语言学复习
语言学概论复习资料
(一)名字解释一、语言：从结构和功能两方面看，语言是一种复杂的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
二、口语是以语音为载体的语言形式，书面语是以文字为载体的语言形式。
书面语是在口语的基础上产生的。
三、副语言：语言不是人类惟一的交际工具，除了语言以外，人类还有其他辅助性交际工具，例如文字、体态等等，这类辅助性交际工具有时也被称为“语言”，为了跟真正的语言相区别，所以称为副语言。
四、自然语言：是由社会群体在日常交际活动中自然形成的语言，人工语言是个别人人工设计出来的语言。
五、组合关系：若干较小的语言单位组合成较大的语言单位，其构成成分之间的关系就是组合关系，又称线性序列关系。
词语之间的组合是有规则的；语言单位之间的组合是有层次性的。
六、聚合关系：具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系，就是聚合关系，又称联想关系。
具有聚合关系的语言单位之间一般能互相替换。
具有相同聚合关系的语言单位，就构成某种聚合类。
七、词根语又成孤立语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示。
八、屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
九、粘着语的特点是通过附加多种词缀来表示语法意义。
十、编插语又叫多式综合语或复综语，其特点是以动词词根为中心，在词根的前后可以附加上各种词缀，来表示各种语法意义或语汇意义。
十一、语音是在人类大脑神经支配下由发音器官发出的负载一定意义并能为人们所理解的声音。
十二、语音学：研究语音的学科就是语音学。
语音学的任务是研究语音在“发音---传递---感知”过程中的生理、物理和心理特性，分析语音的各种要素的社会功能，彼此之间的关系，以及语音系统的构成和发展演变规律。
语音学的分支：从研究对象的范围来看，语音学可以分为普通语音学和具体语音学；从研究对象的时间来看，语音学可以分为共时语音学和历时语音学；从研究对象的性质来看，语音学可以分为声学语音学、发音语音学、感知语音学和音系学；从研究的方法和手段来看，语音学研究有传统方法与现代方法之分。
语言学复习题
1.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle____A. arbitrariness and creativityB. generalizations and abstractionsC. interpersonal relationshipD. performative functions2. Using language for the sheer joy of using it shows that language has a ____ function.A. recreationalB. metalingualC. informativeD. performative3. According to_____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. Roman JacobsonB. Leonard BloomfieldC. Kenneth PikeD. Noam Chomsky4. Whose Cardinal V owel system is still in use?A. A.J. EllisB. A.M. BellC. Daniel JonesD. A. C. Gimson5. Which of the following words involves“nasalization”?A. rapB. readC. roseD. running6. Which of the following words is likely to have stress in sentences?A. aB. andC. toD. sun7. “_______” is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language.A. WordB. LexemeC. MorphemeD. V ocabulary8. Word Class is known as in traditional grammar as _______.A. ConstructionB. parts of speechC. inflectionD. categories9. Which of the following are NOT prefixes?A. paraB. disC. irD. ion10._________is NOT included in the studies of traditional grammar.A. Classifying words into parts of speechB. Defining the properties of sentencesC. Identifying the functions of wordsD. Recognizing certain categories, like number and tense11. “Concord” has the same meaning as_____A. perfectiveB. progressiveC. agreementD. government12. Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Deep StructureB. Surface StructureC. Transformational ComponentD. Theme and Rheme13. The “semantic triangle” was proposed by______A. Plato and AristotleB. Ogden and RichardsC. Chomsky and HalleD. Leech and Palmer14. Which of the following are NOT converse antonyms?A. clever: stupidB. boy: girlC. give: receiveD. teacher: student15. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.”This shows that language has the design feature of ________A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. DualityD. Displacement16. “Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional17. According to G.B. Shaw’s ridicule of English orthography, the non-existed word ghoti can be pronounced in the same way as______A. goatB. hotC. fishD. floor18. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop19. “New elements are not to be inserted into a word even though there are several parts in a word.” This is known as ________A. uninterruptibilityB. stabilityC. extremityD. variability20. Which of the following word class is the closed-class?A preposition B. adverb C. adjective D. noun21. Which of the following are NOT suffixesA. inB. iseC. lyD. ful22. Traditional grammar sees a sentence as _________A. a sequence of morphemesB. a sequence of clausesC. a sequence of wordsD. a sequence of phrases23. _________meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.A. ConnotativeB. DenotativeC. AffectiveD. Reflective24. Which of the following are gradable antonyms?A. good---badB. male----femaleC. alive----deadD. buy-----sell25. The fact that sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages proves the ________of language.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement26. Which of the following are correct descriptions of Langue and Parole?A. It was Chomsky that distinguished langue from parole.B. It was Martin Joo that distinguished langue from parole.C. Langue constitutes the immediately accessible data.D. The linguist’s proper object is the langue of each community.27. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ________.A. the manners of articulationB. the places of articulationC. the position of the soft palateD. the obstruction of airstream28. When the different forms, such as tin and din, are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form_______A. allophonesB. a minimal pairC. a maximal pairD. phonemes29. The process of word formation in which a verb, for example, blacken, is formed by adding–en to the adjective black, is called_____A. inflectionB. derivationC. compoundD. backformation30. The sense relation between rose and flower is _________A. synonymB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. homonymy31.Which of the following are NOT instances of blending?A. transistorB. classroomC. boatelD. brunch32. The one that is NOT one of the suprasegmental features is ________A. syllableB. stressC. coarticulationD. intonation33. What the element”-es” indicates is third person singular, present tense, and the element “-ed”past tense, and “-ing”progressive aspect. Since they are the smallest unity of language and meaningful, they are also called_______A. phonemesB. phonesC. allophonesD. morphemes34. The term“_______”in linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparative35. Since early 1990s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar known as the _______theoryA. speech actB. TGC. minimalist programD. principles-and- parametersII Decide whether the following statements are true(T) or false (F) .1.Arbitrariness means you can use languages in any way you like.F2.“Radar” is an invented word.F3.The consonant [x] existed in Old English.T4.Today, we normally say that English has two tenses: present and past.T5.Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.T6.Historical linguistics is a synchronic study of language.F7. A good method to determine the phonemes in a language is the Minimal Pairs Test.T8.Phonology is concerned with speech production and speech perception.F9.Leech uses the term “connotative” in the same sense as that in philosophical discussion.F10.Duality is the physical manifestation of the “ infinite use of finite terms”T11.The idea of a system of cardinal vowels was first suggested by Danniel Jones.T12.Word is the smallest unit of meaning which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.T。
