土木工程外文文献翻译

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译

院系：土木工程与建筑系

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附件：Masonry Structure

砌体结构

Masonry Structures

Masonry is one of man’s oldest building materials and probably one of the most maligned and most certainly least understood. Such misconceptions have led over the years to a serious misuse of the material through inadequate or even nonexistent design procedures and poor construction practices. However, perhaps because of the considerable amount of information and data available today, both as to its properties and structural performance, sound design techniques and vastly improved construction practices have evolved within recent years, all of which make for optimum use of the material’s capabilities. This is in no small way due to the effort continually being exerted toward this evolution by such diverse agencies as the International Conference of Building Officials and the Masonry Institute of America (MIA)

Masonry is a totally different and distinct type of construction material, not one that is “sort of like reinforced concrete.” It is not, and should not, be treated as such. Furthermore, the wind, seismic, and structural performance research carried on during the recent past has resulted in building codes of increasing complexity. This, in turn, has led to more sophisticated and comprehensive methods of design.

Masonry is primarily a hand-placed material whose performance is highly influenced by factors of placement. Hence, knowledge of the basic ingredients (i.e., mortar, grout, masonry unit, and reinforcement) is essential if a practical and efficient design conception is to be achieved. In addition, if the design is to be brought to a successful fruition, as its designer conceived it, proper inspection procedures must be followed to ensure that its delivery will be more certain. Furthermore, before anyone can hope to turn out an adequate design of any sort, he or she must possess a rudimentary knowledge of the properties and performance of the material employed.

Next in the process comes the need for a description of the various load sources and intensities, a presentation of the fundamental precepts, and the development of the very basic design and analysis expressions as they evolve from the basic structural mechanics without reference to code limitations or empirical rules. The many code requirements must then be incorporated into these basic expressions and relations to produce an integrated design procedure, one that will result in very practical solutions to the engineering problems normally encountered by structural engineers in everyday practice.

The total design of a masonry building begins with a consideration of the preliminary and nonstructural aspects of masonry bearing on the case study, such as its fire-resistive or

environmental features. Following this examination comes the determination of the live, dead, seismic, and wind loads —their magnitudes and stress paths from point of application to ground. Finally, the member sizes and reinforcing requirements are selected, adequate connections are devised, and the system is detailed such that it can be readily constructed. The latter is an extremely important consideration, but one too often slighted or ignored. In the past, this total concept has not been given the emphasis it deserves. Many textbooks seem to ignore the aspect of stability of the total framing system as it resists lateral loads, focusing instead on the behavior of the individual beams, columns, walls, and other elements comprising the system. Certainly, modern buildings almost everywhere are subjected to significant lateral loads of one type or another to varying degrees of magnitude. The placement of the entire country into seismic zones of various degrees of probability and intensity has only served to accentuate this critical factor. To ignore it is folly, as some have found to their chagrin. It really is not overly difficult to design a building to withstand gravity loads. But developing a lateral-force-resisting system (frame, shear walls, or combination thereof) requires skill and imagination —a process that taxes the ingenuity of structural engineers to come up with solutions that are in all ways safe, practical, and yet economical.

Brick is actually the oldest manufactured building material remaining in use today. In the premodern era, the development of brick masonry reached its fruition in the United States and Europe. The successful use of this ancient material is certainly demonstrated in many early American brick structures, such as in Chicago. But its very massiveness discouraged further use of unreinforced masonry bearing walls for high-rise buildings. This condition remained unchanged for nearly 50 years, awaiting the advent of modern reinforced masonry. The Monadnock represented the watershed, in America at least, of the use of plain masonry bearing walls.

