A Cognitive Perspective in Metaphor and Psycholinguistic Constraints on Its Transfer
翻译中的隐喻性认知概要
上海科技翻译ShanghaiJournalofTranslatorsforScienceandTechnology2001No.3翻译中的隐喻性认知谢之君(上海大学外国语学院,上海200436)[摘要]翻译不仅是语言形式的转换,更是译者积极的思维认知活动。
研究翻译思维有助于更深刻地理解和认识翻译过程、翻译理论、翻译方法等。
,为翻译思维研究提供一个新的视角。
[关键词]翻译思维;隐喻;认知[中图分类号]HA]100026141(2001)03200012061难点之一就是人类的基本思维方式的确定以及和思维与语言的关系问题。
本文试图运用西方隐喻性认知的理论,进行翻译思维过程的初步探讨。
2认知隐喻的基本观点及运作机制2.1基本观点翻译从表面上看就是在两种不同的语言体系之间进行形式转换,而在形式转换的背后,却存在着极其复杂的认知活动。
这项活动是通过认知主体即译者自身来完成的。
翻译以语言为载体,而语言符号又是思维的载体。
符号转换是外在的、表面的;思维转换是内在的,深层的。
翻译过程简单来说可归纳为原语的理解和目的语的表达。
原语符号是固定的、不可变更的言语组合,所以,理解是认知主体通过原语的言语符号逆向还原其表征对象(包括所指、情感等意义);目的语则先是以其体系性存在于译者的大脑中,在原语表征对象的制约下作适当调节选择后化为具体言语符号,结果是不稳定的、可变的,所以,直接表达的不再是原语符号,而是认知主体在理解思维过程中所获得的所指意义和相关信息。
这是一个翻译过程,也是一个认知的过程。
在任何一个环节上,翻译主体的认知能力和思维取向都起着举足轻重的作用。
揭示翻译规律,确立翻译标准,评判翻译优劣,我们很有必要将研究的目光转向翻译主体认知思维规律上来。
然而,揭示翻译思维规律并非易事。
其中七十年代以来,隐喻一直是西方语言学家、哲学家和心理学家的热门话题,至今方兴未艾。
虽然在语言层面隐喻与非隐喻的划分上以及研究的目的、途径上,学者见仁见智,有所不同,但在隐喻的认知功能上基本取得了共识(参见Riceour,1975;GLakoff,andMJohnson.,1980;GLakoff,1989;EMacComac,1985,1989;MB lack,1962;BIndurkhya,1992;IvaKittay,1987;Richards&C.K,Orgden.1923;.CIE学Sweetser,1995;R.RVerbrugge,1980)。
温州大学英语语言学考研真题2012、2015—2018年
2012年硕士研究生招生入学考试试题科目代码及名称: 817 英语语言学A卷适用专业：英语语言文学I. Explain the following terms. (25%)1. endocentric construction;2. denotation;3. psycholinguistics;4. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis;5. minimal piars II. Decide whether each of the given statements is TRUE or FALSE. If it is true, write down A on your ANSWER SHEET; if it is false, write down B on it. (20%)1. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.2. Morphemes such as –ing, -ed, -able, are known as inflectional morphemes.3. The affixes in the English language are traditionally called bound morphemes.4. In separating langue from parole we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what isindividual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory.5. By Saussure, arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meaning.6. Suprasegmentals mainly include syllables, tone, intonation, distinctive features.7. In English, we can have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC.8. By Leonard Bloomfield (1933), word should be treated as “the minimum free form”.9. The different shapes or phonetic forms of a morpheme are allomorphs of this morpheme, e.g. the differentforms of the plural morpheme in English are /s/, /z/, /iz/, and so on.10. ad, bike, math, etc. are instances of backformation.11. Noam Chomsky is hailed as the father of modern linguistics.12. Systemic-Functional grammar consists of the two inseparable components --- Systemic Grammar andFunctional Grammar.13. The TEXTUAL FUNCTION refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch ofspoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.14. Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some morphological resemblance.15. The first stage of TG grammar is the Standard Theory, and the fifth stage of it is the Minimalist Program.16. Sense refers to the concrete entities with some properties, while reference refers to the abstract propertiesof an entity.17. Propositional Logic treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole, while Predicate Logic studies theinternal structure of simple propositions.18. Children’s first words are different in different language environments.19. Among the three levels of categories, the subordinate level categories are most culturally salient and arerequired to fulfill our cognitive needs the best.20.Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are closed-class words.III. Give brief answers to the following questions (30%)1. Do you think there are true synonyms in English? Why?2. Why do we need to teach culture in our language classroom?3. What is the relation between arbitrariness and conventionality?IV. Do the analysis as required (25%)1. Disambiguate the following sentences, using the tree diagrams. (15%)(1) John left the book on the shelf.(2) The professor’s appointment was shocking.(3) Beautiful villages and cities can be seen.2. Make the componential analysis of the following words. (10%)(1) chopsticks; (2) teacher; (3) son; (4) take; (5) giveV. Write an essay in about 500 words after reading the following quote (50%)The word TEXT is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. We know, as a general rule, whether any specimen of our own language constitutes a TEXT or not. This does not mean there can never be any uncertainty. The distinction between a text and a collection of unrelated sentences is in the last resort a matter of degree, and there may always be instances about which we are uncertain – a point that is probably familiar to most teachers from reading their students’ compositions. But this does not invalidate the general observation that we are sensitive to the distinction between what is text and what is not. (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 1)第 1 页，共 2 页2015年硕士研究生招生入学考试试题（A卷）科目代码及名称: 820 英语语言学适用专业：英语语言文学01、03方向考生（请考生在答题纸上答题，在此试题纸上答题无效）I. Discriminate the following pairs of terms. (25 points)1. psycholinguistics vs. cognitive linguistics;2. error vs. mistake ;3. competence vs. communicative competence ;4. synchronic vs. diachronic ;5. phonetics vs. phonology.II. Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. If it is true, write A on the answer sheet; if it is false, write B on it. (20 points)1. The study of language in use is called pragmatics.2. Chomsky has been called father of modern linguistics.3. The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality.4. There are three main subtypes of antonymy: gradable antonymy, converse antonymy, and relational antonymy.5. We can divide a syllable into two parts, the RHYME (or RIME) and the ONSET. The vowel within the rhyme is the NUCLEUS, with the consonant(s) after it termed the CODA.6. The study of how words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.7. The sound [s] is shared by “maps” and “keeps” as a common morpheme.8. When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a NARROW TRANSCRIPTION.9. The change of the negative prefix “in-” to “im-” when preceding /p/ is through a process called assimilation.10. The lower terms for a superordinate are class members.11. Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.12. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which a derivational affix can be added.13. The word “interpersonal” consists of three morphemes.14. Nouns, adverbs, and adjectives belong to function words.15. Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds.第 1 页，共 2 页16. Langue is defined by Saussure as the concrete utterances of a speaker.17. Positional relation, or word order, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.18. All the words in a language can be used to refer to, but only some have senses.19. Sense is regarded as a kind of intralinguistic relationship.20. The word “baby-sit” is an exocentric compound.III. Answer the following questions. (30 points)1. How do you comment on Paul Herbert Grice’s CP(COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE)?2. How do you interpret REGISTER?IV. Analysis. (25 points)1. Write down the phonetic symbol according to each of the following descriptions, andthen give an English word that contains this sound. (10 points)Phonetic description phonetic symbol English word(1) bilabial nasal [ ](2) voiced postalveolar affricate [ ](3) voiceless velar stop [ ](4) mid central unrounded lax vowel [ ](5) back high rounded tense vowel [ ]2. Disambiguate the given two constructions below using IC (immediate constituent) analysis. Tree diagrams are required. (10 points)(1) John loves old towns and villages.(2) The children watched the firework from the hill.3. Write out the semantic components of each word. (5 points)(1) raise; (2) wifeV. Write a short essay in about 500 words on either of the two topics below.(50 points)1. In Chinese, expressions for moving from one city to another by way of yet another city must take the form ‘from X pass-through Y to Z’, and cannot be expressed as ‘from X to Z pass-through Y’. How would you characterize the form-meaning relationship exhibited by these Chinese expressions?2. Is it necessary to distinguish between semantics and pragmatics? Please argue for your view.第 2 页，共 2 页2016年硕士研究生招生考试试题（A卷）科目代码及名称: 820 英语语言学适用专业：英语语言文学01、03方向考生（请考生在答题纸上答题，在此试题纸上答题无效）I. Define the following terms. (50 points)1. I-narrator;2. locutionary act;3. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis;4. reference;5. relational opposites;6. exocentric construction;7. back-formation;8. blending;9. phonology; 10. competenceII. Answer the two given questions. (30 points)1. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?2. How does language relate to culture?III. Analyses. (20 points)1. Write out the different meanings of the following two ambiguous constructions. (10 points)(1) The chicken is too hot to eat.(2) Visiting relatives can be boring.2. Do the componential analysis on the lexical meanings of the given words below. (10 points)(1) raise; (2) wifeIV. Write a short essay in about 500 words on either of the two topics below.(50 points)1. In cognitive linguistics, metaphor is not a figure of speech merely, it is conceptual. In what sense is metaphor said to be conceptual?2. Give a comment on Noam Chomsky’s Innateness Hypothesis.第 1 页，共 1 页2017年硕士研究生招生考试试题 (A卷)科目代码及名称: 820 英语语言学适用专业：英语语言文学01、03方向考生I. Define the following terms. (30 points)1. exocentric;2. phonology;3. root;4. converse antonymy;5. Nida’s classification of culture;6. constativeII. Analyses. (30 points)1. Use tree diagrams in IC analysis to clarify the given constructions. (15 points)(1) beautiful cities and villages(2) Chinese geography teachers(3) The boy was crying.2. Describe the following sound segments. (15 points)(1) /d/; (2) /n/; (3) /θ/; (4) /ʌ/; (5) /æ/; (6) /ә:/III. Answer the given questions below. (40 points)1. What are some important contributions that sociolinguistics has made to linguistic studies? (10 points)2. Do you think there are true synonyms in English? Why (not)? (10 points)3. In what way do we say Chinese is a tone language? (10 points)4. What is the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes? (10 points) IV. Write a short essay in about 500 words on the given topic. (50 points) What is your understanding of the relationship between language and literature?