语言学复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
语言学概总复习
语言学概论语言定义：人类用于交际和思维的最重要的符号系统。
包含三个基本意思：语言是人类独有的；语言的基本功能是用于交际和思维；语言是一个符号系统。
语言的属性：符号性、系统性、生成性和民族性。
语言社会文化方面的主要功能：交际功能、标志功能、文化录传功能等。
语言在心理方面的主要功能：思维功能、认知功能、心理调节功能、智力开发功能、审美愉悦功能等。
语言规划的内容：民族共同语的确立和推广；族共同语的规范和完善；际语、国际语的选择等。
语言本体规划：语言结构的规范（包括语音、语汇、语法规范）、语言文字规范体系和语言协调。
语言功能八个层次：国语、官方工作语言、教育、大众传媒、公共服务、公众交际、文化、日常交际（包括家庭交际）。
世界上第一部语法著作：印度巴尼尼的《梵语语法》。
特拉克斯写成了希腊语的第一部语法专著《语法术》狄斯考鲁写出了《论句法》，奠定了西方传统语法的基础。
结构主义语言学的理论基础是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》奠定的。
后人称他为“现代语言学”之父。
美国乔姆斯基出版了《句法结构》，初次提出转换生成语言学的理论。
中国第一部语法专著：1898年马建忠《马氏文通》语言的层级：语言的下层是语音层，包括音位和音节两级基本语言单位。
语言的上层是符号层，一般包括语素、词和句子三级基本单位。
语言的层面：根据语言系统的结构要素及其功能，语言可分为若干不同层面，包括语音层面、语义层面、语汇层面、语法层面和语用层面。
组合关系：例：老刘是北京人。
聚合关系：例：张三喝酒。
李四看书。
（自己理解）P53语言的形态类型：词根语（汉语）、曲折语（英语）、黏着语、编插语。
语言的句法类型：ＳＶＯ型（汉语、英语、法语、俄语、苗语）ＳＯＶ型（日语、拉丁语、藏语、蒙语）ＶＳＯ型（阿拉伯语、威尔斯语）。
语音的性质：生理性质、声学性质、心理性质、社会性质。
音素是根据语音的自然属性划分出来的最小语音单位。
元音是发音时声带振动，气流通过咽腔、口腔时不受阻碍而发出的音。
语言学复习
导言语言语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具，它是以语言为物质外壳，以词汇为建筑材料，以语法结构规律而构成的符号系统。
语言学广义的语言学值得是研究语言的科学。
狭义的语言学指的是以语言为研究对象，揭示语言的自身规律和面貌的学科。
语文学指研究古代书面语的学科。
普通语言学指通过多种语言比较探求所有人类语言的语音、语法、语汇在共时结构上的共性，探寻所有人类语言在历史发展中的共同规律。
共时语言学描写语言每个子系统在某一特定时期的共时状态和不同子系统间的关联。
历史语言学研究语言每个子系统在不同时期发生的变化及其变化中不同子系统之间的关联。
结构主义语言学或称结构语言学，是指20世纪以索绪尔的语言学理论为代表以及受这种理论影响而进行的语言理论的研究。
1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》的出版，标志着结构主义语言学的诞生，其反对语言现象进行孤立分析，主张系统的研究。
历史比较语言学是语言学中一个重要的部类，它以历史比较法为基础，研究语言的亲属关系。
历史比较语言学是历史语言学的重要组成部分，它为现代语言学的建立奠定了坚实的基础，是语言学走上发展道路的标志。
第一章语言习得的临界期：指当人出生后过了一定的期限，如果没有后天正常的社会环境，其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了，最迟到十二三岁。
论述语言的功能语言的功能是多方面的，从宽泛意义上来讲，大致分为语言的社会功能和思维功能。
信息传递功能，是语言社会功能中最基本的功能，这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。
信息的传递是社会中人与人交流的基本方式。
语言所传递的信息可以没有穷尽、超越时空。
语言的信息传递功能优于其他一切工具。
人机互动功能，是指语言具有建立或保持某种社会关联的作用。
互动包括：一是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一是这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行为上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
思维功能体现在语言是人类思维的工具。
无论是思维的形式、思维的过程、心理机制都和语言密切相关。
语言学概论复习题
《语言学概论》复习题一、名词解释（28个）层级系统：语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。
语言的底层是一套音位，即音与义相结合而划分出来的音的结构成分。
音位经组合而与某种意义相结合就能构成语言的符号和符号的序列，这是语言的上层。
这一层又可以分若干级：第一级是语素，这是语言中音义结合的最小结构单位，是构词材料；第二级是由语素的组合构成的词，是造句材料，是交际的基本单位；第三级是由词构成的句子；词和句子都是符号的序列。
语言系统的层次结构可以图示为：音位>语素>词>句子层级系统（语言单位处在不同的层次上额的，其中音位和音节处在系统的底层，为系统提供形式，即音系层，形式层，上层有语素，词，句子叫语法层，符号层。
）基音：声音大都是由许多频率不同的纯音构成的复合波，其中频率最低的那个纯音叫基音音位变体：音位和音位组合的时候，由于受邻音的影响，或者由于说话时的快慢、高低、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的变化，这种变化称为语流音变。
是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。
音步：由若干音节构成的语音的单位。
音步一般分为2-3个音节，也可以是1个甚至4-5个音节。
词法：对词形变化所表现出来的语法意义的概括。
语素组合在词的规则和词的变化规则合称词法。
句法：依照词与词组合时所产生的各种语法意义而划分出来的语法类别。
词组合成词组或句子的规则。
派生词缀：黏附在词根语素上构成新词，增加了新的词汇义内容或改变了词的类别归属的词缀。
根据词根和派生词缀的位置关系又可分为前缀、后缀、中缀。
屈折词缀：粘附在词尾，只改变词的形式，不构成新词的词缀。
孤立语：缺少形态变化的语言。
又叫词根语，缺乏词形变化；特点是词序严格、虚词重要、复合词多、派生词少；以汉语为代表。
词义：是和词的语音形式结合在一起的人们对现实现象的概括反映和各种附加色彩。
由人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价。
语言学概论复习资料
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。
人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。
多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。
二是“用处更大”。
主要:交际功能。
其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。
三是“能够创造”。
具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。
2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。
但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。
这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。
尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。
从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。
也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。
可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。
4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。
语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。
语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。
形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。
包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。
如俄语、维吾尔语。
孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。
如汉语。
屈折语主要是句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化,是形态语中的一个小类。
语言学纲要期末复习资料(题库)
语言学纲要期末复习资料（题库）语言学概论试题(1)一、填空１５%1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。
2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。
3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。
4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。
5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。
6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。
8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。
9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。
10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。
二、选择题１０%1、中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是（D）Ａ、文字学Ｂ、语音学Ｃ、词汇学Ｄ、语法学2、汉语属于（B）Ａ、屈折语Ｂ、词根语Ｃ、多式综合语Ｄ、粘着语3、一种语言中数量最少的是（B）Ａ、音素Ｂ、音位Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音节4、文字的前身是（C）Ａ、结绳记事Ｂ、手势Ｃ、图画记事Ｄ、实物记事5、派生词中包含（B）Ａ、词尾Ｂ、词根Ｃ、虚词Ｄ、根词6、语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是（C）Ａ、音素Ｂ、义素Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音位7、汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是（C）Ａ、主语位置Ｂ、谓语位置Ｃ、状语位置Ｄ、定语位置8、以下各种语言变体中，属于社会方言的是（D）Ａ、土话Ｂ、客家话Ｃ、客套话Ｄ、黑话9、下列语素中属于自由语素的是（C）Ａ、初Ｂ、视Ｃ、人Ｄ、民10、在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（D）Ａ、转换关系Ｂ、组合关系Ｃ、层级关系Ｄ、聚合关系三、名词解释２０%1、专语语言学:以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。
2、组合关系:指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。
3、语流音变:语流中的某些音由于相互影响而发生临时性的变化，这种变化就叫语流音变。