Modern Techniques of Design and Construction

Probably the most advanced state of the art of masonry construction in its present from is to be found in California. With its long history of earthquake activity, this is not surprising. The 1933 Long Beach earthquake proved conclusively that unreinforced masonry, with its lime-mortar joins, cannot adequately withstand seismic shocks because of the lack of tensile and shear resistance. This fact provided the impetus for further development of design techniques for reinforced masonry as well as for improved high-rise construction methods by using a structurally integrated masonry element (masonry unit + mortar + grout +

reinforcement) , thereby producing much greater lateral load resistance. This was an absolutely imperative step if brick masonry were to remain a major construction material. California under the revised building codes. Otherwise, it would have been “codified” out of existence. These advanced techniques of design and construction are embodied in modern high-rise buildings being constructed throughout the United States.

In this new concept of high-rise reinforced masonry, the walls function to carry both the gravity and the lateral forces, and the floors and roofs serve as horizontal diaphragms to transfer wind or seismic loads to the bearing shear walls. To achieve this behavior, however, the floor-to-wall connections must be capable of transferring all lateral forces to or from those walls. In addition, the gravity loads on the walls are counted develop resistance to overturning. This concept results in reduced construction time while providing a final building from that is esthetically pleasing. This type of construction has the advantages of sound control, thermal inertia, fire resistance, and low maintenance—features long associated with masonry structures, and ones that carry a high priority in our present energy-deficient era.

Classifications of Masonry Construction

The classifications of masonry construction and the types of masonry walls appear in the UBC. The distinction between these various categories must be thoroughly understood by anyone who intends to design masonry under UBC jurisdiction. For this reason, they are thoroughly delineated in the following sections.

Masonry construction is classified as follows: (1) “reinforced masonry,” which must be engineered on the basis of sound theoretical principles combined with a set of empirical rules and limitations set forth by the Building Code, plus sound engineering judgment stemming from long experience; (2) “partially reinforced masonry,” which was introduced into the Uniform Building Code primarily for those areas in which all the requirements of reinforced masonry were not needed, since the seismicity of the locale did not so dictate; (3) “unreinforced engineered masonry,”which was developed in the East as an attempt to improve on past practices, many of which were unsound; and (4) “traditional masonry,”which encompasses the use of masonry as it evolved over the years from certain arbitrary limitations and past practices without any real consideration for theoretical design characteristics; although it did provide for a generally conservative and safe type of construction for the majority of conditions.

Types of Masonry Walls

Unburned Clay Masonry

Unburned clay masonry consists of unburned clay units, commonly referred to as “adobe” in the southwestern part of the United States. In earlier and less sophisticated days, it did perform quite satisfactorily where no seismic activity of any magnitude occurred. The early adobe was actually reinforced with straw and often also contained an emulsion that provided for greater compressive strength and durability. No particular energy problem was posed here, since it was sun-dried. Structural connections were a problem and, of course, the adobe possessed practically no tension value. It can still be used in restricted areas with type M or S mortar. At any rate, it served a very important function in the early day, as the numerous missions in California and throughout the Southwest will attest. It also was utilized as an important housing material. The church located in the Los Angeles Plaza, was built of sun-dried clay and protected by plaster.

Gypsum Masonry

Gypsum masonry consists of gypsum block or gypsum tile units laid up with gypsum mortar.It has been used in the past,with considerable success,for interior partitions,primarily because of the ease with which it can be formed around ducts,window openings,and otherdiscontinuities.It is also permitted in some “partially reinforced”walls.

Gypsum tile is laid up in gypsum mortar,similar to that used in plaster.The proportions consist of approximately one part gypsum to three parts sand,mixed with a sufficient amount of water to provide a good workable mortar.Since gypsum is fast-setting,the mortar sets up so rapidly that it has a limited”board”life.Thus,it is generally necessary to add a retarder of some sort,composed usually of certain organic materials.