第1 页，共1 页2018年硕士研究生招生考试试题科目代码及名称: 820 英语语言学适用专业：英语语言文学01、03方向考生（请考生在答题纸上答题，在此试题纸上答题无效）I. Define the following terms. (30 points)(1) allophone; (2) free morpheme; (3) design features;(4) complementary antonymy; (5) endocentric construction; (6) referenceII. Analyses. (30 points)1. Use tree diagrams in IC analysis to clarify the given constructions. (10 points)(1) Leave the book on the shelf.(2) Mary became very ill.2. Describe the following sound segments. (10 points)(1) /t/; (2) /m/; (3)/s/; (4) /i:/; (5) /u/;3. Write out the semantic components of each word. (10 points)(1) gentleman; (2) killIII. Answer the given questions below. (40 points)1. How do you understand the distinction between performance and competence? (10 points)2. What would language be like if it had not the property of duality? (10 points)3. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? (10 points)4. Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics? (10 points)IV. Write a short essay in about 500 words on the given topic. (50 points) What is pragmatic failure? Support your statement with some instances of pragmatic failure in the English used by Chinese learners of English.第 1 页，共 1 页。
Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
3.1.1 Metaphor and metonymy as figures of speech
Traditionally, metaphors and metonymies have been regarded as figures of speech, i.e. as more or less ornamental devices used in rhetorical style. Metaphor: a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. (Webster’s New World Dictionary) Metonymy: a figure of speech that consists in using the name of one thing for that of something else with which it is associated. (Webster’s New International Dictionary) Examples: Happiness is like sunshine: it is made up of very little beams. (simile) The sunshine of life is made up of very little beams. (metaphor) The kettle is boiling. (metonymy)
Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
外国隐喻研究综述英文版
外国隐喻研究综述英文版A Review of Foreign Metaphor ResearchesMetaphor, as a fundamental feature of language, has received extensive attention in linguistic studies. In recent years, research in metaphor has been expanded beyond the traditional domain of language to include various fields such as psychology, communication, and literature. This article provides a comprehensive review of foreign metaphor researches.Firstly, cognitive metaphor theory, proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, has become the mainstream theory in metaphor study. They believed that metaphor was not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a cognitive one, which formed the basis for human conceptualization. Many researchers have applied this theory to explore metaphor usage in various cultural contexts, revealing significant differences between languages and cultures in the conceptualization of abstract concepts, such as time, emotion, and morality.Secondly, the relationship between metaphor and communication has been widely studied. Research in this field mainly focuses on the role of metaphor in advertising, political discourse and media coverage. Metaphors are powerful communication tools that can shape people's attitudes, behaviors and beliefs. The study of metaphors in communication has significant implications for understanding how language is used to shape social reality.Thirdly, metaphor has been widely studied in literature, especially in poetry. Many literary works are imbued withmetaphorical expressions, which add aesthetic value and depth to a text. Researches in this field aim to investigate how metaphor is used in literature and how it affects readers' interpretation and appreciation of a work.Finally, the metaphor study also includes theapplication of metaphorical thinking in various fields, such as education and business. Metaphorical thinking helps to promote creativity and innovation and has been applied to various aspects of education, such as pedagogy and curriculum design. In business, metaphorical thinking is used in marketing and branding to generate innovative ideas and improve product design and communication.In conclusion, metaphor research has been expanding across various fields. The cognitive metaphor theory, communication, literature, and application have been the main areas of research. Future studies should pay attention to the differences in metaphorical usage across languages and cultures and explore the potential application of metaphorical thinking in other domains. The study of metaphor can help us better understand language, communication, literature and how people think and act.。
language and cognition
认知也可以称为认识。是指人认识外界事物的过程，或者说是对作 用于人的感觉器官的外界事物进行信息加工的过程。它包括感觉、 知觉、记忆、思维、想象、言语，是指人们认识活动的过程，即个 体对感觉信号接收、检测、转换、简约、合成、编码、储存、提取、 重建、概念形成、判断和问题解决的信息加工处理过程。
Consequently, this description tends to apply to processes such as
memory, association, concept formation, pattern recognition, language, attention, perception, action, problem solving and mental imagery.