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Synta x is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, i ncluding the combination of morphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto a nother following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internali zed linguistic knowledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic com petence. 5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but ther e is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of gram maticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories ar e open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly rec ognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, a nd auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in th e mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather th an grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the i nsertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which b egins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single cla use which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprise s a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 1 7.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually pre cedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatical ly called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clause s, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, th e incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a ca se assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P___ ____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in o ne way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between a nd among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condition explains the f act that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the em bedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 2 7. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatica l C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better und erstand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammati cality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sent encesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditi onally called ________. A. transformational rulesB. generative rules C. phrase s tructure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object po sitions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The synt actic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rul es may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structure IV. Define the following ter ms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rule s 42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major ty pes of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a s entence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 47. What is NP movement. Il lustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There are four given choices fo r each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statemen t: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allo w words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually compri ses a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which co ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate s entence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating co njunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sen tences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a le xical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a partic ular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logica l functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The gra mmatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the s entence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in t he grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic c ompetence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules tha t transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure i s the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes plac e. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentence s at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are t he basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at leas t a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 4 4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. T raditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple senten ce, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentenc e consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s tands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whic h is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do n ot have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before J ohn gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the e lements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both line arly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto an other following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchi cally structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can b e seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP De t N The boy likes the music. 46. What are the advant ages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most t ruthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sen tence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat t he child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the mov ement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original posi tions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right an d "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, ho wever, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passiv e voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they hav e the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Diale ctal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as Britis h English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. 2. Sense is concer ned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of t he linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have diff erent references in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of e xperience. 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can deriv e meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in whic h the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its componen ts. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ran ked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a n o-place predication because it contains no argument. 