古代汉语一教学辅导5词的古义和今义

古代汉语一教学辅导5词的古义和今义
古代汉语一教学辅导5词的古义和今义

《古代汉语一》单元辅导(5)

地方听歌放射状

(1)走

古义指跑,如《寡人之干国也》中“弃甲曳兵而走”“走”就是跑。败下阵来,后有敌古代义恰好相反,一般指离开某地。如《孟子·公孙丑下》:“孟子去齐。”不是孟子去到齐国,而是

(1)勤

古代常用义是辛苦,辛劳,与“逸”相对;现代常用义是勤快,努力工作,与“惰”相对,古今义差别很细微。如《子路从而后》:“四体不勤,五谷不分”的“勤”是劳,劳动,而不是四肢不勤快。《说文》:“勤,劳也。”“勤”和“劳”同义词。又如《左传·襄公三十二年》:“劳师以袭远,非所闻也。师劳力竭,远主备之,无乃不可乎?师之所为,郑必知之。勤而无所,必有悖(bèi)心。”前文说“劳师”或“师劳”,后文说“勤而无所”,“劳”和“勤”前后呼应。“勤而无所”是说军队辛劳而无所得。

(2)劝

现代义指规劝,劝说;古代义一般指鼓励,劝勉。《荀子》的“劝学”,是勉励人们学习,不是劝止人们学习。《齐晋鞌之战》:“赦之,以劝事君者。”是说赦语有“无穷无尽”、“山穷水尽”,“穷”与“尽”同义对举。古代汉语另一常用义是仕途坎坷或生活困窘,不是贫穷。《庄子·德充符》:“死生存亡,穷达贫富。”这四对全是反义词,“穷”和“达”相对,“贫”和“富”相对,“穷”和“贫”不是同义词,需要仔细区分。

2.词义范围的差异

从词义演变的结果观察,新义同原义比较,在词义的范围上古今有了差异。或是有所扩大,或是有所缩小,或是原义消失而转变成新义。

A.词义扩大

从原义发

古义指坐着打瞌睡。《说文》:“睡,坐寐也。”如《史记·商君列传》:“孝公既见卫鞅,语事良久,孝公时时睡,弗听。”“时时睡”指不时地打瞌睡,即“坐寐”。不是卫鞅一面陈述政见,孝公不听,躺着睡大觉。又如欧阳修《秋声赋》中有“童子莫对,垂头而睡”的话,“垂头而睡”也是垂着头打瞌睡。后来“睡”的词义扩大,由坐着打瞌睡的形式,扩展为一切形式的睡眠,不论是躺着的,还是坐着的,都叫“睡”。

(2)河

汉代以前,“河”的常用义特指黄河,一般河流用“水”来表示。如《寡人之于国也》:“河内凶,则移其民于河东,移其粟于河内。”“河内”指春秋战国时期黄河北岸,今河南沁阳县一带。“河东”指黄河以东,今山西西南部。又《鸿门宴》:“将军战河北,臣战河南。”“河北”指黄河以北,“河南”指黄河以南。如《齐桓公伐楚》:“东至于海,西至于河。”这里的“河”也指黄河。后来词义扩大,泛称一般河流。

B.词义缩小

从原义发展为新义,所反映客观事物的范围有所收敛,即由整体到部分,由一般到个别,由宽泛到狭窄,采取了全面收缩的方式,使新义包括在原义中,成为原义外延的一部分。

(1)臭

上古汉语“臭”泛指一般气味,包括香气、秽气,读作xiù。如《易经·系辞》:“同心

之言,其臭如兰。”是说它的气味象兰草一样芬芳。当表示难闻的气味时,前面冠以“恶(è)”字。如《礼记·大学》:“如恶(wù)恶臭。”是说象厌恶不好闻的气味。在一定的语言环境中,不加限制词,“臭”既可以表示香气,也可以表示秽气。后来词义缩小,由泛指一般气味,到专指秽气。读作chòu.

(2)宫

上古泛指房屋,不分贵贱。如《孟子·滕文公下》:“坏宫室以为污池,民无所安息。”可知宫室是民房,毁坏民宅,修造池塘,使百姓无处安身。秦汉以后,“宫”的词义缩小,只有封建帝王的住宅才能称宫,一般民房不能称宫。如“阿房宫”,“未央宫”。有的寺庙也可以称宫,如“雍和宫”。

(3)亲戚

古代“亲戚”指族内外亲属,包括父母兄弟。如《列子·汤问》所载:“楚之南有炎人之国,其亲戚死,朽其肉而弃之,然后埋其骨,乃成为孝子。”这里的“亲戚”无疑指父母。又《召公谏弭谤》:“亲戚补察。”这里的“亲戚”,除父母外,还包括兄弟姊妹等。后来词义缩小,多指有婚姻关系的族外亲属。