人类的大脑和认知功能的演变是由不同的网络或反馈过程的遗传和环境系 统底层。
Psychology 心理学
When the mind makes a
generalization such as the
concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking.
1)Acquisition
2)Comprehension
3)Production 4)Disorder 5)Language and thought 6)Neurocognition
An introduction of language acquisition
隐喻含义的认知阐释
2009年第4期总第241期外语与外语教学Foreign Languages and Their Teaching 2009,№4Serial №241・版权所有 文责自负・作者简介:朱建新,副教授,研究方向:认知语言学,语用学收稿日期:2009-02-18(修改稿)隐喻含义的认知阐释朱建新(淮阴工学院外语系,江苏淮安 223001) 摘 要:在隐喻研究史上从认知角度对隐喻作出阐释的理论主要有:R ichards &B lack 的“互动理论”、Lakoff &Johns on 的“概念隐喻理论”以及Sperber &W ils on 的“关联理论”。
本文在论述这三种认知理论的基础上,探讨它们对隐喻阐释的理据、方式及局限性。
关键词:隐喻;认知研究;三种认知理论A Study on the Cogn iti ve I n terpret a ti on of M etaphorZHU J ianx in(Fo re ign L anguage D ep a rt m en t ,H ua iyin Ins titu te of Techno logy ,H ua i πan 223001)Abstract:Based on three main cognitive theories ofmetaphor,namely,Interaction Theory,ConceptualMetaphor Theory and Relevance Theory,the pa 2per explores their motivations,ways and li m itations in metaphor interpretation.Key W ords:metaphor;cognitive study;three cognitive theories中图分类号:H0 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1004-6038(2009)04-0018-04 对隐喻的研究可分为三个传统:一是修辞学传统,二是哲学传统,三是语言学传统。
认知语言学中的隐喻
２００６年第２期认知语言学中的隐喻赵虹（燕山大学外国语学院，河北秦皇岛０６６００４）［摘要］本文对隐喻研究的历史和现状进行了分析和探讨。
其中包括：国外对于隐喻研究的历史发展和特点、隐喻的成因和功能、隐喻理论的运行模式、隐喻的识别和理解及个人的评述。
［关键词］隐喻认知分析［中图分类号］Ｈ０－０６［文献标识码］Ａ［文章编号］（２００６）０２－００５５－６２００６年第２期总第５４期Ｎｏ．２．２００６ＴｏｔａｌＮｏ．５４北京化工大学学报（社会科学版）ＪｏｕｒｎａｌＢｅｉｊｉｎｇＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｏｆＣｈｅｍｉｃａｌＴｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ（ＳｏｃｉａｌＳｃｉｅｎｃｅｓＥｄｉｔｉｏｎ）［收稿日期］２００６－４－１９［作者简介］赵虹（１９７１－），女，吉林人，燕山大学外国语学院讲师。
一、隐喻研究的历史及特点从亚里斯多德学派开始，对隐喻的研究一向被看作是边缘学科，主要局限于诗学和修辞学的领域。
在这段时期，隐喻被视为表达同一意义的语言手段，范围限于词汇层次，即仅把隐喻看成是润色的工具，而并未充分认识到隐喻既是语言的文体特征，也是语言的认知特征。
到了１９世纪，柏拉图学派认识到，隐喻是人类内部的一种机制，既反映了语言的本质，又反映了人类的本质。
２０世纪８０年代以来，对隐喻的语义研究逐渐兴起，这时，隐喻已经被认为是新的意义产生的语义现象，对隐喻的研究已经上升到句子层面，主要代表人物有布莱克和理查兹的焦点框架理论和互动理论。
随着认知语言学的兴起，隐喻又一次成为认知范式中的研究焦点。
因为，隐喻处于人类独有的认知能力的心脏部位，负责意义的产出、传送和加工。
此时的隐喻不仅被看作是一种修饰话语的修辞现象，而且更重要的是被视为一种人类的认知现象———以某一领域的经验来说明或理解另一领域的经验，是人们对抽象范畴进行概念化的认知工具。
目前，隐喻的研究范围正向多学科、多层次的方向扩展，如Ｌａｋｏｆｆ等人的隐喻认知观等。
笔者主要就隐喻的成因和在认知领域的功能做了初步探讨。
语言和认知.ppt
For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word.