10. In grammatical anal ysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meani ng of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word whic h begins with the letter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link betw een a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. R______ means what a linguis tic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__ ________. 16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversa l of a relationship between the two items. 17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning componen ts. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules c alled s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predicatio n, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According t o the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be la bels of the objects they stand for. III. There are four choices following each s tatement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The nami ng theory is advanced by ________. A. Plato B. Bloomfield C. Geoffrey Leech D. Firth 22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conceptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Which of t he following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning o f the linguistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the ling uistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspe ct of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componenti al analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “aliv e”and “dead”are ______________. A. gradable antonyms B. relati onal opposites C. complementary antonyms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. Concept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. Polyse my B. Synonymy C. Homonymy D. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homony ms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic features IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homop hones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Argument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say tha t a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. 5 0. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth valu es? 52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we cl assify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blan ks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homophones 16.Relational 17. Componential 1 8. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are four choices following ea ch statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in lan guage. 32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is ab stract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Reference means what a linguisti c form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Sy nonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have mo re than one meaning. 36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different w ords are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homophones :When tw o words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they a re called complete homonyms. 40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense r elation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning comp onents, which are called semantic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its gra mmatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by t he grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is sai d about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do w e say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of themeanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence w ere the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanin gs. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical me an-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both le xical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the consti tuent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntag matically to another. 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exa mples. Componential analysis, pro-posed by structural semanticists, is a wa y to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the me aning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called s emantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certai n semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the wo rd “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do you distinguish between entailme nt and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inc lusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is n ecessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not hav e been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may n ot need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If Jo hn does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as syn onymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelo r all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, i f X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsist ent with Y e.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According t o the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms int o? Illustrate them with examples. According to the ways synonyms differ, s ynonyms can be divided into the following groups. i. Dialectal synonyms Th ey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the Englis h language. For examples: British English American Englishautumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal s ynonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For exa mple, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is call ed "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For example: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pa l, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative m eaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express differentemotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “collaborator” a nd “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who h elps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done somethin g wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accu se. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonym s Semantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly i n what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in me aning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meanin g. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the stud y of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest was the naming theor y, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic for m and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the m ediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguisti c context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context i n which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper b ecame worried. (seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the king's stamp) Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of ling uistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language for m as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls f orth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is Tr ue or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore meth ods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between la nguages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore of ten indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The history of the E nglish language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English an d Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative case s. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was t he revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabula ry of a language. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, a nd in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjec tive agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12. The word order of Modern Englis h is more variable than that of Old English. 13. Derivation refers to the proc ess by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, s tems, or words. 14. “Smog”is a word formed by the word-forming process。
语言学纲要复习题
语言学纲要复习题一、填空题1、语言学的三大发源地是：古代印度、中国和古希腊-罗马2、语言是19世纪成为独立学科，其标志欧洲历史比较语言学的出现。
3、现代语言学的标志性着作是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》4、语言交际可分为哪五个阶段：编码—发送---传递—接受—解码5、印度最早的经典实用的语言是：梵语、句子的最大特点是有停顿和一个完整的语调。
27、仅有一个语素构成的词是：单纯词28、最小的语法单位是：语素29、和名词有关的语法范畴是性、格、数。
30、词的组合有五种基本类型，例如“研究问题”属于述宾，“跑得很快”属于述补，“马上出发”属于偏正，“火山爆发”属于主谓。
31、能够改变词类的是派生（构词）词缀。
32、表达语法意义的语法形式除了有类的配例之外，还有形态的一致性配合和虚词。
33、词义概括性的三个重要表现形式是：一般性、模糊性、全民性34、多义词有多项意义，最初的那项意义叫本义，离开上下文人们就能知道的那项意义叫中心意义。
汉语的“老”有“年纪大、经常、陈旧的”等意义，其中“年纪大”是本义，其余是派生意义。
35、世界上独立产生的、成熟的古文字系统（自源文字）有哪四种：苏美尔古文字、埃及古文字、中国的甲骨文、玛雅文36、我国传统文学中的六书是：象形、指事、会意、形声、转注、假借37、指出下列汉字属于六书中的哪一种：手形象、泪会意、拖形声、刃指事、其（“其中”的“其”）是假借。
54、“戏子“现称”演员“，”金陵“现称”南京“，这属于词语的替换55、汉语为解决由于语音变化而带来的大量同音词的问题，它所采取的方法是增加音节，用复音词为主的格局来取代单音词为主的格局。
56、研究语音演变的凭借主要是：方言和亲属语言、记录了语言的过去状态的文字和古代借词57、“信“原指”送信的人“，后来指”书信“，这一词义演变是由转喻认知机制引起的。
58、汉语孤立语的特点使得汉语的语法化不会产生屈折词缀。
59、方言和亲属语言之间的语音对应关系是由语音演变的规律性决定的。
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I.Choose the best answerChapter 1 Introductionnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human________.（B）A.contact.B. communicationC. relationD. community2.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrierscaused by the time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?(C)A.TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness3.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the function oflanguage? (B)--- A nice day, isn’t it?--- Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A.EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal4.________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules ofhis language in utterance.(A)A.PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole5. has been widely accepted as the fore father of modern linguistics.(B)A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John LyonsPart 2 Phonology5.Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.(C)A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme6.Which one is different form the others according to places of articulation?(A)A. /n/B./m/C. /b/D. /p/7.Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?(B)A. /i:/B. /u/C./e/D. /i/8.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?(B)A. voicelessB. voicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant9.Which consonant represents the following description: voiceless labiodental fricative?(A)A./f/B./v/C. /s/D./z/10.is one of the suprasegmental features(D)A.StopB. V oicingC. DeletionD. Tone11.V elar refers to .（B）A. larynxB. soft palateC. alveolarD. pharynxPart 3 Morphology12.Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called________ morpheme.(A)A.inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational13.There are ________ morphemes in the word denationalization. (C)A. ThreeB. fourC. fiveD. six14.The word UNESCO is formed in the way of ________. (A)A.acronnymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending15.NA TO is a/an .(A)A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping16.The relation between words “rose” and “flower” is that of . (D)A.synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy17.“Semantics is the scientific study of meaning” is a . (D)A. hyponymyB. polysemyC. AntonymyD. tautology18.“Wide/narrow” is an example of . (A)A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. conversenessD. complementarityPart 4 Syntax19.________ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.(B)A.MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics20.The phrase “my small child’s cot”is an ambiguous phrase, which can be revealed by________ tree diagrams.(C)A. oneB. twoC. threeD. fourPart 5 Semantics21.C old and hot are a pair of ________antonyms.(A)A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converseness22.________ describes whether a proposition is true or false.(B)A. TruthB. Truth valueC. Truth conditionD. Falsehood23.Bull: [BOVINE] [MALE] [ADULT] is an example of ________. (A)A. componential analysisB. predication analysisC. compositionalityD. selection restriction24.The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word________. (A)A.is interpreted through the mediation of concept.B.is related to the thing it refers to.C.is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakers.D.is the image it is represented in the mind.25.When the truth of sentence (a) guarantees the truth of sentence (b), and falsity of sentence(b)guarantees the falsity of sentence (a), we can say that ________.