新编语言学教程chapter6pragmatics课堂
Chapter 6 语言学Language Processing in Mind-T
Chapter VI Language Processing in MindIntroductionWhy study language? LANGUAGE is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. (Chomsky, Reflections on Language, 1975)Psycholinguistics is the study of “language and mind” , or to be more exact, can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). PSYCHOLINGUISTICS is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. Less modestly, it sometimes also produces findings, which make their own mark on linguistic research, leading to the modification of theoretical ideas.PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAG语言心理学deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought,PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION 交际心理学includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves COGNITIVE PSYCHOLINGUISTS are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mindEXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLINGUISTS are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.In practice the two schools of thought often overlap, but extreme supporters of each way of thinking sometimes perceive the gap as being a large one.Major strands of psycholinguistic research:and acquisition language.Section one: Language ComprehensionQ1: What is language comprehension?Q2: What is mind? brain/thinking processQ3: How do you understand language?Language comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language and how do they understand what they hear or read?(includes both text comprehension and speech comprehension, either of which involves several processes. It is important for the reader or listener to take account of the grammatical structure and the meaning of what is being presented. Meaning is extracted from text or speech by reliant what is presented to information stored in long-term memory. )1. Word recognition is the first step in understanding any message, which includes not only the recognition of meanings of the words, but also the information that determines the syntactic structure of the rest of the sentence.How do we recognize words?Cohort theory集群理论: hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.Factors affect word recognition:Frequency effect频率效应:Recency effect 近期效应：Context 语境: semantic association network: which represents the relationships between various semantically related words.2. Lexical ambiguityTwo theories used to distinguish ambiguous words:a)All the meanings associated with the word are accessedAll meanings of ambiguous words are accessed and time has to be taken to decide among them.b)Only one meaning is accessed initiallyFrequency and context effects are important here.3. Syntactic processingPsycholinguists generally assume that the syntactic structure is built as soon as possible rather than waiting to see what the whole string of word is before deciding what structure it has.Sentence ambiguity may occur due toa)The ambifuity of individual words and the different possible ways that words canbe fit into phrasesb)The ambiguous catefory of some of the words in the sentenceGarden path花园小径：a phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences. Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.How do people decide which structure an ambiguous sentence has in sentence processing?Minimal attachment theory最小接触理论: an idea that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences.Other analysis: such as the one based on pragmatic plausibility.4. Semantic and sentence memoryMemory representations are not syntactic under certain conditions (see the experiment P202, which indicate that the syntactic details of linguistic material are not usually stored for very long and that it is a representation of a sentence’s meaning which a subject has available in his memory under normal circumstances.) Assimilation theory: emphasis on the importance of background knowledge in “normal”situations where we might memorize linguistic material.5. Basic process in readinga)Eye movement: information is obtained from the text only during fixationsand not at all during saccades.(P204)b)The perceptual span感知时距：the range of letters from which usefulinformation is extracted.c)The immediacy assumption即时假定：A reader is supposed to carry out theprocesses required to understand each word and its relationship to previouswords in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.Section Two Discourse话语/text语篇InterpretationQ1. What is schemata and reference drawing?Q2. What is text interpretation?Introduction:Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.a)General context effects: occur all the time when our generalknowledge about the world influences language comprehension.b)Specific context effects: involve information obtained from earlierparts of a discourse.1.Schemata 图式and inference drawing推论Schemata: packets of stored knowledge, whicha)can vary considerably in the information they contain. from the verysimple to the very complexb)are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition toa rather general restaurant schema or script, we probably also havemore specific restaurant schemata for different kinds ofrestaurant(e.g. fat-food places, up-market French restaurants, andson on).c)operate in a top-down or conceptually driven way to facilitateinterpretation of environmental stimuli.Inference drawing: Language comprehension frequently requires us to go far beyond the literal meanings of the sentences we read or her. Essential information is often only implied. So that it is necessary to draw inferences in order to understand fully what is intended.The inferences which people draw are stored in long-term memory along with information about the sentences actually presented (Bransford, Barclay. And Franks,1972)2.Story structure:Our comprehension of and memory for stories are highly “ selective”, inthe sense that we focus on the central theme of the story rather than onthe relatively unimportant details. According to Van Dijik and Kintsch(1983), a story is first of all processed so that the individual propositionsare extracted (theory of story processing). The propositions of a storyenter into a short-term working buffer of limited capacity. When thebuffer contains a number propositions, the reader or listener tries torelate them to each other in a coherent fashion . In general terms,subsequent ability to remember the propositions depends on the length oftime they spend in the working buffer. Those propositions which arehighly relevant to the main theme of a story tend to be stored for arelatively long time in the working buffer. Therefore, thematicinformation should be better remembered than non-thematic information.Section Three Language ProductionQ1. What is Language production?Q2. What are the means of Language production?Language production: is very definitely a goal-driven activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on, which include two forms of production, namely, speech production and writing.1.speech productionAccording to Garrett (1976; 1984), there are altogether 5 different levels ofrepresentation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence:1)The message-level representation2)The