(4)谷(穀)

古义泛指粮食作物,《说文》:“谷,百谷之总名也。”如《子路从而后》:“四体不勤,五谷不分”的“谷”,因泛指谷物,所以前面可以加数词。又如《周礼·天官·大宰》:“一日三农,生九谷。”“五谷”、“九谷”都是确指的。“五谷”一般指稻、黍(黄米)、稷、麦、豆;“九谷”指黍、稷、秫(shú)、稻、麻、大小豆、大小麦。至于说“百谷”,则是泛指的。如《诗经·豳风·七月》:“亟其乘屋,其始播百谷。”后来词义缩小了,“谷”便指今天的谷子了。

c.词义转移

词义在发展过程中,古今义之间,既没有扩大,也没有缩小,彼此不存在类属关系。词所概括的客观对象有了变化,由一事类转到另一事类,由甲范围转移到乙范围。一般说来,新义产生后,原义便消失了,而新旧义之间还具有一定的联系。

(1) 领

上古“领”指脖子。如《左传·昭公七年》:“引领北望。”是说由于盼望心切,而伸长了脖子张望。又《孟子·梁惠王下》:“天下之民皆引领而望之矣。”“引领”与上文义同。由于脖颈的部位与周围的衣领相关,所以把衣服围绕脖颈的部分称作“领”。如《荀子·劝学》:“若挈裘领。”是说象提起皮裘的领子。

(2) 涕

先秦“涕”指眼泪,不指鼻涕。如《庄子·火宗师》:“孟孙才其母死,哭泣无涕,中心不戚。”“无涕”不是没有鼻涕,而是没有眼泪。后世文言作品眼泪仍用“涕”来表示。如《出师表》:“今当远离,临表涕零,不知所言。”“涕零”指落下激动的眼泪。后来词义转移,“涕”表示鼻涕义。现代成语“破涕为笑”、“痛哭流涕”还保留古义。

3.词义感情色彩的差异

A.词义褒贬的差异

古今词义的差异,不仅表现在词义演变程度不同和范围的变

似上,而且由于风俗习尚和社会思潮的改变,往往引起人们对事物的爱憎与善恶评价的变化,从而影响词义褒贬的更替。由褒义变为贬义,由贬义变为褒义,或由中性词变为贬义词等,使古今词义产生了差异。如:

(1)爪牙

现代义指帮凶,走狗,有种憎恶的感情色彩,是个贬义词;而古代义指武将,猛士,是个褒义词。如《汉书·李广传》:“将军者,国之爪牙也。”这里以禽兽的锋牙利爪比喻李广这样的将才。后来才逐渐由褒义蜕变为贬义。

(2)谤

今义指诽谤,无中生有,恶意中伤,是个贬义词。上古汉语

“谤”没有贬义,如《召公谏弭谤》:“厉王虐,国人谤王。”“谤王”不是国人诽谤周厉王。因为他暴虐,国人背后议论他的过失,这不是恶意中伤。《左传.襄公十四年》:“士传言.庶人谤。”为纠正天子过失,士传话,庶人批评指责,也不是诽谤。又如《邹忌讽齐王纳谏》:“能谤讥于市朝,闻寡人之耳者,受下赏。”“谤”是公然的批评议论,“讥”是委婉地讽刺。齐威王下令让人们“谤讥”他的过失,而且还有赏赐,说明不是恶意攻击,没有贬义。

B.词义轻重的差异

从词义轻重角度看,古今词义也存在差异。有些词,古义重,

今义轻;有些词,古义轻,今义重。如:

(1)怨

古义重,今义轻。古义除埋怨义外,一般指怨恨。如《齐桓晋文之事》:“抑王兴甲兵,危士臣,构怨于诸侯,然后快于心与?”“构怨于诸侯”是在诸侯之间结下仇恨。今义指埋怨,义轻。

(2)诛

古义轻,后起义重。古义初指责备,所以从言。如《论语·公冶长》:“于予与何诛?”是说对宰予我责备他什么呢?今成语有“口诛笔伐”。后来词义加重,表示杀戮义。

上面我们从不同角度考察古今义差异,目的是要建立起词义发展变化的历史主义观点。还应该明确,古今义里的“古”和“今”是个相对的概念,不是截然分开的。所谓古义,不论是先秦的两汉的、六朝的、唐宋的,凡是没有流传到现代的意义都是古义。它们有的作为词素在现代复音词中保留它们的原义,或在成语中保留其原义。所谓今义,是指现代义,但许多今义不是今天才出现的,而是在历史上便产生了,不能认为凡是今义都是现代产生的。因为词义的演变不是一朝一夕发生的,而是错落不一地发生在各个语言时代,它是一个漫长的渐进的过程。

怎样学习古代汉语词汇?