(B)A.sentence(a) presupposes sentence (b)B.sentence(a) entails sentence (b)C.sentence(a) is inconsistent with sentence (b)D.sentence(a) contradictss sentence (b)26.“Socrates is a man” is a case of ________.(B)A.two-place predicateB.one-place predicateC.two-place argumentD.one-place argumentPart 6 Pragmatics27.________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication.(B)A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics28.________ found that natural language had its own logic and conclude cooperativeprinciple.(C)A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William James29.______proposed that speech act can fall into five general categories.(B)A.AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky30.Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the ________. (C)A.declarationsB. expressivesC. commissivesD. directives31.The illocutionary point of the________ is to express the psychological state specified in theutterance.(B)A. declarationsB. expressivesC. commissivesD. directives32.Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of ________.(C) X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner33.The violation of one or more of the conversational maxims of the Cooperative Principle can,when the listener full understands the speaker, create________, and humor sometimes.(A)A. conversational implicatureB. conversational breakdownC. locutionary actD. illocutionary act34.The maxim of quantity requires that the speaker.(D)A.contribute as informative as requiredB.do not contribute more than is requiredC.do not say what has little evidenceD.both A and B35.According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to somefuture course of action are called________.(A)missivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declaratives.36.An illocutionary act is identical with . (B)A. sentence meaningB. the speaker’s intentionC. languageD. social convention37.is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use. (C)A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SemanticsPart 7 Language ChangePart 8 Language and Society38.________ are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations.(C)A.SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varietiesA. domainB. situationC. societyD. community39.________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by sharedlinguistic system.(D)A. A countryB. A raceC. A societyD. A speech community40.________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammaticalrules, used as a medium of communication.(C)A.Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language41.________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speakercomes from.(A)A.RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal42.Probably the most widespread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is________.(C)A.British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English43.________ in a person’s speech, or writing, usually range on a continuum from casual toformal according to the type of communicative context.(D)A.Regional variationB. Social variationC. Stylistic variationD. Idiolectal variationPart 9 Language and Culture and Society44.In the present day, the stability of seems to be decreasing. (D)A. social-class dialectB. idiolectC. tabooD. regional dialectPart 10 Language Acquisitio n45.Negative transfer in learning a second language is known as ________.(D)A.acculturationB. interlanguageC. fossilizationD. interference46.Besides the genetic predisposition for language acquisition, language________ is necessaryfor successful language acquisition.(D)A.instructionB. correctionC. imitationD. input and interaction47.________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second languageusually obtained in school settings.(C)A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition48.________ sees errors as the result of the intrusion of L1 habits over which the learner had nocontrol.(C)A.error analysisB. performance analysisC. contrastive analysisD. discourse analysisPart 11 Second AcquisitionPart 12 Language and BrainSchools of Modern Linguistics49.The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is ________.(B)A.FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. ChomskyII.Fill in the following blanksIntroductionnguage, broadly speaking, is a means of ________ communication.(verbal)nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is________.(metalingual function)3.Modern linguistics is ________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language israther than lay down some rules for people to observe.(descriptive)4.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ________ study.(diachronic)5.Saussure put forward two important concepts. ________ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all members of a speech community (langue)6.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent(in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as . (displacement)7.Phonetics and phonology8.________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds ofspeech.(articulatory)9.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without________.(obstruction)10.In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because of the two/f/and /v/. This is an example for illustrating.(minimal pairs)Morphology11.All words may be said to contain a root ________.(morpheme)12.Nouns, verbs and adjectives are words rather than function words.(lexical)13.As a result of , the negative morpheme in imperfect and impossible in “im-” ratherthan “in-”.(assimilation)14.A morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.(bound)15.Antonyms like “husband” vs. “wife” are antonyms.(relational)16.Terms like “desk” and “stool” are of the term “furniture”.(hyponyms)Syntax17.XP may contain more that just X. For example, the “NP”the girl who is watering the flowersconsists of Det, N and Sen, with Det being the ________ , N the head, and S the complement.