Gypsum tile,like unreinforced brick masonry,received a bad press after the 1933 Long Beach earthquake,again because of material misuse,not because of any property deficiencies.Without adequate reinforcing and connections,these materials cannot stand up against earthquake load intensities.One method of bolstering the capability of the gypsum wall would be achieved by attaching a”chicken-wire”reinforcing mesh directly to bothsides of the partition.Plaster is then applied over these surfaces.The resulting wire plaster facing has porved to be effective,at least in resisting the perpendicular horizontal loads on a nonbearing wall.A similar approach was advanced back in the 1950s,by the Los Angeles Board of Education,ostensibly as a means of rehabilitating pre-1933 unreinforced masonry school building.

Glass Masonry

Glass masonry units are used in the openings lf non-load bearing exterior or interior walls.These filler panels must be at least 3 in.(1in=1/2ft)thick and the mortared surfaces of

the boocks have to be treated to provide an adequate mortar-bonding effect.This is usually achieved by applying a roughened surface abhesive to the glass edges.

The panels themselves must be restrained laterally to resist the lateral-force effects of winds or earthquakes. Also, the sizes of the exterior panels are arbitrarily limited to a maximum vertical or horizontal dimension of 15 ft (1ft=0.305m) and an area of 144 ft2. For interior glass block panels, these limits are 25 ft and 250 ft2. Exceptions are permissible if calculations can substantiate the deviations.

The glass blocks must be laid in Type S mortar with both vertical and horizontal joints being between 1/4 and 3/8 in.(1 in= 1/12 ft) thick. Reinforcement, as required by calculations, is provided. Exterior glass block panels have to be provided with 1/2-in. expansion joints at the sides and at the top, and they must be entirely free of mortar so that the space can be filled with a resilient material to provide for needed movement. The expansion joint, of course, must also provide for lateral support while permitting expansion and contraction of the glass panel.

Stone Masonry

Stone masonry is that form of construction made with natural or cast stone as the basic masonry unit, set in mortar with the joints thoroughly filled.

In ashlar masonry, the bond stones are uniformly distributed and have to cover at least 10% of the area of the exposed facets. Rubble stone masonry, 24 in. or less in thickness, will have bond stones spaced a maximum of 3 ft both vertically and horizontally. Should the thickness exceed 24 in. , the bond stone spacing is increased to 6 ft on both sides.

There are other limits, arbitrarily established. The maximum height/thickness ratio is 14, and the minimum wall thickness is 16 in. If regularly cut or shaped stones are used, they may be laid as solid or grouted brick masonry.

Cavity Wall Masonry

Cavity wall masonry is construction using brick, structural clay tile, concrete masonry, or any combination thereof, in which the facing and the backing wythes are completely separated except for metal ties that serve as cross ties or bonding elements. This is the type now permitted by the UBC in lieu of an earlier type of cavity wall masonry, in which the two faces of the walls were separate but bonded together with transverse solid masonry units. The maximum height/thickness ratio is limited to 18, with the minimum thickness being 8in.

The cavity wall facing and backing wythes cannot be less than 4 in. in thickness, expect that when both are constructed with clay or shale brick the limit decreases to 3 in.

nominal thickness. The separating cavity must be between 1 and 4in. in width; however, special calculation in tie size or spacing may permit the use of greater or lesser cavities The two wythes have to be bonded together with 3/16in. metal ties embedded in the horizontal mortar joint. Tie spacing is limited such that they support to more than 4.5ft of wall area for cavity widths up to 3.5in. Where the cavity width exceeds 3.5 in. this limit becomes 3ft of wall area. The tie spacing is always staggered in alternate courses, with the maximum vertical distance between ties being 24in. and the maximum horizontal spacing 35 in. For hollow masonry units laid with the cells vertical, the ties have to be rectangular in shape. Where other types of units are units are used, a 90 bend provides the special anchorage. Additional bonding ties must be placed at all openings, spaced at 3 ft maximum around the perimeter of the openings, within 12in. of openings.

