and leverage its power to communicate our ideas effectively, negotiate skillfully, and ultimately, shape the narratives that will define our future.篇2The Eloquent Tongue: Mastering the Art of PersuasionAs a student, the ability to articulate one's thoughts and perspectives effectively is an invaluable skill that transcends academic boundaries. The art of persuasive speaking, or what the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius referred to as"qiǎoyán lìngsè xiānyǐ rén," is a profound concept that underscores the power of eloquence in shaping minds and influencing outcomes. In this essay, I shall delve into the intricate facets of this art, exploring its significance, techniques, and the profound impact it can have on our lives.The Significance of Persuasive Speaking:In a world where ideas collide and opinions clash, the ability to persuade others is a potent tool that can bridge divides, foster understanding, and catalyze change. Effective persuasion is not merely a means of imposing one's views upon others; rather, it is a delicate dance of reason, emotion, and empathy. By mastering this art, we can navigate the complexities of human interaction, articulating our perspectives in a manner that resonates with our audience, forging connections, and ultimately, influencing mindsets.Techniques of Persuasive Speaking:The Power of Ethos: Establishing Credibility and TrustBefore we can hope to sway others, we must first establish our credibility and earn their trust. This is achieved through the careful cultivation of ethos, or the ethical appeal that emanates from our character, expertise, and integrity. By demonstrating a deep understanding of the subject matter, exhibiting honesty and authenticity, and fostering an atmosphere of mutual respect, we lay the foundation upon which our arguments can be built.The Artistry of Pathos: Appealing to EmotionsWhile logic and reason are essential components of persuasion, we must never underestimate the profoundinfluence of emotions. The skilled orator understands the delicate art of pathos, skillfully weaving narratives and imagery that resonate with the audience's emotions, fostering empathy, and forging an emotional connection that transcends mere facts and figures. Through this emotional resonance, our arguments gain a deeper level of impact and memorability.The Strength of Logos: The Power of ReasonAt the core of persuasive speaking lies the unwavering force of logos, or the appeal to reason and logic. By constructing well-structured arguments, supported by credible evidence and sound reasoning, we engage the audience's intellect, challenging them to contemplate our perspectives and consider the merits of our claims. The effective use of logos not only lends credibility to our arguments but also demonstrates our commitment to intellectual rigor and critical thinking.The Rhythm of Delivery: Captivating the AudienceBeyond the content of our message, the art of persuasive speaking hinges upon our ability to captivate and engage our audience through skillful delivery. This involves mastering the cadence and rhythm of our speech, employing strategic pauses and inflections to emphasize key points, and infusing our words with passion and conviction. By harnessing the power of vocaldynamics and body language, we create a multi-sensory experience that leaves a lasting impression on our audience.The Impact of Persuasive Speaking:The mastery of persuasive speaking extends far beyond the confines of the classroom or the boardroom. It holds the potential to shape individual lives, communities, and even the course of nations. Through effective persuasion, we can inspire positive change, challenge long-held beliefs, and advocate for causes that uplift and empower others.In the realm of academia, persuasive speaking equips us with the tools to articulate complex ideas, defend our theses, and engage in thoughtful discourse with our peers and mentors. It fosters an environment of intellectual curiosity and critical thinking, where the exchange of ideas is not merely a exercise, but a catalyst for personal growth and the advancement of knowledge.Beyond the ivory towers, the art of persuasion is an indispensable asset in the professional world. Whether negotiating contracts, pitching innovative ideas, or rallying teams towards a common vision, the ability to effectively communicate and influence others can be the difference between success and failure. Persuasive speaking empowers usto navigate the intricacies of interpersonal dynamics, bridging gaps, and forging lasting partnerships built on mutual understanding and trust.Moreover, persuasive speaking is a powerful force in shaping societal narratives and driving positive change. Throughout history, iconic figures have harnessed the power of eloquence to inspire movements, challenge injustice, and ignite the flames of revolution. From the stirring speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. to the impassioned pleas of Malala Yousafzai, the art of persuasion has been a catalyst for social transformation, reminding us of the profound impact our words can have on the world around us.Conclusion:In the tapestry of human experience, the art of persuasive speaking stands as a testament to the enduring power of communication. By mastering this art, we unlock the ability to shape minds, forge connections, and inspire action. Through the judicious use of ethos, pathos, and logos, we can navigate the complexities of human interaction, articulating our perspectives in a manner that resonates with our audience and influences their thoughts and behaviors.As students and lifelong learners, the pursuit of this art is not merely an academic exercise but a journey of self-discovery and personal growth. It challenges us to refine our critical thinking skills, cultivate empathy, and develop the confidence to express ourselves with clarity and conviction. In a world where words hold immense power, the mastery of persuasive speaking equips us with the tools to leave an indelible mark, to inspire change, and to elevate the discourse that shapes our collective future.