(specifier)18.The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonlytermed ________ structure.(deep structure)19.The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internal structure ofsentences.(syntax)20.IC is the short form of immediate used in the study of syntax.(constituent) Semantics21.C harge and accuse are said to be ______synonyms.(Collocational)22.Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents: ________ and________.(argument, predicate)23.We call the relation between animal and cow as ________.(hyponymy)Pragmatics24.In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe iscalled the ________ Principle proposed by P. Grice.(Cooperative)25.While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an ________ isconcrete and context-dependent.(utterance)26.A________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.(locutionary)27.________ are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some futurecourse of action. (Commissives)28.The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to ________; otherwise it would be impossible for them to go on with the talk. The general principle is called the________.(cooperate, Cooperative Principle )29.In the light of Cooperative Principle, four maxims are specified. They are maxim of quantity,maxim of quality, maxim of relation and maxim of . (manner)30.The speech act theory explains the nature of linguistic communication. It says that a speaker,while making an utterance, is performing three acts simultaneously: a locutionary act, an _________act, and a perlocutionary act.(illocutionary)Language, Culture and Society31.The ______ language is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.(standard)32.A________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native languagein some speech community. (creole)33.Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on ________.(language)34.In terms of sociolinguistics, ________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person’slanguage.(idolect)Language Acquisition35.In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge. Thisprocess is called language ________.(transfer)36.The ________ of the learner’s interlanguage is believed to be major source of incorrect formsresistant to further instruction.(fossilization)37.________ holds that where two languages are similar, positive transfer would occur; wherethey are different, negative transfer, or interference, would result.(Contrastive analysis)III.True or False(Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false) Introduction1.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language hastwo levels of structures: the system of sounds and the systems of meanings.(T)2.Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us howto speak correct language.(F)petence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledgeabout the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.(T)ngue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints.(T)5.Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teachingand learning.(T)6.Descriptive linguistics is concerned with how languages work, not with how they can beimproved.(T)7.Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.(F)Phonetics and Phonology8.Sound /p/ in the word spit is an unaspirated stop.（T）9.[p] is voiced bilabial stop.(F)10.Broad transcription represents phonemes of a language whereas narrow transcription denotesits particular allophones.(T)11.The hard roof of the mouth is called hard palate.(T)12.In English, we have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC.(C stands for Consonant and Vstands for V owel)(T)Morphology13.In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change theword-class of the base.(T)14.All roots are free and all affixes are bound.(F)15.All words contain a root morpheme.(T)16.Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system of sound.(F)17.If a word has sense, it must have reference.(F)18.“Tulip”, “rose”and “violet”are all included in the notion of “flower”, therefore they aresuperordinates of “flower”.(F)Syntax19.Application of the transformational rules yields deep structure.(F)20.Transformational rules do not change the basic meaning of sentences.(T)21.Major syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, andword-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.(T)22.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessarysyntactic movement.(T)Semanticsponential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected intomeaning components, called semantic feature.(T)24.Conceptualists maintain that there is no direct link between linguistic form and what it refersto. This view can be seen by the Semantic Triangle.(T)Pragmatics25.If the context of use is considered, the study of meaning is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics.(T)26.A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.(F)27.When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement orgiving a description which he himself believes to be true.(T)28.The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered.(T)29.Only when maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and the hearer knows thatit is being violated do conversational implicatures arise.(T)30.Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kindof speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.(T)31.Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of asentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.(T)Language, Society and Culture32.A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of thatlanguage.(F)33.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker’sperceptions and patterns their way of life.(T)34.Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either byan individual or by a group of speakers.(T)35.There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects.(T) Language Acquisition36.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of Second Language Acquisition.(T)37.In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to students is basically descriptive, andmore attention is paid to developing learners’ communicative skills.(T)38.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in different way.