Hollow Unit Masonry

Hollow unit masonry describes a type of wall construction that consists of hollow masonry units set in mortar as they are laid in the wall. All units have to be laid with full-face shell mortar beds, with the head or end joints filled solidly with mortar for a distance in from the face of the unit not less than the thickness of the longitudinal face shells. This type of construction usually refers to an unreinforced state, although it actually can be reinforce.

Where the wall thickness consists of two or more hollow units placed side by side, the stretcher unit must be bonded at vertical intervals not to exceed 34 in. This bonding is accomplished by lapping a block at least 4in. over the unit below, or by lapping them at vertical intervals not to exceed 17. whit units that are at least 50% greater in thickness than the units below. They can also be bonded together with corrosion-resistant metal ties which conform to those requirements for cavity walls, as previously noted. Ties at alternate courses need to be staggered, with the maximum vertical distance between ties being 18. and the maximum horizontal distance 36. walls bonded with metal ties must then conform to the allowable stress, lateral support, thickness(excluding cavity), height, and mortar requirements for cavity walls. Since this material is not reinforced, the maximum height/thickness ratio is 18, with a minimum thickness of 8 in.

Solid masonry

Solid masonry consists of brick, or solid load-bearing concrete masonry units laid up contiguously in mortar. All units are laid with full shoved mortar joints, and the head, bed, and wall joints have to be solidly filled with mortar. In each wythe, at least 75% of the units in any vertical transverse plane must lap the ends of the unit above and below a distance not

less than 1.5 in.. , nor less than one-half the height of the units, whichever is greater. Otherwise, the masonry is to be reinforced longitudinally to provide for a loss of bond, as in the case of masonry laid in stack bond. The longitudinal reinforcement amounts to a minimum of two continuous wires in each wythe, with a minimum total cross-sectional area of 0.017 in2. being provided in the horizontal bed joints, with the spacing not to exceed 16 in. center to center vertically. Considerable dispute has arisen over this arbitrarily selected amount of reinforcement. For example, if one uses 6-in.-high units, the horizontal reinforcement may be spaced at 18 in. instead of 16 in. so that it conforms to the module of three 6-in. courses. This alternative of replacing the masonry unit bond by reinforcing steel is more significant with concrete units than with clay units, simply because the mortar bond to clay units is generally better than the mortar bond to concrete units. Even more important, the clay units do not have the very considerable drying shrinkage characteristic that the concrete units possess. On the contrary, clay units undergo a slight expansion due to moisture content rather than demonstrating any tendency to shrink.

Facing and backing can be bonded with corrosion-resistant unit metal ties or cross wires conforming to the cavity wall requirements previously noted. The unit ties have to be long enough to engage all wythes, with the ends embedded no less than 1 in. in mortar, or they can consist of two lengths, with the inner embedded ends hooked lapped not less than 2 in. When the space between the metal tied wythes is solidly filled with mortar, the allowable stresses and other provision for bonded masonry walls apply. However, where the space is not filled, they must meet the requirements for cavity walls.

砌体结构

砌体是人类最早的建筑材料之一，也许也是众所周知的最有害的建筑材料之一。这种错误的想法导致了制定出不充分的过程及建造出不充足的结构建造，从而滥用了大量的材料。然而，或许今天因为有大量准确的信息和数据，在最近的几年里，人民提升了砌体的特性、结构性能、运用了音效设计技术，提高了施工实践,这些都使得人们能对材料的性能进行选择。这不是简简单单就能实现的，因为像国际建筑会议和蒸压加气混凝土砌体学院这样各式各样的机构都不断的在这方面做出努力。

砌体是一种十分不同及特殊的建筑材料，不同于加强混凝土这类的建筑材料。它不能或是不应该被当作这类材料，并且，近几年来研究的风作用，地震作用及结构特殊使得建筑规范不停地变复杂。进而这就导致了更加复杂和综合合面的设计概念。

砌体是一种重要的材料，其性能深受其利作因素的影响。因此假如想要做成一个实际的、有效的设计概念的建筑，对其成分（如砂浆，浆液，砌体单位和加固材料）的了解都是必须的。