functional-level representation3)The positional-level representation4)The phonetic-level representation5)The articulatory-level representationErrors which may support that notion that speakers engage in reasonableelaborate planning before beginning to speak:Spoonererism首音互换/slip of the tongue舌头打滑): the initial letter orletters of two words are transposedAnticipation error预期错误: occur when a word is spoken earlier in thesentence than it should be: (the school is at school)Exchange error交换错误：two items within a sentence are swapped. (this isthe happiest life of my day).The following error prove the sequence of 2nd and 3rd proposed byGarrett:(speakers decide on the grammatical structure of a proposedutterance in the functional-level representation, and then select theappropriate words to fit into that structure in the subsequent position-levelrepresentation)Morpheme-exchange errors: in which roots or basic forms of two words areswitched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (He has alreadytrunked two packs)2.Written languageAccording to Hayes and Flower (1986), writing essentially consists of threeinter-related processes:1)The planning process2)The sentence generation process3)The revision processQ: What are the factors that influence or determine the quality of the writingplan? (relevant knowledge about the topic to be written about, strategicknowledge: knowledge of the methods used in construction a writing plan inorder to make it coherent and well-organized)Q: Who use the following writing strategies respectively, knowledge-tellingstrategy and knowledge-transforming strategy?knowledge-telling strategy: simply write down everything children can thinkof tht is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way(Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1987)knowledge-transforming strategy: involves focusing on potential problemswithin the planning process ( Are the main points arranged in the mostlogical order”)Here are some more examples of garden path sentences. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is?1.The boat floated downstream sank.2.While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap.3.The daughter of the King’s son admires himself.。
语言学教程 chapter6
32
含义：
Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.
认知语言学
1
Байду номын сангаас
含义 渊源 基本理论 应用
2
What is Cognition?
Mental processes, information processing
Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
20
End-of-path schema
An image schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path Example (English): In the following sentence, it is understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching Sam’s home, which is at the end of the path:
Standing upright Climbing stairs Viewing a flagpole Watching water rise in a tub
英语语言学 6 语用学
because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts: ▪ (1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone. ▪ (2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead. ▪ (3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”
▪ 言语行为一词源于哲学家J. L. Austin(1962)的著作，现
在用来指一种理论，该理论分析话语在人际交往中与说 话者和听话人的行为之间的关系。它旨在回答 “我们在 使用语言时究竟在做什么？”这个问题。
Two types of utterances
▪ Constatives (叙述话语) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;
Some basic notions in Pragmatics
▪ Pragmatics vs. Semantics 语用学与语义学
▪ Context 语境
▪ Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition课件
• Psychologists → psycholinguistics
•
→ psychology of language
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.1 what is cognition?
• Definitions • 1)psychologically, it…… • 2)it is…… • Three approaches to the study of language and cognition: • The formal approach • The psychological approach • The conceptual approach
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.2.2 language comprehension
• Similarity and frequency both play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones.
and written production.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
(1) Access to words
• Steps involved in the planning of words: • 1. processing step, called conceptualization,…… • 2.to select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. • 3.morpho-phonological encoding • Generally, morphemes are accessed in sequence, according to
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。
(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。
)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。
语言学教程chapter6 language and cognition
Examples: Physical: Paths; Trajectories Metaphorical: The purpose-as-physicalgoal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentences:
Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality. You have reached the midpoint of your flight training. She's just starting out to make her fortune. Jane was sidetracked in her search for selfunderstanding.
Examples
Days Weeks Years Sleeping and waking Breathing Circulation Emotional buildup and release
Force schema 力图示
Involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements:
Scale schema范围图示
Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, and consists of any of the following:
Figure-ground reversal
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition课件
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
(1) Access to words
• Steps involved in the planning of words: • 1. processing step, called conceptualization,…… • 2.to select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. • 3.morpho-phonological encoding • Generally, morphemes are accessed in sequence, according to
• 1). Serial models…… • 2). Parallel models…… • Structural factors in comprehension of sentences • 1). minimal attachment which defines “structural simpler” • 2).“Garden path” • Lexical factors in comprehension • Information about specific words is stored in the lexicon.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.2.3 language production
• Language production involves…… • 1. generation of single words • 2. generation of simple utterances • Different mappings in language comprehension and in language production • Discussions: • A. production of words orally, • B. production of longer utterances, • C. the different representations and processes involved in spoken production
(NEW)刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
语言来源于人本能表达情感的声音。 4. Yo-He-Ho Theory (呦嘿吼理论) Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. 语言来源于共同劳动时发出的呦嘿声。 5. Ta-Ta Theory (哒哒说) Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements. 语言来源于移动舌头发出的声音与某个手势的结合。 6. Bow-Wow Theory (汪汪理论) Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. 语言起源于人们模仿动物的叫声和其他自然界中的声音。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of linguistics II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar III. Scope of linguistics 1. Microlinguistics 2. Macrolinguistics IV. Definition of language V. Origins of language
VI. Design features of language (语言的定义特征) 【重点、考点：论述语言的识别特征】 1. Arbitrariness (任意性) This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɔg/ to refer to the animal dog,
语言学第六章 语用学
Traditionally philosophers were interested in the truth-value(真值）of sentences, i.e,how to judge a sentence is true or false. They believed that a statement was used either to state a fact or to describe a state of affairs.