Access to words
Conceptualization: what to express Word selection: a competitive process Morpho-phonological encoding: target words
20
Written language production
11
Lexical factors in comprehension
The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon.
33
3.3 Image Schema
Johnson, Mark. 1987.The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. Chicago:
Similar to spoken language. Orthographic form instead of
phonological form. However, phonology plays an
国外认知语言学研究现状综述
国外认知语言学研究现状综述［作者：王德春张辉来源：《外语研究》2001年3期点击数：更新时间：2005-10-11 文章录入：xhzhang］【字体：】1．引言二十世纪七十年代末和八十年代，许多语言学家认识到生成语法研究范围的局限性，开始从认知的角度来研究语言现象。
八十年代末，认知语言学初步形成，其标志是第一届国际认知语言学大会（Duisburg, Germany 1989）的召开和1990 年《认知语言学》杂志(Cognitive Linguistics)的出版。
认知语言学大会每二年召开一次，至今，已举办了七届。
在整个八十年代和九十年代初，出版了一批摘引率较高的认知语言学著作。
例如Lakoff 和Johnson(1980), Talmy(1983), Fillmore(1985), Fauconnier(1985), Lakoff(1987), Langacker(1987,1991)，Talmy(1988)，Rudzka-Ostyn (1988), Lakoff 和Turner (1989)，Sweetser(1990) 和认知语言学研究系列（CLR）第一辑Langacker(1989)。
这些著作确立了认知语言学的基本研究框架。
该框架有以下五个研究主题：（1）语言研究必须同人的概念形成过程的研究联系起来。
（2）词义的确立必须参照百科全书般的概念内容和人对这一内容的解释(construal)。
（3）概念形成根植于普遍的躯体经验( bodily experience)，特别是空间经验，这一经验制约了人对心理世界的隐喻性建构。
（4）语言的方面面都包含着范畴化，并以广义的原型理论为基础。
（5）认知语言学并不把语言现象区分为音位、形态、词汇、句法和语用等不同的层次，而是寻求对语言现象统一的解释。
目前，认知语言学研究呈现出多样化并涉及到语言现象的各个方面，在本文中我们试选出几个有重要理论价值的研究，简述其来龙去脉和主要的研究成果，并指出认知语言学的一些发展趋势。
cognitivelinguistics
What is cognitive linguistics?
Definition: Cognitive linguistics is an
approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
What is cognitive linguistics?