除此之外，如果设计师想要将设计建成一座与自己期望一样的建筑，就应该采取一些适当的检措施，以便设计能很好地反应到建筑上。并且，任何人想要设计出一个充分的设计，就必须要对使用的材料的特性和性能有一定初步的了解。

接下来，在这个过程中需要知道各种道路资源及其密集度，基本规律的体现，其中设计和分析经验，因为这些在没有涉及到规范限制或经验规定的情况下都有牵涉到基本的结构体制。

将诸多的规范要求并入这些基本的形式和关系中来建立一个完整的设计程序，这样的程序就能够非常实际地解决结构工程师们再实际问题中通常会遇到的工程问题。

砌体建筑的完整设计是从考虑砌体初步的和非结构的细节方面开始的，比如说它的抗火性或是其环境特性。考虑完这些检验后，就应该决定活载，恒载，地震荷载，风载——即它们的应用点到地面的大小和途径。最后，要选择构件的尺寸和强厚要求，设置充分的节点，详细系统以致其进入待建阶段。要十分认真地考虑后者，也是经常十分不起眼的或是易被忽视的。在过去，这种完整的概念从未被给予其应有的重视。许多的课本似乎都忽视了整体框架系统的稳定性方面的作用，因为其承受横向荷载，而是注重独立梁、柱、墙和其它构成系统的因素。当然，大多数现代建筑都承受了一类或另一类的显著的荷载。将整个国家区域划分为有一定可能性和密集度的不同强度的震区，仅仅只是强调了其重要因素。当一些人发现了它的懊恼，他们就会去避免这样的愚行。要设计一座只承受重力荷载的建筑，是真的不会太难。但是，要设计一种承受横向力的系

统（横梁，剪刀墙或是有关的连结）就需要技术和想象。这是一个考验结构工程师的过程是否有提出能完全安全，实际和经济的解决方案的独创性。

砖确实是沿用至今的最老的人工建筑。在现代化前夕期间，砖砌体的发展在美洲及欧洲达到了顶尖的阶段。在许多年前美洲的砖结构，这种古老建材的成功使用当然也被证实了，比如说在芝加哥。但这也体现出了无筋砌体受刀墙在高层建筑中得严重不足。这体现传统在过去将近的50年都没有改变，在此期间，等待着现代加墙砌体的出现。最近在美国出现的代表了素砖体承加墙使用的分水岭。

设计和结构的现代技术

在砌体结构工艺这方面走在世界前沿的大概是加利福利亚。因为其有着长远的地震历史，所以这也是不足为怪。1933年的大地震决定性地证明了无加强砌体如果没有石灰砂浆连结的话，就不能充分承受地震荷载。这是因为其延性及抗剪性的不足。通过结构整体性砌体元素（如砌体单位、砂浆、浆液及加固材料）的使用，这个事实不仅促进了高层结构理论的提高，而且促进了加墙砌体设计的长远发展，因此，就产生了更大的横向荷载抵抗力。假如砖砌体用来作为大部分的结构材料，那么这是一个绝对必要的步骤。否则其存在将会被肃清。在全美国，先进的设计和构造技术都体现在了正在进行建造的高层中。

在高层加强砌体的新概念中，墙的功能是负责承受重力和垂直力，楼屋面的作用是作为传递器将风载或地震荷载转换到剪刀墙上。然而，为了达到这一特性，楼面与墙的连结点必须有能力传递从墙上来到墙上去的荷载。这种概念致使建筑时间减少，与此同时，最终提供了极富美感和令人愉快的建筑。这种类型的建造物具有隔音，隔热，隔火和低维修等优点。

这些特点是砌体长时间具有的，并且砌体是我们在能源不足领域的等一选择。

砌体建筑的分类

砌体结构的分类及砌体墙的分类记录在VBC中。各种类型的区别必须彻底地想到设计砌体的任何一个人都需要在VBC的限制下区分各种类型的区别。因为这个原因，砌体将以下方面完全地描绘出来。