(F)39.Regardless of their ethnic and cultural background, children of all colors and societies followroughly the same route/order of language development, though they may differ in the rate of learning.(T)40.IV. Match each of the following linguistic terms with its corresponding definitions Introduction1.Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.2.Parole: It refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.petence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or herlanguage: that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rule.4.Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.Phatic function of language: It refers to the social interaction of language. For example: Mrs.P sneezes violently.Mrs. Q: Bless you.Msr. P: Thank you.6.Diachronic linguistics: It is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore,it is also called historical linguistics.7.Descriptive linguistics: It is to discover and record the rules to which the members of alanguage-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Phonetics and phonology8.Minimal pair: When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except in onesound element that occurs in the same position in the string, the two forms are said to orm a minimal pair.9.Suprasegmental feature: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments arecalled suprasegmental features; These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation,and tone.10.allophones: two or more variants of the same phoneme that do not distinguish meaning arecalled allophones of the same phonemes.plementary distribution: When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur inthe same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.12.Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. Morphology13.Allomorph ：it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position oradjoining sounds.Syntax14.Phrase structure rules: They are rewrite rules that allow for the possible combinations ofwords to form phrases ad sentences.15.IC analysis: IC analysis (Immediate constituent analysis) is a new approach of sentence studythat cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This sort of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.What remain of the first cut are “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut are “ultimate constituents”.16.Deep structure : It is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surfacestructure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence —an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Semantics17.Sense: It is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection ofall the features of the linguistic form; It is abstract and decontextualized.18.Reference: It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of therelationship between the form and the reality.19.Conceptualism: It is the view which holds that there is no direct ling between a linguistic formand what it refers to ; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.20.Synonymy : It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.21.Homonymy: It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform, e.g. different words re identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Pragmatics22.Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsicproperty of the sentence itself in terms of predication.23.Utterance meaning: It is the meaning a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in aparticular context situation.24.illocutionary act: It is using a sentence to perform a function. For example, Shoot the snakemay be intended as an order or a piece of advice.Sociolinguistics25.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: It is a belief that our language helpsmould our way of thinking and,consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world.26.Diglossia: When two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community andeach one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.27.Standard language(standard variety): It is the variety of a language which has the higheststatus in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.Language acquisition28.Instrumental motivation: It refers to the learner’s desire to learn a language because it is auseful functional instrument, such as getting a job, passing an exam.29.Fossilization: It refers to a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in chichincorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.30.Error analysis: It is an approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by secondlanguage learners, which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner’s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as overgeneralization and simplification of rules.31.Interlanguage: It refers to a separate linguistic system based on the observable out-put whichresults from a learner’s attempted production of a target language form. It is formed when he attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first and the second language but is neither.D: It is posited by Chomsky in the 1960’s as a device effectively present in the minds ofchildren by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.33.An Innativist view of language acquisition: It is proposed by Noam Chomsky, which statesthat the human species is prewired t acquire language and that the kind of language is also determined.IV.Answer the following questions1.What does productivity means for language?2.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?3.In which two ways may consonants be classified?4.Please use examples to explain the definitions of phones, phonemes and allophones.5.What is sentence meaning? What is utterance meaning?6.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?7.What is the difference between langue and parole?8.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?9.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?10.What is standard language?11.What are design features of language?12.What is the difference between langue and parole?13.What do minimal pairs refer? Use an example to illustrate this linguisticphenomenon.14.Illustrate what hyponymy is?15.What is Cooperative Principle and its four maxims?。