Hale Waihona Puke Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
---- Sentence meaning（句子意义）: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; having a dyadic relation as in: What does X mean? ----utterance meaning（话语意义）: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; having a triadic relation as in: What did you mean by X?
“Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…
普通语言学第六章
Speech act theory
• Constatives (叙述句) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable; • Performatives (施为句) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. • Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.
• Note: Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense, given a suitable context. Appropriateness is very important in linguistic communication, especially in cross-cultural communication. If you say something grammatically incorrect, you are at worse condemned as “speaking badly”, but, if you say something inappropriately, you will be judged as “behaving badly”, such as insincere, untruthful, or deceitful. (Thomas, 1983)
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
11
Direct anaphora (direct relation between the antecedent and the anaphor):
husband. >> Joan hadn 't been beating her husband. ? Iteratives The flying saucer came/ didn 't come again . >>The flying saucer came before.
15
? Temporal clauses
7
2.2 Deixis (p.144)
Deixis is the words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances.
6
2. Micropragmatics (p.143) 2.1 Reference
The act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.
heads. >> There exists a man with two heads. ? Factive verbs John realized/ didn ' t realize that he was in debt. >>John was in debt.
14
? Change of state verbs Joan began/ didn 't begin to beat her
17
(1) A: John loves Mary. B: Is that true? (a possible response)
(2) A: I promise you to go with you to meet Mary tomorrow evening. B1: Is that true? (an impossible response) B2: Really?/ Thank you./ It 's kind of you. Therefore, Austin made the distinction between constatives and performatives.
9
? Discourse deixis: any expression used to refer to earlier or forthcoming segments of the discourse.
? Social deixis: honorifics (which encode the speaker 's social relationship to another party, frequently but not always the addressee, on a dimension of rank).
Utterance: unit of speech actually used for communication. It can be understood as the speaker 's purpose or the speaker 's intention.
3
1.2 Context
Generally, context refers to the background knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer, including general knowledge of the world, knowledge specific to the situation of communication, specific to the counterparts of communication, the knowledge of the purpose of communication.
1. A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it 's on the table.
Indirect anaphora/ bridging reference: 2. I walked into the room. The windows looked out to the bay.
e.g: You 'll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren 't here now.
10
2.3 Anaphora (p.145)
The process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation is called anaphora.
excuse of being busy at work. I: You have to do some housework because
you don 't work today. (c). Situation: John promised to go shopping
with his wife on Sunday. I: Don 't forget what you promised.
Windows : inferred referents
12
2.4 Presupposition (p.146)
The precondition on the basis of the syntactic structure of utterances through logical concepts and contexts.
Pragmatics deals with the use of language; it studies the meaning in use (speaker 's meaning, contextual meaning).
2
1.1 sentence meaning and utterance meaning
It was/ wasn 't Henry that kissed Rosie.
>> Somenone kissed Rosie.
? Comparisons and contrasts
Carol is/ isn 't a better linguist than Barbara.
>> Barbara is a linguist.
18
3.2 Constatives and performatives
? Constatives : statements, assertions and utterances like them; an utterance is used to state a fact or what the speaker believes to be a fact, or to describe state of affairs. e.g: She is a waitress. The characteristic property of a constative is that it can be assessed in terms of truth value .
While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics,
the rest of social sience was/ wasn
't
asleep.
>> Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics.
? Cleft sentences
19
? Performatives : different from constatives, performative is used to perform an action, to do a thing. Uttering a performative is doing a thing. e.g: I name the ship Queen Maria. Characteristic properties of a performative are: (1) it may not be assessed in terms of truth value and (2) the actual realization of a performative must meet the felicity conditions .
8
Five types of deixis:
? Person deixis: any expression used to point to a person.
? Time deixis: words used to point to a time.
? Space/ spatial/ place deixis: words used to point to a location.
Sentence: unit of structure, an abstract context-independent entity; its existence is free from any situations. The sentence meaning is thus a semantic proposition.