砌体结构分为以下几类：（1）“加强砌体”，其设计必需基于可靠的理论原则因素，加上一系列的经验原则和来自建筑规范的限制，再加上一些源自长久经验的可能的工程判断。（2）“部分加强砌体”。由于在一些领域因当地震级没有指出加强砌体不是必须的，从而部分加强砌体首次被引进到建筑规范中。（3）“非加强工程砌体”。其在西部的发展是为了提高已建的建筑，大多数这样的建筑是补稳固的。（4）“传统砌体”。其包含了砌体的所有作用。尽管其在大多数条件下提供了普通传统的，安全的建筑。由于传统砌体牵涉到多年的限制及过去没有理论上设计特点的真正

原因的建筑。

石膏砌块

石膏砌块由以石膏砂浆为奠基的石膏砌块或石膏砖单位组成。它在过去一直都成功的被运用于室内隔断，主要是因为易于形成围绕，窗开口和其它的不连续性。它还允许在一些”部分钢筋“墙。石膏瓦放在石膏砂浆，类似于用于石膏组成。所占的比例大约一部分石膏三部分砂，混有足够量的水提供了一个良好的可行的迫击炮。因为石膏砂浆快速设置，设置如此迅速，它有一个有限的“板”的生活。因此，一般是要加减速器之类的，通常是一些有机物组成。

石膏瓦，像无筋砖砌体，在1933年的长滩地震后收到了一个坏消息，又是因为物质滥用，而不是因为任何财产不足。没有足够的加强和连接，这些材料不能抵挡地震荷载强度。一个增强石膏墙能力的方法将实现在附加的“网状”钢筋网直接向双方的分区。石膏，然后应用在这些表面。由此所面临的电线石膏被证明了是有效的，至少在抵抗垂直水平荷载对非承重墙。类似的做法是在先前的20世纪50年代，他们被教育局，作为表面上的一种手段，恢复pre-1933无筋砌体建筑学校。

玻璃砖砌体

玻璃砖砌体单位使用于开口，如果非承重外墙或内墙。这些填充面板必须至少为3英寸（1=1 /2英尺）厚，砂浆表面的boocks必须视为提供足够的砂浆粘合效果。这通常是通过应用一个粗糙的表面的粘合剂玻璃边面板本身必须抑制横向抵御大风或地震侧向力的影响。此外，外墙板的大小任意限制是最大纵向或横向尺寸为15英尺（1英尺=0.305m）和占地144平方英尺。对于室内玻璃块板，这些限制是25英尺和250平方英尺。例外是允许的，如果计算可以证实偏差。

玻璃块必须放在与S型砂浆垂直和水平的关节之间的1 /4和3 /8英寸（1=1 /12英尺）厚。加固，通过计算提供。外部块玻璃板必须提供1/ 2英寸。伸缩缝的两侧和顶部，他们必须是完全自由的空间，以便可以提供所需的运动用弹性材料填充砂浆。当然，还必须提供侧向支持，同时允许玻璃面板的扩张和收缩。

石砌体

石砌筑，建筑形式与自然或铸铁设置，彻底填补了缝砂浆的基本砌块石。

在方石砌筑，联结的石头是均匀分布的，必须支付至少10％的面积暴露面。块石砌筑，24英寸，厚度减少，将有联结石头间隔3英尺的最大垂直和水平。如果厚度超过24英寸，联结石间距增加至6英尺两侧。

还有其他的限制，任意设定。最大高度/厚度比为14，最小壁厚是16英寸。如果定期切割或外形石头被使用，也可以作为固体或灌浆砖砌体。

空腔墙体

空腔墙体是建筑用砖结构粘土瓦，混凝土砌块，或其任意组合，在面临与支持板层完全分离除金属的关系作为交叉关系或键元素。这是现在所允许的不列颠哥伦比亚大学代替先前的空腔墙体，其中两面墙壁分开但粘合在一起的横向实心砌块。最大高度/厚度比是18，最小厚度8英寸。