1.要多读一些古文篇章,积累较为丰富的语言材料,加深感性认识。

2.在占有丰富语言材料的基础上,运用历史比较法,勤作古今对比,由感性认识上升到理性认识。

3.要重视古今注本,吸取它们在区分古今词义方面的成果,以提高辨识能力。

4.要善于应用工具书,分析词义系统的有关义项,理顺词义发展演变的脉络,明确古今词义的差异。坚持这样做,便会收到预期的效果。

以上介绍的只是一些学习方法。从根本上说,古文言是与现代汉语差异很大的语言系统,因此学习文言词汇最根本的方法是“背”。王力先生在《谈谈学习古代汉语》中说:“我们要以学习外文的方法去学习古代汉语。学外文的经验,首先强调记生词,还要背诵,把外文念得很熟,然后看见一个字、一个词,或读一本书,马上能了解它的意思。”如果不下功夫背生词,只了解一点古汉语词汇的特点,对提高阅读古书的能力是无济于事的。

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全国卷高考常见的98个熟词新义

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全国卷高考常见的98个熟词新义

扎鲁特一中高二英全国卷高考常见的熟词新义时间:2016 年5 月19 日命题人:贾永红

seen

构词法 1.表示否定意义的前缀 1) 纯否定前缀 a-, an-, asymmetry (不对称) anhydrous (无水的) dis- dishonest, dislike in-, ig-, il, im, ir, incapable, inability, ignoble, impossible, immoral, illegal, irregular 6) forehead, foreground ne-, n-, none, neither, never neg-, neglect de-, defend, demodulation ( 解调 ) un-, unload, uncover 2)表示错误的意义 mistake, mislead 2.表示空间位置,方向关系的前缀 1) a- 表示“在??之 non-, noesense un- unable, unemploymentmis-, dis-, disarm, disconnect aboard, aside, bypath, bypass (弯路 ) , circumstance, circuit7) extra-, 表示“额外”

7)in-, il-, im-, ir-, 8)表示“向内,在内,背于” 9)inland, invade, inside, import 10)10out-, 表示“在上面,在外部,在外” outline, outside, outward 11)over-, 表示“在上面,在外部,向上” overlook, overhead, overboard 12)post-, 表示"向后,在后边,次” postscript( 附言),pre-, 表示"在前”在前面” prefix, preface, preposition 13)pro-, 表示“在前,向前” progress, proceed, 14)sub-, suc-, suf-, sug-, sum-, sup-, sur-, sus-, 表示“在下面,下” subway, submarine, suffix, suppress, supplement1. 名词后缀 (1) 具有某种职业或动作的人 1)-an, -ain, 表示"??地方的人,精通??的人”American, historian, 2)-al, 表示"具有??职务的人" principal, 3)-ant,-ent, 表示"??者”merchant, agent, servant, student, 4)-ar, 表示" ??的人”scholar, liar, peddler 5)-ary, 表示“从事??的人”s ecretary, missionary 传教士 6)-ant, 表示“具有??职责的人”candidate, graduate 7)-ator, 表示"做??的人" educator, speculator( 投机者) 8)-ee, 表示" 动作承受者" employee, examinee 9)-eer, 表示"从事于??人" engineer, volunteer 10)-er, 表示"从事某种职业的人, 某地区,地方的人" banker, observer, Londoner, villager 11)-ese, 表示" ??国人,?..地方的人”Japanese, Cantonese 12)-ess, 表示" 阴性人称名词,actress, hostess, manageress 13)-ian, 表示"??地方人,信仰??.教的人,从事??职业的人” Christian, physician(内科医生), musician 14)-ician, 表示"精通者,??家,”electrician, magician, technician 15)-icist, 表示"??家,??.者, ??.能手”p hysicist, phoneticist, technicist 16)-or, 表示"??者" author, doctor, operator, 2形容词后缀 1)-able, -ible, movable, comfortable, applicable, visible, responsible 2)-al, natural, additional, educational 3)-an, ane, urban, suburban, republican 4)-ant, -ent, distant, important, excellent 5)-ar, similar, popular, regular 6)-ary, military, voluntary 7)-ice, -atie, ical, politic, historic, physical, 8)-ine, masculine, feminine, marine 9)-ing, moving, touching, daring 10)-ish, foolish, bookish, selfish 11)-ive, active, impressive, decisive 3. 动词后缀

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