篇3Eloquence Graces Virtue: On the Art of PersuasionFrom the ancient Greek orators to modern-day politicians and advertisers, the ability to sway hearts and minds through the deft wielding of words has been a coveted skill. Rhetoric, the art of persuasive speech and writing, has shaped the course of history, ignited revolutions, and sold countless products. As a student, I have come to appreciate the power of eloquence and its crucial role in effectively communicating ideas and influencing others.The roots of rhetoric can be traced back to ancient Greece, where philosophers like Aristotle and Plato expounded on the principles of effective communication. Aristotle's seminal work,"Rhetoric," laid the foundations for the discipline, identifying the three fundamental modes of persuasion: ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and logos (logic). These modes have endured as the cornerstones of rhetorical strategy, guiding speakers and writers in crafting compelling arguments tailored to their audience.At its core, rhetoric is the art of adapting language to specific situations and audiences. A skilled rhetorician understands that communication is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor; rather, it requires a nuanced approach that accounts for the unique perspectives, values, and emotions of the intended audience. This ability to shape language to resonate with diverse groups is what separates truly great communicators from the merely proficient.Throughout my academic journey, I have witnessed the transformative power of rhetoric firsthand. In the classroom, engaging professors have used rhetorical techniques to captivate their students, making complex concepts accessible and inspiring genuine interest in the subject matter. Outside the classroom, student leaders have rallied their peers through impassioned speeches, sparking movements and driving positive change on campus. Even in casual conversations, I have observedhow the artful use of language can sway opinions, defuse conflicts, and foster deeper connections.Rhetoric is not merely a tool for persuasion; it is also a means of uncovering truth and fostering mutual understanding. By employing rhetorical strategies, we can break down complex issues, present multiple perspectives, and engage in constructive dialogue. In an era of information overload and polarized discourse, the ability to communicate effectively and bridge divides is more crucial than ever.As I navigate the challenges of academic and professional life, I am continually reminded of the enduring value of rhetoric. Whether I am composing a persuasive essay, delivering a presentation, or engaging in a spirited debate, the principles of ethos, pathos, and logos serve as invaluable guides. Through the strategic use of language, I can establish credibility, appeal to emotions, and construct logical arguments that resonate with my audience.Moreover, the study of rhetoric has equipped me with invaluable critical thinking skills. By analyzing the rhetorical strategies employed by others, I have developed a heightened awareness of the subtle ways language can be used to influence and manipulate. This has made me a more discerning consumerof information, better able to separate fact from fiction and identify logical fallacies or emotional appeals masquerading as rational discourse.However, as with any powerful tool, rhetoric must be wielded with care and integrity. The misuse of rhetorical techniques can lead to deception, manipulation, and the propagation of false or harmful ideas. It is incumbent upon those who wield the art of persuasion to do so ethically, prioritizing truth and the greater good over narrow self-interest or nefarious agendas.As I continue on my academic and personal journey, I am committed to honing my rhetorical skills while upholding the highest ethical standards. I aspire to be a communicator who not only captivates audiences but also advances understanding, fosters empathy, and inspires positive change. For in the words of the ancient Roman philosopher Quintilian, "Eloquence is the true force and natural grace of language."。
如何让你变得完美英语作文
如何让你变得完美英语作文Title: Achieving Perfection in English Composition。
To attain perfection in English composition, one must embark on a journey of continuous improvement, employing various strategies and techniques. In this discourse, Iwill delineate a comprehensive approach towards enhancing English writing skills, encompassing essential aspects such as vocabulary expansion, grammar refinement, structure mastery, and effective communication.Firstly, vocabulary serves as the cornerstone of proficient writing. Enriching one's lexicon is imperative for conveying ideas with precision and eloquence. To achieve this, avid reading across diverse genres is indispensable. Additionally, maintaining a vocabulary journal to jot down unfamiliar words encountered during reading endeavors aids in retention and application. Moreover, leveraging online resources like vocabulary-building apps and flashcards facilitates systematiclearning and reinforces memorization.Secondly, mastery of grammar is pivotal in crafting flawless compositions. A solid grasp of grammar rules enhances clarity and coherence in writing. Engaging in grammar exercises, both online and offline, hones grammatical skills and rectifies common errors. Furthermore, seeking feedback from peers or educators helps identify areas of improvement and fosters a deeper understanding of grammatical nuances. Consistent practice and meticulous review are instrumental in refining grammar proficiency.Thirdly, structuring content coherently isindispensable for effective communication. A well-organized composition captivates readers and facilitates comprehension. Employing a structured approach, such as the traditional introduction-body-conclusion framework,provides a clear roadmap for developing ideas logically. Furthermore, employing transitional phrases and cohesive devices strengthens the coherence of the narrative,ensuring seamless flow between paragraphs. Embracingoutlines as a prewriting tool streamlines the writingprocess and cultivates coherence and cohesion.Additionally, cultivating critical thinking skills enhances the depth and sophistication of one's writing. Analyzing diverse perspectives, evaluating evidence, and synthesizing information engender a nuanced understanding of complex issues. Integrating critical insights into compositions fosters originality and depth, elevating the quality of discourse. Furthermore, engaging in reflective writing fosters introspection and self-awareness, enriching personal narratives and fostering empathy and connection with readers.Furthermore, honing editing and proofreading skills is essential for refining written work to perfection. After drafting, revising, and polishing the composition, meticulous editing is imperative to eliminate errors and enhance clarity. Utilizing grammar-checking software and seeking feedback from peers or mentors facilitates comprehensive error detection and rectification. Moreover, adopting a systematic approach, such as reviewing content for grammar, punctuation, spelling, and coherence, ensuresthorough refinement of the composition.In conclusion, achieving perfection in English composition necessitates a multifaceted approach encompassing vocabulary enrichment, grammar refinement, structure mastery, critical thinking cultivation, and rigorous editing. By embracing continuous learning, practice, and feedback, one can embark on a transformative journey towards becoming a proficient and articulate communicator in the English language.。