面对和支持板层的空腔墙不能小于4英寸的厚度，在厚度，预计当由粘土或页岩砖构造的限制下降低到3英寸，公称厚度。分离腔必须介于1和4英寸。然而在宽度，在领带尺寸或间距的特殊计算可允许使用较大或较小的腔。

两个板层必须要以3/16英寸的间距粘合在一起，金属埋在水平灰缝。领带间距是有限的，他们支持间距超过墙面积的4.5英尺腔宽度可达3.5英寸。凡腔的宽度超过3.5英寸，这种限制成为墙体面积的3英尺。领带的间距是交错交替课程，与之间的最大垂直距离是24英寸的关系。和最高水平间距奠定细胞垂直空心砌体单位的35英寸关系必须是长方形的。在其他类型的单位，单位的使用，90个弯曲提供了专用锚具。间隔在3英尺的最大开口周长周围的所有开口，在12英寸以内，必须放置在额外的粘接关系，开口。

空心砌块

空心砌块，介绍一种由空心砌块集砂浆作为墙体施工放在墙上。所有单位必须制定与全断面壳砂浆层，用头或端接头牢固砂浆与距离从表面单位不低于厚度的纵向面壳。这种结构通常是指一个无筋状态，尽管它实际上可以加强。

在墙的厚度由两根或多个中空单元并排放置，担架单位必须在保税区的垂直间隔不超过34英寸。这种结合是实现研磨块至少4英寸。在单位，或研磨垂直间隔不超过17。在单位，至少有50%个更大的厚度比低于单位。它们也可以以耐腐蚀金属的关系结合在一起，符合腔墙壁的这些要求，正如先前所指出的。在其他课程需要错开，以最大垂直距离之间18的关系和最大水平距离36。壁粘结金属关系必须遵守的容许应力，侧向支撑，厚度（不含腔），高度，和空心墙的砂浆要求。由于这种材料是补巩固，最大高度/厚度比为18，最小厚度8英寸。

实心砌块

实心砌块由连续以砂浆为奠定基础的砖，或固体承重混凝土砌块组成。所有单位都把灰缝放满，头部，床，与墙的接缝都是充满了灰缝。在每个威思，至少有75%个单位在任何垂直横向平面必须圈两端的单元的上方和下方的距离不少于1.5英寸，也不少于单位的一半高度，以较高者为准。否则，砌体是要从加强纵向损失的联结中，在堆积联结奠定砌体的情况下提供。纵向钢筋数量至少2连续线在每个威思，以最小的总截面积为0.017平方英寸，所提供的水平灰缝，在间隔不超过16英寸，中心到中心垂直。相当大的争议发生在任意选定的数额加固。例如，如果使用

6英寸高的单位，横向加固可间隔在18英寸而不是16英寸。所以其符合三个6英寸模块课程。这种代替砌体单位联结的钢筋混凝土单元，是比用粘土单位的具体单位更为重要，只是因为砂浆粘结粘土单位通常是优于砂浆粘结混凝土单元。更重要的是，粘土单位没有非常可观的干燥收缩特性，而具体单位拥有。反之，粘土单位进行轻微扩张不是由于水分含量而显示任何收缩倾向。

面对和备份，可粘接耐腐蚀的单元金属关系或交叉线，符合前面提到的腔内壁要求。单位关系必须有足够长的时间粘合板层，与两端嵌不低于1英寸在砂浆。或者也可以由两根，与内嵌入端钩形搭接不小于2英寸。当空间之间的金属板层牢固的绑满砂浆，保税砌石墙的容许应力和其他条文适用。然而，没有填补空间，他们必须满足空心墙的要求。