Background of CL. 1.Academic background
1)reaction to TG represented by N.Chomsky (syntax), a direct stimulus 2)stumulated by cognitive science (cognitive psychology neurobiology), an indirect stimulus
Cognitive Models…
①ICM (认知模型： 理想化认知模式)
We organize our knowledge by means of structures called idealized cognitive model, or ICM. The ideas about cognitive models that we will be making use of have developed within cognitive linguistics and come from four sources. Each ICM is a complex structured whole, a gestalt, which uses four kinds of structuring principles:
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维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com Ａ Ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅ Ｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ ｉｎ Ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ａｎｄ Ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ Ｃｏｎｓｔｒａｉｎｔｓ ｏｎ Ｉｔｓ Ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒ Ｉｎ ｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌ ｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓ，ｔｈｅｒｅ ａｒｅ ｔｈｒｅｅ ｍａｉｎ ｖｉｅｗｓ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ：ｔｈｅ ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎ ｖｉｅｗ，ｔｈｅ ｓｕｂｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎ ｖｉｅｗ，ａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎ ｖｉｅｗ．Ｔｈｅ ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎ ｖｉｅｗ ｃａｎ ｂｅ ｔｒａｃｅｄ ｂａｃｋ ｔｏ Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ，ｗｈｏ ｒｅｇａｒｄｅｄ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓ ａｓ ｉｍｐｌｉｃｉｔ ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｓ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ａ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｉｃａｌ ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ ａｎｄ ａ ｌｉｔｅｒａｌ ｐａｒａｐｈｒａｓｅ ｂａｓｅｄ ｏｎ ｕｎｄｅｒｌｙｉｎｇ ａｎａｌｏｇｙ ｏｒ ｓｉｍｉｌａｒｉｔｙ． Ｔｈｅ ｓｕｂｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎ ｖｉｅｗ，ｏｆ ｗｈｉｃｈ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎ ｖｉｅｗ ｉｓ ａ ｓｐｅｃｉａｌ ｃａｓｅ ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ ｔｏ Ｂｌａｃｋ（１９６２），ｈｏｌｄｓ ｔｈａｔ ａ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｓ ｗｈｅｒｅ ａ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｉｃａｌ ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ ｉｓ ｕｓｅｄ ｉｎ ｐｌａｃｅ ｏｆ ｓｏｍｅ ｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｔ ｌｉｔｅｒａｌ ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅ ｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎ ｔｈｅｏｒｙ，ｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｄ ｂｙ Ｂｌａｃｋ，ｓｔａｔｅｓ ｔｈａｔ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｉｃａｌ ｍｅａｎｉｎｇ ｉｓ ａ ｒｅｓｕｌｔ ｏｆ ａｎ ｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ａ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｉｃａｌ ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ，ｔｅｒｍｅｄ‘‘ｆｏｃｕｓ”，ａｎｄ ｉｔｓ‘‘ｓｕｒｒｏｕｎｄｉｎｇ ｌｉｔｅｒａｌ ｆｒａｍｅ”．Ａｌｌ ｔｈｅｓｅ ｖｉｅｗｓ ｓｈａｒｅ ａ ｃｏｍｍｏｎ ｆｅａｔｕｒｅ：ｔｈｅｙ ｖｉｅｗ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ａｓ ａ ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ ｐｈｅｎｏｍｅｎｏｎ．ａｎｄ ａｓｓｕｍｅ ａ ｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌ ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｌｉｔｅｒａｌ ａｎｄ ｆｉｇｕｒａｔｉｖｅ ｓｅｎｓｅｓ．Ａｓ Ｌａｋｏｆｆ ｐｏｉｎｔｓ ｏｕｔ，ａ ｍａｊｏｒ ｄｉｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ ｔｈｅｏｒｙ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌ ｏｎｅｓ ｉｓ ｂａｓｅｄ ｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｏｌｄ ｌｉｔｅｒａｌ—ｆｉｇｕｒａｔｉｖｅ ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎ．Ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ ｔｏ Ｌａｋｏｆｆ，ａ ｈｕｇｅ ｓｙｓｔｅｍ ｏｆ ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎａｌ， ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｕａｌ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓ ｈａｓ ｂｅｅｎ ｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒｅｄ ｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｉｎｇ ｏｕｒ ｅｖｅｒｙｄａｙ ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｕａｌ ｓｙｓｔｅｍ ａｎｄ ｐｅｒｖａｄｉｎｇ ｏｕｒ ｅｖｅｒｙｄａｙ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ．Ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ ｔｈｅｏｒｙ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ，ａｓ Ｌａｋｏｆｆ ａｒｇｕｅｓ，ｉｓ ｒｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙ ｉｎ ｍａｎｙ ａｓｐｅｃｔｓ．’’ Ｌａｋｏｆｆ ａｎｄ Ｊｏｈｎｓｏｎ（１ ９８０）ｓｕｍｍａｒｉｚｅ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｔｒａｓｔ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｔｈｅ ｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌ ａｎｄ ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ ｖｉｅｗｓ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ａｓ ｆｏｌｌｏｗｓ： Ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｓ ｆｏｒ ｍｏｓｔ ｐｅｏｐｌｅ ａ ｄｅｖｉｃｅ ｏｆｔｈｅ ｐｏｅｔｉｃ ｉｍａｇｉｎａｔｉｏｎ ａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｌ ｆｌｏｕｒｉｓｈ・＿・＿・。ａ ｍａｔｔｅｒ ｏｆ ｅｘｔｒａｏｒｄｉｎａｒｙ ｒａｔｈｅｒ ｔｈａｎ ｏｒｄｉｎａｒｙ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ．Ｍｏｒｅｏｖｅｒ，ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｓ ｔｙｐｉｃａｌｌｙ ｖｉｅｗｅｄ ａｓ ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃ ｏｆ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ ａｌｏｎｅ，ａ ｍａｔｔｅｒ ｏｆ ｗｏｒｄｓ ｒａｔｈｅｒ ｔｈａｎ ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ ｏｒ ａｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｆｏｒ ｔｈｉｓ ｒｅａｓｏｎ，ｍｏｓｔ ｐｅｏｐｌｅ ｔｈｉｎｋ ｔｈｅｙ ｃａｎ ｇｅｔ ａｌｏｎｇ ｐｅｒｆｅｃｔｌｙ ｗｅｌｌ ｗｉｔｈｏｕｔ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｎ Ｗｅ ｈａｖｅ ｆｏｕｎｄ，ｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｔｒａｒｙ，ｔｈａｔ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｓ ａ ｐｅｒｖａｓｉｖｅ ｉｎ ｅｖｅｒｙｄａｙ ｌｉｆｅ，ｎｏｔ ｊｕｓｔ ｉｎ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ ｂｕｔ ｉｎ ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ ａｎｄ ａｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｏｕｒ ｏｒｄｉｎａｒｙ ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｕａｌ ｓｙｓｔｅｍ， ｉｎ ｔｅｒｍｓ ｏｆ ｗｈｉｃｈ ｗｅ ｂｏｔｈ ｔｈｉｎｋ ａｎｄ ａｃｔ，ｉｓ ｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｌｙ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｉｃａｌ ｉｎ ｎａｔｕｒｅ． Ｓｏ ｔｈｅｙ ｈａｖｅ ｒｅｄｅｆｉｎｅｄ ｔｈｅ ｔｅｒｍ‘‘ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ＇’．Ｔｈｅ ｓｔｕｄｙ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｈａｓ ｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｃｅｄ ａ ｃｈａｎｇｉｎｇ ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ， ｆｒｏｍ ｔｈｅ ｓｔｕｄｙ ｏｆｆｉｇｕｒｅ ｏｆ ｓｐｅｅｃｈ ｔｏ ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｏｎ． Ｉｎ ｒｅｃｅｎｔ ｙｅａｒｓ，ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｓ ｉｎ Ｃｈｉｎａ ｈａｖｅ ｍａｄｅ ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ ｏｎ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ，ｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｏｎ ａｎｄ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏＬ ｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｄｉｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓ ｉｎ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ａｎｄ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ，ａｌｓｏ ｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌ ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ ｉｎ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｕｓｅ．Ｅａｓｔ ａｎｄ ｗｅｓｔ ｈａｖｅ ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ ｔｈｉｎｋｉｎｇ ｐａＲｅｒｎｓ．Ｔｈｅｓｅ ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｓ ｍｕｓｔ ｂｅ ｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｅｄ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ ｕｓｅ，ｅｓｐｅｃｉａｌｌｙ ｔｈｅ ｕｓｅ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｎ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ ａｎｄ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ．Ｆｏｒ ｔｈｏｓｅ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ｌｅａｒｎｅｒｓ，ｗｈｏｓｅ ｎａｔｉｖｅ ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ ｉｓ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ，ｔｈｅｙ ｍａｙ ｈａｖｅ ｓｏｍｅ ｄｉｆｆｉｃｕｌｔｉｅｓ ｉｎ ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒｒｉｎｇ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓ ｆｒｏｍ ｅａｓｔｅｒｎ ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ ｔｏ ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎ ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ ｐｒｏｐｅｒｌｙ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ ｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｎｇ ａｎｄ ｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ａｐａｒｔ ｆｒｏｍ ｔｈｅ ｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌ ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｓ，ｔｈｅｒｅ ｍｕｓｔ ｂｅ ｓｏｍｅ ｍｏｒｅ ｃｏｍｐｌｅｘ ａｎｄ ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔ ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ ｃｏｎｓｔｒａｉｎｔｓ ｏｎ ｔｈｅ ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒ．Ｔｈｅ ｐｒｅｓｅｎｔ ａｕｔｈｏｒ ａｌｓｏ ｎｏｔｉｃｅｓ ｔｈｉｓ ｉｎ ｈｅｒ ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｎｇ ａｎｄ ｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ ｐｒａｃｔｉｃｅ ａｎｄ ｆｉｎｄｓ ｔｈａｔ ｔｈｅｓｅ ｃｏｎｓｔｒａｉｎｔｓ ｈａｖｅ ｇｒｅａｔ ｉｍｐａｃｔ ｏｎ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒ．Ｓｏ ｔｈｉｓ ａｒｔｉｃｌｅ ａｔｔｅｍｐｔｓ ｔｏ ｅｘｐｌｏｒｅ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｓｔｒａｉｎｔｓ ａｎｄ ｔｈｅｉｒ ｉｍｐａｃｔ．Ｂｅｆｏｒｅ ｔａｌｋｉｎｇ ａｂｏｕｔ ｔｈｅ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒ，ｆｉｎ＇ｓｔ ｍａｋｅ ａｎａｌｙｓｅｓｆｒｏｍ ａ ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ．
２．Ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅ Ｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ ｉｎ Ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ２．１ Ｕｂｉｑｕｉｔｙ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ Ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｓ ｕｂｉｑｕｉｔｏｕｓ ｉｎ ｏｕｒ ｄａｉｌｙ ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ ａｎｄ ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ．Ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｓ ｏｕｒ ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ ａｎｄ ａｃｔ・
Ｌａｋｏｆｆ ｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｓ ａｎ ｅｘａｍｐｌｅ：
Ｐｌａｎｔｓ（ｔｅｎｏｒ）＿＋Ｉｄｅａｓ（ｖｅｈｉｃｌｅ） Ｉｄｅａｓ ａｌｅｐｌａｎｔｅｄ ｅｖｅｎｉｎ ａｂａｒｒｅｎｍｉｎｄ． Ｉｄｅａｓ ｇｒｏｗｆｒｏｍ ｓｅｅｄｓ．
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维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com —Ａ Ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅ—Ｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｉｎ Ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ａｎｄ Ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ Ｃｏｎｓｔｒａｉｎｔｓ ｏｎ Ｉｔｓ Ｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒ
Ｐｅｏｐｌｅ（ｔｅｎｏｒＪ＿＋Ｉｄｅａｓ（ｖｅｈｉｃｌｅ） Ｉｄｅａ ｉｓ ｓｏｍｅｏｎｅ’ｓ ｂｒａｉｎｃｈｉｌｄ．
Ｉｄｅａ ｉｓ ｓｔｉｌｌｉｎ ｉｔｓ ｉｎｆａｎｃｙ．
Ｉｄｅａ ｎｅｅｄｓ ｔｏ ｍａｔｕｒｅ． Ｗｈａｔ ａｎ ａｄｏｌｅｓｃｅｎｔ ｉｄｅａ！ Ｔｈｅ ｉｄｅａ ｄｉｅｄ ｂｕｔ ｗａｓ ｒｅｓｕｒｒｅｃｔｅｄ．
Ｆｏｏｄ（ｔｅｎｏｒＪ＿＋Ｉｄｅａｓ（ｖｅｈｉｃｌｅ） ｃｏｏｋ ｕｐ ａｎｉｄｅａ ｓｔｅｗ ｏｖｅｒ ａｎ ｉｄｅａ ｓｗａｌｌｏｗ ａｎ ｉｄｅａ ａ ｈａｌｆ－ｂａｋｅｄ ｉｄｅａ Ｉｄｅａ ｓｍｅｌｌｓ ｆｉｓｈｙ．
Ｔｈｅ ａｂｏｖｅ ｅｘａｍｐｌｅｓ ｃｏｍｐａｒｅ“ｉｄｅａｓ”ｔｏ ｐｌａｎｔｓ ａｎｄ ｆｏｏｄ．Ｆｒｏｍ ｔｈｉｓ ｔｈｅ ｕｂｉｑｕｉｔｙ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｉｓ ｗｅｌｌ ｅｘｐｌａｉｎｅｄ．Ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓ ｃａｎ ａｐｐｅａｒ ｉｎ ａｌｍｏｓｔ ｅｖｅｒｙ ａｓｐｅｃｔ ｏｆ ｓｏｃｉａｌ ｌｉｆｅ．Ｓｔａｔｅｓｍｅｎ ｕｓｅ ｔｈｅｍ ｔｏ ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅ ｃｏｍｐｌｉｃａｔｅｄ
ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ ｉｓｓｕｅｓ．Ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｆｉｅｌｄ ｏｆ ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ ｔｅｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｉｅｓ ａｒｅ ｂｅｓｔ ｅｘａｍｐｌｅｓ ｏｆ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ．Ｆｏｒ ｅｘａｍｐｌｅ，
“ｖｉｒｕｓ”ｏｆ ｃｏｍｐｕｔｅｒ ｉｓ ａ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｏｆ“ｖｉｒｕｓ”ｉｎ ｂｉｏｌｏｇｙ．Ｉｎ ａｅｒｏｎａｕｔｉｃｓ，“人造衡星”ｉｓ ｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒ ｏｆ“衡星”（ｍｏｏｎ）