linguistics

Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1) It tries to answer the basic questions asWhat is language?How does language work?What rules there are that govern the structure of language?2) It probes into various problems related to language such asWhat do languages have in common?What range of variation is found among languages?What makes language change?To what extent are social class differences related in language?How does a child acquire his mother tongue? ...3) Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies language in general.4) Linguistics is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyIndependent branches MorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsSociolinguisticsInterdisciplinary branches PsycholinguisticsApplied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1) prescriptive: aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in usinglanguageeg. Don’t say X.descriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people usually useeg. People don’t say X.* Modern linguistics is mostly descriptiveIt aims to set models for language users to follow;It is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the languagepeople use, be it correct or not.2) synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history, and mostlinguistic studies are of this type.eg. A Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespeare’s Englishdiachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3) speech and writing: two major media of communication4) langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunityparole: the realization of langue in actual use“If we could embrace the sum of word- images stored in the mind of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language (langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.”— Saussure, 1959: 13- 14Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subject of linguistics.5) competence: the idea user’s knowledge of the rules of his language performance: the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.This is the aspect that linguists should study.—Chomsky, 1965: 36) traditional grammar and modern linguisticsLinguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar, on the other hand, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its performance.Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework.* It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definitions of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.1) Language is a system: elements of language are combined according to rules;2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound;4) Language is human-specific.1.2.2 Design features of language1) arbitrariness----By nature, there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds----exceptions: onomatopoeic words, some compound words* It makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) productivity/creativity----It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. ----It is unique to human language.3) duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or twolevels. It enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.----a structure of sounds (the lower or the basic level)----a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words (the higher level)4) displacement----Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.----It provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or space.5) cultural transmission: The details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.1.2.3 Functions of language1) main functionsThe descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. “TheSichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has eversuffered.”The expressive function: it supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices, and values. “I will never go camping with theSimpsons again.”The social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.“How can I help you, Sir?”2) Roman Jakobson: identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one ofthem to one language function.Addresser—Emotive (表情功能): The addresser expresses his attitude to the topicor situation of communication. “I hate whatever they are planning forme!”Addressee—Conative (意动功能、意欲功能、呼吁功能): The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways to thinking. “Whynot go and see another doctor?”Context—Referential (所指功能、指称功能、指向功能): The addresser conveys a message or information. “As far as I know, the earth’s resources arebeing astonishingly wasted.”Message—Poetic (组诗功能、娱乐功能): The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. “poetry”Contact—Phatic communication (寒暄功能): The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. “Hi! Howare you this morning?”Code—Metalinguistic (元语言功能): The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. “Let me tell you what the word anorexiameans.”3) Halliday (systemic-functional grammar)(1) Getting to know you> Write down 3 statements about yourself, one of which is false!> You will then take turns to share these 3 statements in your group, and let your group members guess which statement is false, and why they think it is false.> Once everyone in the group has shared, decide on who has the most interesting statements.> This person will then have the privilege of sharing with the whole class.(2) The ideational function (概念功能): is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world.It is broader than descriptive functionabove, because it also includes theexpression of the speaker’s attitude,evaluation, his feelings and emotions.eg. Peter is a teacher.Peter played tennis yesterday.Peter enjoys travelling.Peter advises his students to study hard.The interpersonal function (交际功能): is to indicate, establish, or maintain socialrelationships between people. Itexpresses the speaker’s role in the speechsituation, his personal commitment andassessment of the social relationshipbetween the addressee and himself.eg. * Who is speaking/writing to whom? Is the relationship between themequal/unequal? What in the text tells us this?* Is the writer-reader relationship intimate/distant? How can we tell?* Is the speaker/writer expressing any kind of involvement/emotion towardsthe hearer/reader or the subject matter? How can we tell from the text?The textual function (语篇功能): is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent withinthemselves and fit the particular situation inwhich they are used.In short: the textual metafunction of language allows us to organise ideas and meanings in a text, to signal prominence and connections in a text, and to signal how a message is structured.eg. lexical repetition—contentconjunction—logical relationship1.3 Assignments1. What are the design features of language?2. List the main functions of language and think of your own examples for illustration.3. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?。